Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Hydraulics II
Chapter 1: Open Channel
Flow
March, 2018 Instructor: Betelhem Wondimneh
Chapter One
1. Introduction
2. Types of Open Channel
3. Uniform Flow
4. Uniform Flow Equation
5. Channel of Efficient Cross-section
6. Specific Energy
7. Flow in Channel Transitions
8. The Hydraulic Jump

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1. Introduction
1.1 Definition and Types of Open Channel
 Open channel flow is a flow in a natural or man made conveyance structure that has a free surface .

 Flow in a channel open to the atmosphere

 Open channel flow occurs both in open channel and closed conduit conveyance structures.
 In open channel structures, the flow is always open channel flow. Typical examples include
 rivers, streams, estuaries (natural)
 irrigation canals, power canals (man made).
 In closed conduit structures, open channel flow exist when the conduit is flowing partially full.
Typical examples are pipes and culverts.
 sanitary and storm sewers

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Cont’d…
 The cross section of these structures may be open or closed at the top.
 Those structures with open tops are called open channel structures

Open channel structure

 Those structures with closed tops are referred to as closed conduits

Closed conduit structure

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Kinds of Open Channels
Artificial channels
 Are channels made by man
 Include irrigation canals, navigation canals, spillways, sewers, culverts and drainage
ditches
 Usually constructed in a regular cross-section shape throughout  Prismatic
channels
 Have well defined surface roughness’s
Natural channels
 Are channels that naturally exist or created with natural system
 Are neither regular nor prismatic
 Surface roughness will often change with time, distance and even elevation
 More difficult to accurately analyze and obtain satisfactory results
 Include streams, rivers, floodplains

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Open channels: The top is open

Natural Man made

Abay Irrigation canal

Atmospheric Pressure Atmospheric Pressure

top

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Closed conduit: The top is closed

Atmospheric Pressure

Partially full flow conduit Full flow conduit

Water under atmospheric pressure Water above atmospheric pressure
Open channel flow Not an open channel flow
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Types of open channel flow
A. Classification based on change of flow depth with space (space as a criteria)

a) Uniform flow – flow depth is constant in space

dA
dB dA = dB
A long prismatic channel
B

b) Non uniform (Varied) flow – flow depth vary in space

a) Gradually Varied Flow (GVF)
b) Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF)

dA ≠ dB dA
dA d A ≠ dB
dB dB
A B
A B
GVF RVF 8
B. Classification based on change of the flow depth with time (time as a criteria)

a. Steady flow – flow depth at a particular point is constant in time

b. Unsteady flow - flow depth at a particular point vary in time

dA

dA
flow depth

--- steady
--- unsteady
time

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 Uniform Non uniform
Cont’d… Steady
 
A. Steady uniform flow Unsteady
 flow depth and velocity does not vary with time and space
rare

 fundamental type of open channel flow
B. Steady non uniform flow
 flow depth and velocity vary from one point to the next;
 however, the flow depth is constant at the points with time
Gradually varied flows, and rapidly varied flows
C. Unsteady uniform flow
 flow depth/velocity constant in space but vary from time to
time
 rare flow type or practically do not exist
D. Unsteady non uniform flow
 flow depth/velocity vary both in space and time
 Since
gradually varied
there is no unsteadyflows,
uniform and rapidly
flow; steady varied
uniform flow =flows
uniform flow
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Similarly unsteady non uniform flow = unsteady flow
A. Steady uniform flow

B. Steady Gradually Varied flow (GVF) : depth various with distance gradually but
not with time

C. Steady Rapidly Varied flow (RVF) : depth various with distance rapidly but not
with time

D. Unsteady flow : depth various with both time and distance

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C. Classification based on the effect of Viscosity

 Open channel flows may be classified as laminar or turbulent flows

 In laminar flows, the water particles move in definite smooth paths / ordered and
the flow appears to be as a movement of thin layers on top of each other.

