S tora�e refers_ to the n:edia and devices used by a computer to keep data

ai?d 111str�ct10ns availabl� for i1:1mediate or later use. Storage can be

grnuped mto two categones: _ pnmary storage and secondary storage.
�rimary storag�, also called main memory or immediate access store (IMAS)
1s a group of clups that resides in the motherboard (main circuit board) of
_
the computer. The distance the electrical signals have to travel from the
CPU to p1imary storage or vice versa is much shorter than the distance
between the CPU and secondary storage devices, which are connected to the
motherboard via cables. This shorter distance, along with the design of the
chips, allows for faster interchange of data and instructions. This speedy
access is necessary since the CPU can only act on data and instructions held
in primary storage. So for the computer to w�rk fast, the primary storage
must be as quickly accessible as possible.

Primary Storage
Primary storage consists of two types of memory chips: Random Access
Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM) chips. A memory chip
is an integrated circuit (IC) made up of millions of transistors and
capacitors.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

A computer uses RAM to hold data and instructions (programs) temporarily
while processing is taking place using that data and program. It also holds
the data that results from processing - data that is ·waiting to be output or
stored in a secondary storage device. RAM is therefore also called working
Did you know? memory.
Did you know that having
Programs and data stored in secondary storage must therefore firsl be loaded
more RAM may make a
into RAM before they can be processed. For example, before a letter can be
microcomputer operate
typed, or data for a spreadsheet entered, the CPU nm t fir t load the
faster and its software
application programs - such as a word processing or spreadsheet program -
perform better? Most
into memory. These application programs, and ·whatever the user inputs
computers sold today come
using them, are held in RAM until the application i los d or th power i
with 256 MB or 512 MB RAM as
turned off.
standard; extra RAM can easily
be added, expanding the If programs and data are not stored on a ondary torag devic they ·will
computer's capacity to 1 GB or be lost when power is turned off. This is b cause th information in RAM i
more. volatile: it is temporary ancl changeable. The information in RAM can al o
1
be accessed directly and easily, hence the term random access If the power
1
•

is turned off or the computer is rebooted (started up again) all the

information that is held in RAM will be lost. RAM chips are limited in
storage capacity. RAM chips are also expensive and are a major determinant
of the final price of a computer.
 Cache memory
Currently, processors can operate at' speeds much greater than comr:
memoi? can supply the necessary data. In an effort to sp eed up toho
process mg, most m�crocomputers have cache memory (pronounced cash). men
devi
Cache memory is very fast memory· that the proce·ssor can access much cam
_
n1.ore qmckly than main memory or RAM. Usually there are two levels of
cache, c alled Ll and L2. N ewer co mputers hav e also included a third level
called L3 c ache. L1 c ache is on the same chip as the microp rocessor, while
L2 cache is usuall, separate. When the microprocessor and motherboar d Un
both ha e L2 a hes, the motherboard cache is designa ted L3, since it is
Then
further awa r. ache is made of high-speed stalic RAM (SRAM) instead of the mean
slower and cheaper dynamic RAM (DRAM) chip that is u sed for m ain amai
1nen1 or ,. abse1
Generall r most programs access the same data or ins truction ove r and over. pres(
By keeping as much of this information as possible in SRAM, the processor t_he c
nurr
avoids accessing the slov,mr DRAM. Cach e memory works by attempting to
com
predict which memory the pro cessor is going to need next, loading that
memory before the processor needs it, and saving the results after the The
processor is done with it. This speeds up processing. con
ma
rep
Read Only Me·m ory (RO.M) pu­
g up the
ROM chips hold data and instructions necessary for startin
CO)

nly u�ed t to re system-level in

c omputer when it is switched on. It i s commo o s
p gram. ROM
programs.such as the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) ro
operating
chips may also hold tra�slators for high-level languages and
systems.
sometimes
These instructions are fixed at the time of manufacture and are
in
described as being 'hard-wired'. This ensures that the instructions stored
therefore
ROM are always there, whether the power is on or not. ROM is
non-volatile: it cannot be easily changed, because it is 'read-only'. This is
necessary since �hen the computer is fi rst turned on, the system memory i
s

