Literary terms/stylistic features/ literary devices

Style — that part of Literature/language that has to do with the manner in which ideas are expressed; it is to
do with HOW a text is written rather than what it is about.

Characters— are people who are involved in a plot. Character portrayal is the process through which the
writer builds up the image of a character.

Characters are portrayed to us in much the same manner as we get to know people in real life, through:

 What they say

A characteristic is a trait i.e. a quality or tendency that someone has e.g.

Ambition is a common trait (characteristic) of all successful businessmen.

Themes—are the issues that form the principal concerns of the story. They are what the story amounts to—
what it has to say about life. They are the reason why the novel, play or poem was written. They are the issues
of life that the writer wants readers to think about. They are part of the moral or message behind the story. e.g.
The themes of the story ‘Lion King’
include: .........................................................................................................................................

Irony – Saying one thing and yet you mean the opposite, but saying it in such a manner that the actual
meaning is understood.

Example from Animal Farm by George Orwell ….Work, on Sundays, was strictly voluntary, but any animal who
absented himself from it would have his food rations reduced by half.

This is an ironic statement because the work was actually compulsory or else they would be no need to punish
those who chose not to do it. Irony is the opposite of direct statement. Writers often feel that direct statement
is sometimes too simplistic to achieve a profound effect. Use of irony forces us to read between the lines and to
sense the unstated underlying meaning. Irony can be subtle and you can easily miss it, hence the need to read
attentively and thoughtfully.

Sarcasm — is a type of irony, usually accompanied by a mocking tone e.g

Saying, “Well done! Excellent!” to someone who has lost your phone.

Dramatic irony — Occurs when the audience knows something which a character on stage is not aware of...an
example is when a character expresses his excitement about something good he is looking forward to, when
the audience already knows that he has been duped and is going to have an unpleasant surprise.

Narrative Style or Narrative Technique

Every story has a story teller whose voice narrates the tale. He looks at the world of his story from a chosen
angle, and like a photographer, he has a choice as to where he views his character from.

 He might decide to be the main character and recount everything as seen by ‘I’ e.g.:
“I did not need to be guided to the well-known room to which I had so often been summoned for reprimand and
punishment in the former days. I hastened before Bessie; I softly opened the door: a shaded light stood on the
table, for it was getting dark.”
This is called the first person narrative technique. We can simply say that the writer is writing in the first
person.

 Alternatively the story teller might select a more distant point of view. If he stands outside the story
and is an observer of the action, he speaks in the third person,
e.g. “The old man felt himself getting angry again. But this would be the last day he would talk to his
son. If his son was going away, he must not be angry. It would be equal to a curse.”
Attitude
Outlook or point of view held by a writer. Attitude is the way you think or feel about something. A writer can
convey his attitude through his tone, the words he uses or through the way he treats his characters.
Tone
The quality in one’s voice which shows what one feels or thinks. Tone can be encouraging, compassionate, cold,
hostile, sarcastic, critical, defiant etc.

The tone in which something is said is more significant than the actual words being used in terms of what the
speaker really intends to convey. If we can accurately gauge a writer’s tone, we begin to sense his true feelings
and we can understand the intentions of his writing.
In a written text, the words used, the context and the punctuation (among other things) can indicate the tone.
If you miss the intended tone you might misread the passage. Ask yourself the following questions:
Is the writer serious or sarcastic? Should his words be taken literally or metaphorically etc.?

MOOD:
Is the feeling that the reader gets from what they are reading e.g. Reading a letter that is conveying sad news
puts you in a sad mood whereas good news make you feel excited and happy.

Atmosphere: The general mood of a place or the general impression you have of a place.

Satire: A genre that makes use of mockery to expose characters’ weaknesses, foolishness or immorality. One
of the most well-known satires is Animal Farm, a novel written by George Orwell. It is a political satire that
criticises selfish and greedy political leaders who exploit the ordinary people for their own benefit.