 In turbulent flow, the water particles move in irregular paths which are not fixed
with respect to either time or space.

 Reynolds number: ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces

Laminar flow Re < 500
Transitional flow 500 < Re < 12,500
Turbulent flow Re > 12,500
 In real life application, laminar open channel flows rarely exist

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13
1.2. Difference of open Channel flow and pipe flow
Pipe flow Open channel flow

Driving force Pressure work Gravity (i.e. potential energy)

Flow cross-section Known Unknown in advance because the depth is
(fixed by pipe geometry) unknown beforehand

Piezometric head (z+ p/w), where p is the (z + y), where y is the depth of flow; H.G.L
pressure in the pipe. H.G.L does coincides with the water surface
not coincide with water
surface.

Velocity distribution The velocity distribution is The maximum velocity occurs a little
symmetrical about the pipe distance below the water surface
axis, maximum velocity
occurring at the pipe center 14
 Geometric Properties of Open Channels
Parameter Symbol Description

Flow depth y the vertical distance from the channel bottom to the free surface.
Depth of flow section d flow depth measured perpendicular to channel bottom
Stage z the vertical distance from the free surface to an arbitrary datum
Top width T width of the channel section at free surface.
Wetted perimeter P length of the interface between the water and the channel
boundary.
Flow area A the cross-sectional area of flow
Hydraulic depth D the ratio of area to top width ( A/T )
Hydraulic radius R the ratio of area to wetted perimeter ( A/P )
Bottom slope So Longitudinal slope of the channel bottom, So = tan ϴ = sin ϴ .
Hydraulic mean depth D the ratio of area to surface width ( A/B )
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 Velocity Distribution in Open Channel
 Generally, open channel flow is a three dimensional flow. The flow velocity may have
components in all three Cartesian coordinate directions, Vv, Vt, Vl.

vv vv <<< vl
vt <<< vl
vl vt
Therefore, vv = vt = 0

 However, the components of velocity in the vertical and transverse directions are usually
small and may be neglected.

 Therefore, only the flow velocity in the direction of flow needs to be considered. That is
open channel flow is treated as one dimensional flow.
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 Cont’d

vla vlc
vlb vla ≠ vlb ≠ vlc ≠ vld ≠ vle
vld vle

 This longitudinal velocity component varies across the channel section.

i.e., the velocity in the channel is not uniformly distributed in the channel
section.
 This is attributed to
 Presence of a free surface
 Friction at the bottom and banks of the channel
 The maximum velocity usually occurs below the free surface at a distance of 0.05 to 0.25 of
the depth; the closer to the banks, the deeper is the maximum. 17
General patterns for velocity distribution

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Cont’d

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1.3. Fundamental equations

 The equations which describe the flow of fluid are derived from three
fundamental laws of physics:
 Conservation of matter (or mass)

 Conservation of energy

 Conservation of momentum

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1.4 Uniform Flow

• When uniform flow occurs when gravitational forces exactly balance the
frictional resistance forces

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Uniform Flow
gravity force = ρgAL sin θ
shear force = τoPL
In uniform flow these balance, i.e. τoPL = ρgAL sin θ
Considering a channel of small slope, Sin θ ≈ tan θ = So

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Uniform Flow Equation
The Chezy Equation
For a state of rough turbulent flow, which is the predominant type of flow in open
channel, it was experimentally verified that the shear force is proportional to the
flow velocity squared i.e.
τo α V2
τo = KV2
Substituting into the above equation
Grouping the constants together as one equal to C

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Uniform Flow Equation
The Manning Equation

• Substituting the above equation in chezy’s formula

• In terms of discharge,

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Uniform Flow Equation
• Conveyance, K, is a measure of the carrying capacity of a channel.

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Uniform Flow Equation
• Computations in Uniform Flow
• Two calculations are usually performed to solve uniform flow problems.
• 1. Discharge from a given depth
• 2. Depth for a given discharge
• In steady uniform flow the flow depth is know as normal depth.