empty and needs the instructions stored in ROM for the PC to boo t up. ROM
is also sometimes found in some input and output devices, such as scanners
and printers.
ROM cannot easily be modified and therefore provides a measure of security
against accidental or malicious changes to its contents. Users of a system
cannot infect ROM chips with a virus. Variations of ROM chips namely
PROM and EPROM, allowing some flexibility in storing data and
instructions, are also available.
• Programmable ROM (PROM): This is a type of ROM that can be
programmed using special equipment; it can be vnitten to, but only once.
This is useful for companies that ·want to make their own ROMs from
software they wlite themselves: when they change their code they can
create new PROMs without requiring a whole ROM manufacturing plant.
• Era able Programmable R01 I (EPR011): An EPROM is a ROM that
ure 3.1 can be erased and reprogrammed, which can make it more useful than
_
motherboard showing RAM and an ordmary P�OM, alth�ugh EPROM chips do not last as long. This is
M; the processor contains the don� by exposmg th� clup to ultraviolet light of a specific frequency for a
che memory _
specified penod of hme. Reprogramming may become necessary if there
are up�ates to the current data or instructions that are held in £PROM.
• El�ctricall�· Erasable PRO.. I (EEPRO�l): This is a special rype of RO�,,
chip that can be era�ed and reprogrammed repeatedly by a user. chi
_
erased by exposmg it to an electrical charge -which erases the en..
_ ir
Unlike EPROM .r ch.1ps, E EPRO�I chips do nm have t0 be remo :ed
 oo"' pu· r w reprogrammed. EEPR0�f i non-volatile and can be u ed
hold data and instructions w·hich need ro be updated regularly. Fla h
m mory is a rype 01. EEPRO.. 1 and is also used in a number of electronic
· de-•ices such as Compactflash cards knm,?i as 'electronic film' for digital
cameras, memory cards and video game sy tern

Units of storage
The memories of all digital computers are rwo-state (bi- table) device . Thi
means the components can be set ro one of rwo state . On a di k or tape it i
a magnetised spot or an unmagnerised spot. In a chip it is the pre ence or
absence of an electrical charge, and in the case of optical di k , it i the
presence or absence of the reflection ,\-hen a laser beam hit the urface of
the disk. The two states of all these devices are represented by the binary
numbers O and 1 and are called a bit. A bit is che smalle t unit of rora 0e in a
computer.
The amount of data and instructions that can be srored in the memory f
computer or secondary storage medium is measured in b�e . _-\ byt i
made up of a combination of eight birs and has the rorage po,,-er ta
represent one character. A c,harae,tcr can be a ]el er, a number. 1,
punctuation mark or a blank space. A onl is he ar oun- o ·b·r·
computer can process in one operation We rd lc-n ,tJ1 i tit .. l
in a word.

Name mbol l3inar, Equal to

mca�rn I m •uc 10 H

kilobyte I 13
111cgnb te 102 1 1 Kl�
gig 1hvtc• 102.il MI\
lt.rnl yl<' 102 1 1 CB
I t'ldl lt' 102 1 1 TH