SOLILOQUY

A character alone on stage speaks out his thoughts. William Shakespeare uses this technique a great deal in his
plays.

SETTING

Where and when a story takes place. It represents the physical details of a place and establishes the human
environment in which characters operate. It may merely provide a location for the action to occupy or it may, in
some way, advance the themes of the story e.g. by symbolically reflecting relationships in the action or plot.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE/IMAGERY

Language which is not direct i.e. not literal is said to be metaphorical or figurative. It can also be referred to as
imagery. It requires that you look beyond the surface meaning of the words and consider all the wider
associations, implications, suggestions and connotations.

Question: Why use imagery?

Answer: To avoid using long wordy statements which might be vague and not as effective.
Figurative language is usually more vivid and emphatic.

Four main types of figurative Language.

1. Metaphor

An imaginative way of describing something by substituting it with something else which has the qualities you
are trying to express.
e.g. “There are none to decline your nectar’s wine, but alone you must drink life’s gall”

What is being communicated here is that everyone is willing to share in your joys and pleasures but no one is
interested in sharing your sorrows.
Nectar’s wine is a metaphor for joy, pleasure and happiness whereas gall stands for sorrow and sadness.

In your reading and analysis of texts, you have to figure out such meanings by yourself.
2. Simile

Comparison using ‘as’ or ‘like’

Eg .She swims like a dolphin.

You make me dance like a fool, buzz like a bee, smile like the sun and sing like a bird.

3. Symbolism
Using symbols that represent ideas: e.g.

“Sceptre and crown are in death equal made with scythe and spade”

....................................................................................................................

Other Symbols

Seasons
Summer – happy days of one’s life.
Spring – youth, new life, new beginnings.
Winter – old age, death.
Autumn – fulfilment and fruitfulness.
Nature
Storms – trials and troubles.
Mountains - challenges
Sunshine - joy
Sea- endlessness, vastness, eternity
Desert – barrenness, bleakness, lifelessness.

Personification

Giving human qualities to non- living things.

e.g.

 The clouds are heavily pregnant with rain.

ANALOGY

A comparison which does not necessarily use imagery; the writer illustrates the idea he is trying to put across
by narrating a short story or event which helps us to understand clearly what he means. The parable of “The
Sower” is analogous of the classroom situation where some students listen carefully to what is taught and
thrive, while others have their minds elsewhere and grasp nothing.

Anecdote: A short interesting and sometimes amusing story about a real person or event.

Sound words

o Alliteration The repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of a series of words e.g Five
miles meandering with mazy motion.

o Assonance repetition of a vowel sound in a series of words e.g How now brown cow.
o Onomatopoeia: When sounds are spelled out as words e.g boom, buzz, clunk.

o Rhyme ` Placing of words with similar sounds next to each to create an effect.
o Rhythm – Sound patterns or movements in a poem.

Other Devices.
 Suspense: curiosity and/or anxiety concerning something about to happen, or about to be revealed.
 Coincidence: When two or more things that are somehow connected happen at the same time by
chance in a surprising manner.
 Hyperbole: over exaggeration.
 Flashback: going back to an earlier period in the narration of a story in order to help the reader
understand current events.
 Paradox: A statement that at first seems to be self-contradictory yet on a closer look it makes a lot of
sense e.g.
- Silence is the loudest cry.
- The biggest loser is the winner.
- We learn from history that we do not learn from history.
.

 Oxymoron: combining contradictory terms to create an expressive or amusing phrase such as;
Sweet sorrow, heavy lightness, a deafening silence, loving hate.
original copy, pretty ugly,