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Channel Of Efficient Section
• The most hydraulically-efficient shape of channel is the one which can pass the
greatest quantity of flow for any given area or, equivalently, the smallest area for a
given quantity of flow.
• This occurs for the maximum hydraulic radius or, equivalently, for the minimum
wetted perimeter.

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Channel Of Efficient Section
• Rectangular Channels
• Consider liquid flow in an open channel of rectangular cross section
of width b and flow depth y. The cross-sectional area and the wetted
perimeter at a flow section are Ac = yb and p =b + 2y
• p = Ac/ y + 2y
• Now we apply the criterion that the best hydraulic cross section for
an open channel is the one with the minimum wetted perimeter for a
given cross section. Taking the derivative of p with respect to y while
holding Ac constant gives

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Channel Of Efficient Section
• dp/ dy = Ac/ y2 + 2 = by/ y2+ 2 = - b /y + 2
• Setting dp/dy = 0 and solving for y, the criterion for the best hydraulic
cross section is determined to be y = b/2
• Therefore, a rectangular open channel should be designed such that
the liquid height is half the channel width to minimize flow resistance
or to maximize the flow rate for a given cross-sectional area. This also
minimizes the perimeter and thus the construction costs

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Channel Of Efficient Section
• Trapezoidal Channels
• The criteria for the efficient trapezoidal section is that : One of the
sloping sides = Half of top width
• Best side slope for most economical trapezoidal section is when the
side slope = 60degrees

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 1.4. Energy Depth Relationships
O

Section O
ϴ

 Open channel:
 Total energy at section O
 bottom slope So or makes ϴ with

horizontal,
 Consider a channel section O:
 flow depth = d elevation head
pressure head
velocity head 31
Specific Energy, E
 The total energy of an open channel flow
O
from an arbitrary datum

ϴ
Datum

 If the datum coincides with the channel bed at the cross-section, z = 0 the resulting
expression is known as specific energy and is denoted by E.

 When the channel slope θ ≈ 0 and α= 1, the specific energy equation further simplifies
to;

 Thus, specific energy is the energy at a cross-section of an open channel flow with
respect to the channel bed. 32
 Cont’d…
 Recall that V = Q/A, the equation of specific energy may be written as;


 Note
 Generally for a fixed geometry: A = f(y)
 Functional relationship between E, y ,Q, i.e., f(E, y, Q) = 0

 The functional relationship f(E, y, Q) = 0 is examined for two cases:

A. Constant Discharge:
Q = Q1 ⇒ E = f (y, Q). Variation of the specific energy with the water depth at a cross-
section for a given discharge Q1;
B. Constant Specific Energy:
E = E1 = constant. Variation of the discharge with the water depth at a cross-section
for a given specific energy E; 33
Constant Discharge Case (Relationship between E & y)

 Since the specific energy,

y

 For a rectangular channel, B

 Specific discharge q: q = Q/B
 A = By

 Since q = constant

 The above is a cubic equation relating E and y. The curve of E vs y is known

as the specific energy curve. 34
Cont’d…
 The two roots y1 & y’1 are the two possible depths having the same
specific energy. y

 The two depths are known as alternate depth

 y1 is an alternate depth to y’1 y1

 y’1 is an alternate depth to y1

 Of the two alternate depth, one is larger (y1) y’1

and the other is smaller (y’1) E
E1
 From
Specific Energy Diagram

 The one with larger depth will have smaller

velocity
 The one with smaller depth will have larger
velocity 35
y For Constant q = Q/B

B
Specific Energy Curve

1’
45o
A
E (specific energy)
Ec

Ec = E1= E’1

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 y
Note:
 As E increases the difference
y1 between the alternate depths
(y – y’) increases
 As E decreases the difference
yc between the alternate depths
y’1 (y1 – y1’) decreases

Emin E1 E1 E1 E

 Critical depth (yc): The flow depth for which E is a minimum.

