Hydrogeology and Geomechanics EART35102

Porosity Permeability Exercise

If, like me, you struggle to remember units for variables and parameters, dimensional analysis offers
an easy way of working these out from first principles. Alternatively, if you know the units, it allows
you to check your algebra when you rearrange equations.
Some memory is, however, required. The SI base units are:
m metre length L
kg kilogram mass M
s second time T
K kelvin thermodynamic temperature K
Mol mole amount of substance N
A ampere electric current A
Cd candela luminous intensity C
Working out other units follows the usual rules of Algebra,
e.g. force is measure in newtons (N):

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 → [𝐹] = [𝑚][𝑎] = MLT −2

So a N is equivalent to kg m s-2
e.g. stress and pressure are measured in pascals (Pa)

𝐹 [𝐹] MLT −2
𝜎= → [𝜎] = = = ML−1 T −2
𝐴 [𝐴] L2
So a Pa is equivalent to a kg m-1 s-2

e.g. work done or energy is measured in joules (J)

𝐸 = 𝐹 𝑑 → [𝐸] = [𝐹][𝑑] = MLT −2 L = ML2 T −2

So a J is equivalent to a kg m2 s-2

1. Show that strain is dimensionless.

2. Show that strain rate has dimensions T-1.
3. If viscosity 𝜂 is defined by the equation 𝜎 = 𝜂𝜀̇, what are its units, (a) using the units of
stress, and (b) in SI base units?
4. Permeability (k) is defined with reference to Darcy’s law
𝑘 𝑑𝑃
𝑄=− 𝐴
𝜂 𝑑𝐿
𝑑𝑃
Where Q is the volume of fluid passing through a cross section of area A per unit time, is
𝑑𝐿
the change in fluid pressure over length 𝑑𝐿 and 𝜂 is the fluid viscosity. What are the
dimensions of permeability?

5. Lorenzo likes his espresso coffee, he has a Gaggia coffee machine which has a coffee hopper
that is 5.8 cm in diameter and 3.5 cm deep and can deliver a pressure of 9.5 bar at 90°C
across the 5.8 cm circular cross section and the water flows through the coffee grinds along
the 3.5 cm depth. Lorenzo finds he gets the perfect crema when it takes 45 s to fill his
espresso cup which is 25 ml. Calculate the permeability of the compacted coffee grounds?
Note: Viscosity of water at 90°C is 0.315 mPa s

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Hydrogeology and Geomechanics EART35102

6. Porosity is defined as the volume of pore space divided by the total sample volume.
A cylindrical sample of a quartz sandstone (density of quartz = 2.65 gcm-3) which is 25 mm
long and has a diameter of 10 mm, has a mass of 4.95 g when weighed dry, and a mass of
5.05 g when saturated with a fluid of density 1.2 gcm-3. Calculate (a) its total porosity and (b)
its effective porosity. In each case show your porosity definition as an equation and show
how you manipulate that definition so that the equation only contains only the terms that I
have given above.
7. The porosity of a number of samples are measured using a helium pycnometer. The sample
dimensions and data from pycnometer are given in table below.
Sample Diameter Length Mass g P2 bar P bar V2 cm3 V1 cm3
mm mm
Merivale 25 55.08 72.640 6.584 4.113 18.76 37.98
Granite
Tenessee 25.01 58.43 69.781 6.571 3.825 18.76 39.80
Sandstone
Darlydale 24.92 54.96 60.981 6.556 3.647 18.76 37.98
Sandstone
Penrith 25.11 52.74 59.341 6.548 3.813 18.76 35.85
Sandstone
Hollington 24.21 39.25 36.206 6.561 3.703 18.76 28.15
Sandstone
Pennant 19.68 44.73 33.785 6.506 3.224 18.76 32.10
Sandstone
Solnhofen 14.55 44.54 19.618 6.544 2.815 18.76 32.10
Limestone

From the notes the solid volume 𝑉𝑠 can be calculated using the following equation.
𝑔
𝑃
𝑉𝑠 = −𝑉2 ( 2𝑔 ) + 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝑃
Go through the derivation in the notes to make sure you understand it. The data in the table
above is in a spreadsheet on Blackboard. Calculate the porosity and grain density for the
seven samples.