l ,l l \It 102'1 l'B

.l H.ll ytt IOL 1l l·.B

, rul ft _ 2089258!9 614 6L� 174 706 17h HJ24 ZB

Seco ge ev·ces
 "' nu�ber of secondary torage device are a vail.thl ' Devi t1 · ,lie h< t• n t 1 1
Sum mary characteristics parncular use based on their:
of mag ne fo ape s • Srorage capacity (hmv much data the de,�ice an tor ')
• Pro ride seque ntial access • Access speed (the time needed to locate the data a nd t r. n ·nu t 1t t
to data stared the CPU)
Easy to transport and store • Size (necessary for storage on shelve or portability)
• Cheap er than disk • Portability (ability ro be easily remo,,ed and u ed on anoth r '\ st e m )
• Mostly used fo r backups or • CoS!.
ti torag '
archives (tertiary storage) The most commonly used secondary storage devic e ar magn
• Limited shelf-life (2 years) l torage (C D-R M, D-R,
(magnetic rapes and magnetic disk ), optica
) and olid tat memo f) (t1a 'h
• Must be stored in a CD-RV,1; DVD-RO:r-. I, DVD-R and DVD-RW
suitable environment memory and USB drives).
( smoke, dust, temperature
and humidity must be Magnetic tapes
carefully controlled)
tal oxid film
• Difficult to update files Magnetic tape is a nobon of plastic material coate d with a m
(cannot make changes to a on v,rhich data is recorded as magnetised or unmagn ti ed pot • Th
gn ti d pot rcpr 'nt
record without writing magnetic orientations of the magnetised and unma
over the entire tape} the binary digits o and 1. On mainframe compu ters th tap i tor-d on
d in cartrid 0 c, similar
"-------------' � reels or cartridges. In microcomputers tape are tor
to those used to srore music, but of a much higher qua lit • Ju t l ike th tap ,
1

in a tape recorder, dara can be written to, or r ad from, the t P a it pn, scs
the magnetic heads.
Magnet ic tape is not suitable for data fil that ar 1 vis d or u pd, t d olt n
because it stores data c q 1t;nti�1lh . Thi m nn th, t dn t i r t ri v cl in the
order in which it wa tor d. Th r for ac i ng latn is v r ' s1ow as ou
cannot go dircctl�• to n item o dat. on th t, p '. \l is n , ssar lo st. rl al
the b ginnina o the tape nd ·arch for th · dntn as the tnp go s pnsl lhc
h ad .
r · erasable, r us,1blc ,i nd modcrnlcly d u rnblc,
qu ntitic of clalt1 i nex pensive l y . fi'o r Lh ct-ic
d or cmcrg · ncy b, cku p p u r pos 'S.