 Critical flow : Flow corresponding to the critical depth:
 At E > Emin, two possible flow depths: alternated depths
 At E = Emin, the alternate depths converge to a single depth, i.e., yc
 At E < Emin, no flow depth can be obtained: flow under this condition is not possible
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 The Froude number of an open channel flow is given by

where D is the hydraulic depth and is given by

 For the alternate depths, the Froude numbers are

since for rectangular channels T = B & D =y

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 what if the discharge varies?
y

q1 < q2 < q3 ..... qn

y1
y2
y3

y’3
y’2
y’1
E1 E

 For a given specific energy E = E1, a channel can pass different discharges
with different depths.

 The higher the discharge, the lower the flow depth. 39

 y

y1
q1 < q2 < q3 ..... qn

 To pass a flow in a channel at a given flow depth, the higher the

discharge the higher the specific energy it requires

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Criterion for the Critical State of flow
 The Froude number for critical flow is unity,

Fr = 1, critical flow;
Fr < 1, subcritical flow;
Fr > 1, supercritical flow;

 Characteristics of critical flow / criterion of critical flow

 Specific energy is a minimum;
 The discharge is maximum for a given channel section;
 The Froude number is equal to one;

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Calculation of critical depth of flow
Rectangular Channel

Introducing specific discharge

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43
The Froude number

Therefore, for rectangular channels

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Flow in Channel Transitions
• Steady uniform flow is interrupted by a raised bed level as shown
Flow in Channel Transitions
• If the upstream depth and discharge are known we can use
Bernoulli’s equation and the continuity equation to give the velocity
and depth of flow over the raised hump
• Apply Bernoullis’equation between sections 1 and 2
Flow in Channel Transitions
• Applying Continuity Equation

Substituting this into Bernoulli’s equation we have:

Rearranging:
The Hydraulic Jump

• Is an example of rapidly varied flow

• Occurs when a super-critical flow and a sub-critical flow meet
• The momentum equation is used
The Hydraulic Jump

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The Hydraulic Jump

• Resultant force in x- direction = F1 - F2

• Momentum change = M2 – M1
• F1- F2 =M2 –M1
• Or for a constant discharge
• F1 +M1 =F2 +M2 = constant
• For a rectangular channel this may be evaluated using
The Hydraulic Jump

Substituting for these and rearranging gives

The Hydraulic Jump

• The energy loss in the jump is given as

• The energy dissipation ratio represents the fraction of mechanical
energy dissipated during a hydraulic jump
Example 1
Water discharging into a 10-m-wide rectangular horizontal channel from a sluice
gate is observed to have undergone a hydraulic jump. The flow depth and velocity
before the jump are 0.8 m and 7 m/s, respectively. Determine (a) the flow depth and
the Froude number after the jump, (b) the head loss and the dissipation ratio, and
(c) the wasted power production potential due to the hydraulic jump

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Example 2
Water is flowing in a weedy excavated earth channel(n = 0.03) of trapezoidal cross section with a
bottom width of 0.8 m, trapezoid angle of 60°, and a bottom slope angle of 0.3°. If the flow depth is
measured to be 0.52 m, determine the flow rate of water through the channel. What would your
answer be if the bottom angle were 1°? Find the specific Energy, the type of flow, the alternate
depth,

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Example 3
Water flowing in a wide horizontal open channel encounters a 15-cm-high bump at the bottom of the
channel. If the flow depth is 0.80 m and the velocity is 1.2 m/s before the bump, determine the depth and
velocity of water over the bump and the Froude number

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Example 4
Calculate the critical depth, critical velocity and the critical energy in a rectangular channel of width 2.0 m
for a discharge of 5 cumec.

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Example 5
Design an efficient rectangular channel to carry a discharge of 5cumec, if the bed slope is 1degress and
the manning’s roughness constant of the channel bed materials is 0.03.

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Thank You!
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