 Genre: A French word meaning style, type or form of writing with specific characteristics e.g. poetry,
drama, novel, article etc.
 Pun: word play.
 Allusion: Reference to a person, event, place or literary work that the writer assumes the reader will
recognise. E.g reference to the bible, or to Greek or Roman mythology.
 Ambiguity: having more than one possible meanings.
 Connotation: association attached to words /an acquired meaning.
The connotations of a word can be positive or negative.
 Idiom: An expression whose meaning cannot be easily deduced from the words that make it up. It is a
fixed expression that you need to know e.g. to beat about the bush, to call it a day, a dime a dozen, to
give someone the benefit of the doubt, to go back to the drawing board, it is not rocket science.
 Proverb: a wise saying usually expressed metaphorically e.g
o Those who live in glass houses must not throw stones.
o A chain is only as strong as its weakest link.
o A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
o A fool and his money are soon parted.
o It is an ill wind that blows nobody any good.
 Discourse markers: are signposts used in written or formal communication to help indicate the
different stages of a formal speech. In writing they help you structure the essay more meaningfully
using such words as first, second and furthermore…’.
 Enjambment: sometimes known as run-on lines: describes lines of poetry in which the sense
continues from one line to the next without a clear break or punctuation.
 Intensifiers: adjectives used to amplify the effect of a word, e.g. ‘very interesting’, ‘extremely.’
 Juxtaposition: Placing two or more words or phrases side by side for (ironic) contrast or for emphasis.
 Paraphrasing: restating something in your own words.
 Purpose: The reason why a particular text was written in the first place.
 Rhetoric: is the art of public speaking or oratory. It is the ability to speak so effectively that you stir
up people’s emotions and influence their minds.
 Rhetorical question: a question for which no answer is expected, the assumption being that there
can be only one answer to it that is obvious to everyone e.g. “Who doesn’t want to be happy?” It is
used in a speech or conversation to engage with the audience and to stress a point.
 Rule of Three/lists of three: This is based on the fact that lists of three things are more powerful
and easier to remember than lists of two or four things. It is a technique used a lot in oratory to
emphasise a point.
 Pathetic fallacy: A device in which the natural environment reflects or matches human emotions or
mood e.g. dark clouds or rain used as a background against which a sorrowful scene unfolds.
Or a particularly happy event occurring against a pleasant, bright and colourful natural environment.
An epitome, embodiment or model of something is a perfect example of that thing e.g.
Mother Teresa was the epitome of human kindness.
We say that one thing embodies or epitomises something else or we can simply say that one thing is a
typical example of…
 Protagonist: The principal character with whom our emotions are chiefly involved. The protagonist
referred to as a HERO is an admirable figure who embodies some of our ideals. If we recognise in him
strong similarities to ourselves or if his circumstances are like our own we identify ourselves with him
and in a sense share his experiences. This ability to feel what someone else is feeling is called
empathy. If you empathise with someone you have a strong sense of what they are feeling. This
usually happens when you had the same experience yourself and know what it feels like to be in their
situation.

 Antagonist: Since a story almost invariably has a conflict at its heart, the protagonist will be engaged
in a struggle with another character or with an opposing force. The opposing or conflicting character or
force is the antagonist. A conflicting agency which is not a character is an antagonistic force. In stories
involving inner conflict, the antagonistic forces may be aspects of the same character.
 Confidante: A trustworthy person whom you confide in and share confidential issues with.
 Foil: A character who is used to emphasise the main character’s traits through contrast i.e. he or she
is a contrast to the main character.
 Poetic Justice: The act of experiencing a deserved reward or punishment for one's actions.
 Poetic licence: the freedom to depart from the conventional rules of language when speaking or
writing in order to create an effect.
 Register: The text’s voice. This could be formal, informal or colloquial.
 Colloquialism: informal words or phrases, including slang.
 Context; the circumstances or situation at a particular point in time.
 Ellipsis: dots showing where words have been omitted.
 Impersonal or personal tone: the degree to which a text comes across as emotionally detached
and impersonal or more emotionally involved.
 Transcript: the written version or text of a speech.
 Topic sentence: The key sentence of a paragraph that contains the principal idea or subject being
discussed.
 Empathy: the ability to share another person’s thoughts and feelings as if they were your own.
 Sympathy: This familiar word has more than one meaning:
- Feeling sorry for someone.
- Understanding
- Agreeing with the idea expressed

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