Mag netic d isks

1 1a netic d: k are one o chc mosc widely used secondary sloragc mcc.l i,1 frn
ompuc rs. All magnecic disk provide d i n·ct au ,. " to data slo rn d . Th iH
mean chac JOU can go directly to a specific piece of data w i t h o u t havi n u Lo
ac e any ocher daC: either before or after the data you wan l . ' J 'he c,,i p;�,i ly
�
an ace� peeds or magnetic disks vary with each device (Jr med i u m .
.
Ma 0neoc d1 ks·inclurle floppy disks (diskettes) and hard d il)ks.
Figure 3.2
A floppy disk
Floppy disks (diskettes}
A 3 5-inch diskene or flop Y dis.k is · a removable, flexible plastic d 1�k watcd
, e maren P_
,,ith 3 �a1?1ensaol al. The disk is contained in a hard plar,ttc ca''<' ;, • w
prorecr u rrom dusr and grease. 1l"'T"\.. ,
.1 JJC rerrn floppy ' refer<; bacJ, to thr;
• 5 2 5-
mch,.?-i5 _ 1
.:.:enes thar t;, ere used m the 1 980s and were ac uaH1
so and flenole. rnese are nor us�d any more .)
Each dislr surface comai·ns a set of numb
. . .wn as ttar � . The ·red cone ·mri
nngs L.llo rraclr..s are alw d" ,ided into
dg
�..-e rye shaped (pizza s1:ce) pieces ,mown �- ! tor ' .,., i ..h
.. emse ·es are · :.irnne • red· · secwr lS .
rhe a mou nt o a
uia- can •oe reaa- -�om or ••:ri
n oo a d " b h com p
e ope .. c1 • r: aca. L red m.agn ·
 DVD disks
Summary characteristics
DVD stands for Digital Versati le Disk. The main types are DVD-R?� (read
s��ilar to a
of optical disks on1y) , DVD- R (recordable) and DVD- RW (rewritabl e). The� look
• Much sturdier and more ng much more infor ma bon. This is The
CD-R disk but are capabl e of holdi
durable than tapes or possible because : assis
are d to a c D,
floppy disks • The tracks o n a DVD are placed close r toget he r as comp
• Not usually sensitive to thus al lowing more tracks. Fl
t h an a CD.
being casually touched, • The p i ts i n w h ich data is store d a re muc h sma ller in a_ DVD
though they too can get the disk, allow ing more Flas
This mean s many mom p l ts will fi t o n
dirty or scratched. Despite Pro�
in Cormation lo be stored.
on both sides me 1
this they can be cleaned • orne DV Ds cl rc d o u b l e-side d . Th is a l l ows data to be stored is a
easily with a soft cloth a n d there fore dra matica lly i n creases the disk's capaci t�. .
for:11 a t10n. Th e_Y be E
• Unaffected by magn tic A typical DVD d isk ca n hold be tween 4 . 7 GB and 1 7 GB of m cas 1
fields are used mainly for storing movies . The qual ity of sound and v1deo output 1s cel1
• Hold much more data than much superior to video tapes.
floppy disks Th«
• Provide dire t access to 8/u-ray sm
data stored an c
As v.rell as storing even larger amounts of data - up to 25 GB o n a single-layer livi
disk and 50 GB on a dual-lay er disk - Blu-ray is suitable for recordin g, po ]
rewTiting and playback of high-defi nition video (HD). While C D s and DVDs Co
Did you know? rely on a red laser to read and write, this format uses a blue-viole t laser, Dil
Did you know that many hence the name Blu-ray.
compute rs have a single
d rive to read and write Care of optical disks
to CD-R, CD- RW, DVD-R Optical disks are not indestructible, as they were made out to b e when they
and DVD -RW? Some first became popular. Although they are more reliable than diskettes, they
cater for Blu-ray as well. must be handled with care otherwise data may be lost. Data loss results
from:
• Physical damage (breaking, melting, scratching, etc.
• Blocking oflaser light by dirt, paint, ink an
• Corrosion of the reflecting layer.
The following are some guidelines for the proper handling of o ptical disks.
F1
1 CDs and DVDs should be stored in their cases when not in use to fc
preven t them from being scratch ed or getting dirty. ii
2
·2 Avoid soilin g the surfac e of a CD - hold it by the edge or centr
e vi
hole.
e
3 Keep your CDs clean by gent ly wipi ng both
side s with a clea n dam p I
cloth from the cent re to the oute r edge not . .
a·is1<:. w ipm
.
· . g m a circle can crea te a , by w1pm g arou n d th e
I
curv ed scra tch, whi ch can
con fuse the lase r. For stub bor n dirt
, use isop ropyl alco hol or
me tha nol , or CD /DVD clea nin g
det erg ent .
4
��r���;:::�;h:�:!?a�:.;: ��: t a3 e r on �� :t� a ballp oint pen � r o ther
t h e oth er side . Use
a CD m arker instead.
5 Do n't w rite on the top
side with a fi n e�p omt m arker
s olve nt-b ase d m ark er. o r with a ny
(Solven t may d 1sso 1ve the
6 Do no t expose a CD t pro tec tive laye r )
1 1• 1 m e rat re or hu m
exte nded pe riod of ti� � �: �� l) u idit fo r a n
y
\.._
1 , e C D m ay warp.
• RAID storage systern: RAID stands for Redund ant
Array of Independent Disk. A RAID storage system
consists of a cabinet which may contain a large
number of disk drives (up to 100). Besides holding
more data than a fixed disk, it stores multiple copi es
of data on different drives. If one drive fails others
can take over allowing the data to be recov�red. D ata
is transm itted to the CPU using multiple d a ta p a ths. Figure 3. 7
RAID cab ine t