8. The permeability of a Tennessee sandstone sample has been measured using a Nitrogen
permeameter. The sample is a circular cylinder with diameter of 25.26 mm and length
60.35 mm. The flow rate on the upstream side of the sample 𝑄1 is given by the following
solution to Darcy’s law.
𝑘 𝑃1 2 − 𝑃2 2
𝑄1 = 𝐴
𝜂 2𝐿𝑃1
where 𝑘 is the permeability, 𝜂 is the viscosity of the flowing fluid, 𝐴 is the sample cross
sectional area, 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are the upstream and downstream pressures and 𝐿 is the sample
length. Satisfy yourself you understand the derivation from the notes. Check the equation
above is dimensionally consistent. Using the equation above and the table below calculate
the permeability for this sample at the 8 different pore pressures.

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P2 Pa P difference Pa Flow rate Q1 m3/s Viscosity Pa s

539705 235600 2.0684E-08 1.7644E-05
367323 236700 2.2770E-08 1.7619E-05
273810 231500 2.4106E-08 1.7606E-05
205269 234000 2.6336E-08 1.7596E-05
174500 233200 2.9500E-08 1.7592E-05
90600 316400 3.8000E-08 1.7586E-05
36400 370900 4.1000E-08 1.7582E-05
5100 401500 4.5000E-08 1.7580E-05

Plot a graph of apparent permeability against 1/𝑃𝑚 where 𝑃𝑚 is the mean of the upstream
and downstream pressures. Use this graph to extrapolate the permeability at 1/𝑃𝑚 = 0.
Think about why this would be the permeability you would need to use for the flow of a
liquid. (The data in the table above is in the spreadsheet).

9. The flow of pore fluids into a borehole is characterized by a radial flow system. For laminar
radial flow Darcy’s law is
𝑘 𝑑𝑃 𝑘𝜌𝑤 𝑔 𝑑ℎ
𝑄=− 𝐴 =− 𝐴
𝜂 𝑑𝑟 𝜂 𝑑𝑟
We use this to determine the drawdown of water in a vertical well that completely
penetrates a horizontal confined aquifer and from which water is being pumped at a
constant volumetric flow-rate, Q. A confined aquifer is one that is trapped between two
impermeable layers. To complete the calculation we use the hydraulic head measured in an
observation well located at distance r0 from the pumping well.

The area through which the water enters a cylindrical volume of radius r and height H is
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐻
And so
𝑘𝜌𝑤 𝑔 𝑑ℎ 2𝜋𝐻𝑘𝜌𝑤 𝑔 𝑑ℎ
𝑄=− 𝐴 =− 𝑟
𝜂 𝑑𝑟 𝜂 𝑑𝑟
NB. Q is negative for radially inward flow (as in this case). Rearranging and integrating
𝑟𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙
1 2𝜋𝐻𝑘𝜌𝑤 𝑔 ℎ𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑄∫ 𝑑𝑟 = − ∫ 𝑑ℎ
𝑟0 𝑟 𝜂 ℎ0
2𝜋𝐻𝑘𝜌𝑤 𝑔
𝑄(log 𝑒 𝑟𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 − log 𝑒 𝑟0 ) = − (ℎ𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 − ℎ0 )
𝜂

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What is the permeability of the aquifer if: ℎ0 − ℎ𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 10 m, H=10 m, 𝑟0 = 1 km, 𝜂 =

10−3 Pa s, 𝜌𝑤 = 1 g cm−3 , 𝑔 = 9.8 ms−2 , 𝑄 = −7.4 × 10−4 m3 𝑠 −1?
10. Repeat this analysis for an unconfined aquifer. An unconfined aquifer is one that has no
overlying impermeable layer and so the geometry is as illustrated below:

11. The aim of this exercise is to derive a relationship between porosity and permeability for a
rock mass in which the connected porosity is contained entirely within a set of parallel
fractures.
(a) Find an equation giving the velocity profile u(y) across a channel of width h assuming
steady, one dimensional, laminar, incompressible flow of a fluid of viscosity 𝜂 between two
parallel, infinitely long, fixed plates. Assume there are no body forces. [This type of flow is
described as plane Poiseuille flow.]

The first step is to define a control element within the flow and seek to balance the forces
acting on it:

• This is a steady flow, that is a flow in which all velocities and properties at given
location are independent of time. Consequently, by Newton’s 2nd law, 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑦 =

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𝐹𝑧 = 0 where 𝐹𝑥 , 𝐹𝑦 , and 𝐹𝑧 are the sum of the forces in the 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 directions
respectively.
• This is a one-dimensional flow problem, and so 𝑣 and 𝑤, the velocity components in
the y and z directions respectively, are zero. Consequently, the shear stresses acting
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
in the y and z directions are zero. 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑧 = 0 requires that 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑧
= 0 since
there are no shear stresses in these directions.
Write an expression balancing forces on the control element in the 𝑥 direction (NB. force =
stress × area) and show that this simplifies to:
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝜏
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
For a Newtonian fluid 𝜏 = 𝜂 𝑑𝑦 and so
𝑑𝑝 𝑑2 𝑢
=𝜂 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Integrate the expression twice with respect to y to find an expression for u

Apply the boundary conditions 𝑢 = 0 at 𝑦 = ±ℎ/2 to solve.

This should result in the following expression for 𝑢

1 𝑑𝑝 2 ℎ2
𝑢= (𝑦 − )
2𝜂 𝑑𝑥 4
𝑑𝑝
Note that is negative in the
𝑑𝑥
direction of flow and so 𝑢 is
directed in the positive 𝑥 direction.
We also see that the velocity
profile is parabolic with maximum
at the centre of the channel.

(b) Show that the volume flow rate

in this channel is given by:
ℎ3 𝑑𝑝
𝑄=−
12𝜂 𝑑𝑥
The volume flow rate 𝑄, through the channel is the total volume of fluid passing through
cross section area, 𝐴, per unit time:
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑢̅
Where 𝑢̅ is the mean velocity normal to the cross section plane. This is equivalent to finding
the area under the curve 𝑢(𝑦) and multiplying
by the channel dimension in the 𝑧-direction.
Since the channel is infinite in the z-direction,
we let the dimension of the channel in that
direction = 1. Perform the integration over the
y interval ± ℎ / 2.

Since 𝑑𝑝/𝑑𝑥 is negative in the positive x-

direction, 𝑄 is a positive quantity.

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(c) Use this expression for the volume flow-rate through the channel to find an expression
for the permeability due to parallel cracks of width h and separation s in a rock mass.
Consider an arbitrarily sized cube of rock of dimensions 𝑏 × 𝑏 × 𝑏. Write an expression
giving the number of channels in this cube in terms of 𝑏, ℎ, and 𝑠.
The volumetric flow-rate passing through a cross-section of
one channel of dimension 𝑏ℎ is given by (see part b):
𝑏ℎ3 𝑑𝑝
𝑄=−
12𝜂 𝑑𝑥
What then is the volumetric flow rate 𝑄 through a cross section 𝑏 2 of the rock?

Divide 𝑄 by the cross-sectional area (𝑏 2 ) to give the Darcy velocity (volumetric flow-rate per
unit area) and compare the result with Darcy’s law to find an expression for permeability.

(d) Rewrite your expression for permeability in terms of porosity.

(e) What is the crack permeability in a rock unit if 𝑠 = 16.7 cm and ℎ = 0.1 cm?