Optic al dis ks
by l aser lights. The disk is made mainly
Opti cal disks are disks th at are read
te) . The d ata is stored on a l ayer ins ide the
of a type of pl astic (polycarbon a Summary characteristics
lumi nium ) reflects the l aser light b ack to a
pl asti c. A metal co ating (usu ally a of hard disks
s are CDs , DVDs and Blu-ray.
sens or. The main types of optic al disk • D irect access
• Fast data transfer spee ds
CD-ROM (co mp act disk) • Vast storage cap acity �
e ad Only Memory. This me ans that you �
CD-R OM stan ds for Com pact D i sc-R
the di sk, but you cann ot add or ch ange
can only re ad (ac cess) what i s on ser
ically \vith a lmv i nte n sity l a
a i s e ncod ed a nd re ad opt
anything. The d a t p t is little
serie s of pits and l ands. A i a
l ight. The data is represen ted a s a
the l ser burn ing into the data l ayer whe n the CD i s
depression form ed by a
a di ng
een the pits or the smo oth surface. Re
created. The land i s the p art betw d dete t ng chan g ing
i ng a lase r l ight a t the disk
an c i
a C D i s do n e by shin oth surf ace
reflecting p atter ns. Whe n the l as er be am refle cts off the smo
n the lase r ente rs p it ther e i s no
(l and) it is inte rpre ted as a 1 b i t. Whe
a

a O bit.
refle c ti on, which is inte rpre ted as
sp ins .
esse d dep end s on how fast the disk Figure 3.8
The spe ed at whi ch the data is acc tr nsfe rred t he Compact disk
the data c an be o t
The fast er the disk spin s, the fa s ter
a
ber
The spe ed of a CD-ROM drive is indic ated by a num
com put er's mem ory . are 48X , SOX , et . The
driv e speeds c
follo wed by a n 'X'. 'fyp i c al C D-R OM
the fast er the disk spin s, resu lting i n fast er d ata a cc ess.
high er the num ber
c ity (up to 750 MB ), CD-
RO Ms are use d t o
Bec aus e of thei r large s torage c apa re par ti cularly use ful
disrnom ion. They a
store software package s for s ale or s) nd applica tion
s, s ound an d vide o a
for stori ng multim edia (text , gra phic rs, tra i nin g
edia s, word pro ces so
so ftvrnre pa ckages su c h as e ncy clop
ges.
progra ms, gam es and grap hi c s packa

CD-R
le. Thi s di sk all o ws y o u to vHite
CD-R ta nd for Conipa c t Di c-R ecordab
reco rder (bu rne r). The di sk then
data onto the di k once only u ing a CD ideal for stor ing
n not be cha nge d. It i s
bec ome CD- RO 11 a the con tent ca A typi al use is to crea te
d to cha nge . c
large volum e of data that doe not nee , i ar o und 750 to 800
R, like all CD s
mu ic CD . The tora ge capa city of CD-
s

1B maximu m.

CD-R W
i now a very com mon cho i ,c fo r
CD- RW (Com pact Di c-Re-\Vritable)
e rusk s uses a pha se-c hm1 g i n g met a1
bac kup torage. The data laye r of the
lase r l ight lhe fil m ca n be mc1 lec1 to
alloy film . By u ing a higher ime n icy
r bur ner whe n lhe data was slored,
leve l om the mark mad e by the lase
. New data can then be reco rded
e rectively era ing preYi ousl y stored data
new data . In theo ry you can
u:in g a lm,�er ime n i-cy lase r l ight to burn the
time s. It there fore mak es it
erase and write on the e disks as man y as 1 000
of data that chan ge
aTI id�a1 oadmp storage devic e for storin g large vol umes
--r�que n J:r.
 • 'l)'n 1 1s111 i,•mion t i me - Lhc U me take n to re ad che data and tra1r mit it to the
,PU. • l
Sector
P'or n xcd-hcad d i sk d rives, wh e re each t rack ha a re ad. write head, the time
Ln ko n lo ,1 cccHs dr1 Lr1 t1 11 cl inslructions is reduc e d, a the e e k time i
c l i m i nc1Luc l .
Track
re a e th e peed at
I l mc l d lsl H n rc 1 1 \ U C:l i 1-1lowc r than intern a l m e mory . To inc
cache, a l o o ft n called
w h ich d n l n Is w r l l 1 n 1 1 l o ;rnd read from a hard di k, a
pu r po e of thi cache
,1 bu f'l 'c r, IH i 1 H:l u c lnc l 1 1 1 1 1 wst modern h ard d r iv es. The
1

it i not norm ally

is :,;i 1 1 1 i l n r lo o l l i c r c;,1cl rn8 used in the PC, e ven thou gh
Cylinder cach e is u ed to hold the
t l iougl l t o l' :11-1 L I , 1 ,2 or L3 cach e . For ha rd disks, th e
and ho l d data that
rc:ni l t :,; o l' rncc n l reads from th e disk, and also to 'pre dict' 01
the data
is l ikcl , to be rcq u cslcd in the n e a r future , fo r examp l e , of
e imp rov e
i m mccl i,1 tcly after the one just re qu e st e d. T11 e us e of cach pl
o f ph r ica l acce e
pcrfo rma nee of any hard d isk, by re ducing th e numb
er
se
to the d isk o n re peated reads.
Like floppy disks, a hard d isk m ust also b e for matted b e fore any data can be C
stored on it. Formatting sets up th e tracks, s e cto rs and cy l ind e rs. A C) l i nder C
Figure 3.5 is made up of al l the tracks of th e same n umb e r from a l l th e m e tal disks that C,

Cross-section of a hard disk to make u p the hard disk, wh ich can b e re ad or w r itt e n to a t th e ame time. For a
show how it is arranged and example, if you start from the bottom o f a stack o f disk , t racl 5 of t h e li
divided into tra cks, sectors and second disk will be dire ctly above t rack 5 of th e fir t disk. 'Itack 5 of th third d
cylinders disk will be directly above track 5 of the first and econd di k and so on. I f C
you put these all together o n top o f e ach o ther, you'd h ave something th at
looks like a tin can with no top or bottom - a cylind r.
The computer keeps track of what it has put whe re o n a disl b , recording
the addresses of all the sectors used - a combin ation o r the cylinder, track
and sector numbers. Data is writte n down the disks on the sa me cyH ncler.
This works quickly because each m etal platte r has a re adhvrit h ead for
each side and they all move togeth e r. So for o n e positi o n o r the rcacl /wrilc
heads, the computer can put som e data on all the plallc rs.
Almost all PCs come with a ha.rd drive that is hous e d i.11side the system u nil
and attache d to the motherboard by a sp e cial cable . The c hard drives n rc
not re movable and vary in storag e capacity from around 20 G B to 1 20 G l3
and more. The hard drive usually sto re s application o flwarc (word
processor, database, spre adsheet, e tc.) and th e op e rating syste m . I L is m u ch
faster than floppy disks because it rotat e s at a much fa t e r speed.
Thro ad � itional types of hard drives that can be used with a PC arc exte rn a l
hard dnv e s and removabl e disk.
• Extern� l hard drive: An ext e rnal hard drive can b e u e d if there is no
� pace m the s_ystem unit to hous e anoth er hard drive. It may come with
its own po er sourc e a� d is connect e d to th e sy tern unit via a special
�
cabl e. External hard dnve s can b e e asily re move d and connect ed to
an°th e r c�1:1 putei� the reby giving th e m a ce r tain amount of portab ility
_
and fl ex1b1hty of us e .
E �a�11ples of removable hard d isks an b obtain ed fr m 1la..'\. tor
(: , We �...tem
D1g1tal and Seaga t e .
For larger comp u ter syste ms hard disl s con i t 111am
Figure 3.6 ly o f re movable hard
disk packs ' fixed disk. drive s cand RAl D s t01.age syst
External 1 TB hard disk e n1s.
• Removable hard disk pack : A re mov abl e hard
di s k pac k may con ta m
betw e e n 6 and 20 hard disks align e d ne ab
ove the oth e r in a eal e d uni t.
The storage capa city is usually very i° .
l th e t � rab yte range .
• Fixed disk driv es: Th e s e are simil ar to :��: �
e oun d m PC . Th e y ha·v
h ig�1 stor age capa city and ea
are more re liab le tha n re mo vab l e
mam frame eom pu ter may ha ve b etw h ard di k . _-\
. e e n 20 and 100 fu xe d d.1 k hou ed 1
a sm g1 e cab in e t . Data is tran sm 1. tt
e d to t11e CPU usi ng a ing le dat pat
a h.
 • Data on CD-RO� ls cannot be changed
• Access imes are slower than hard drives
pared o

• ia · need special sof ware o be used

- ·ith PCs

ee - :o PCs • Limited storage compared :o CD or DVD

• -- - :-�;:: �c.:'2.C:. __ - cor--pared
:r1 :::::

• Limi ted smrage compared co CD or D\ D

be
·e- or on a .· e ·

• e - p1ug and
needed)
• Fa acce acce -

• Di tch
(p e · ng
a � o ·er)

Table 3.2 cont. Advantages and d·saO✓an�ages a· secordary s;orage devices

Fi reWi re
Fire \ 1 irc is , way to on nee di:erem pieces of equipmem especially audio
and vid ,o cqu ipmcn o tha -he) can ea-··�- and quic1• y share information.
Fire Wire is plug and plc y, o i ) ou connec a ne,,T Fire\ Tire device to your
com pmer, the oper ting r [ m L mo-detect ii and asks �or the dri rer di k.
J f vou 'vc alre adv in tall d h device rhe compmer acrivates it and starts
co-;,r n,u nicating with iL Fir \ 1 ire device are hm pluggable, ·which mean
the r can be con nected and disconnected ar an� rime, even with rhe power
on .., he kcv differe nce between Fire"\ 1 ire and lrB is rhac Fire Wire is
int. nd 0 d �r de,·ice ·.,·orking ,:••hh a lat more data, such as camcorders,
optical di k players and audio di�ral equipment.
 Figure 3. 10
o , P3 player
er's USB port

acities from 8 r 1 B to 1 GB or
These small flash driv es can hav e storage cap
prot ecti on faci lity and the
more ! Som e flash driv es incl ude a pass wor d
e.
ability to run softv.rare directly off the USB driv

Advantages Disadvantages
rorage rorage
device capacity
• Easy to transport and store • Provides sequential access to data stored
Magnetic Up to 1 . 6 TB
tape per tape • Cheap • Limited shelf-life (2 years)
cartridge
• Mostly used for backups or • Must be stored in a suitable enviro nm nt
archives (smoke, dust, temperature and hu m id it')
must be carefully controll e d)
• Difficult to update file s (cannot m, k '
changes to a record without writing ovc 1
the e ntire tape)
Magnetic 1 .44 MB • Provides direct access to data • Small storage capacity (unsuitable for
disk tared storing files containing graphic )
• Small and very portable • Limited shelf-life (2 years)
• Easy to store • Slow read/write speeds
• uitable for backing up small files
• Data security (e.g. you can store
mall files that you don't want
other computer users to see)
Fixed hard Up to 1 TB • Direct access • Not portable
di k
• Fa t data transfer speeds
• Va t storage capacity
===,=£
Removable Up t0 1 TB • Direct access
hard d. ks
• Fast data transfer speeds
• V�t storage capacity compared to
diskettes
• Portable
Tabl e 3.2 Advantages and dis
advant age s of sec ond ary sto rag e dev ice s
 Other storage media Summary characten ti
o fas mem
The modern computing in du s try i s continually devel oping n e,,- p roducts to
Phy ically Yery mall
a ist the computer u s er.
a Highly portable
• High data capa city.
Flash memory ranging from 1 6 �IB to -
GB, and e,,en more
Fla sh mem ory te chnol ogy i s bas ed on EEPR011 (Electrically Era s able
Hioh d ata tran fer �peed
Programmable Read Only M e mory) technol ogy. Like EEPROM, flash
to the de,ice they are part
mem ory i s no n-volatile. H owev e r, re a ding fro m a nd writing to flash m e m o ry
is a lot fas ter than wi th EEPR011. This is becau se data in fl ash memo ry ca n of or atta ched to (came ra,
be erase d a bl o ck at a time in ste ad o f o nly a s ingl e byre a t a tim e as i s the PC, etc)
ca se with EEPROM. Fla sh memo ry got i ts nam e b e caus e a block o f m e m ory • Large co rage capacity
cell s is erased in a s ingl e act ion or •flash'. c o mpare d to d i kene

The compac t nature o f flas h memory e nable s it to b e incorp orated into -very
small solid s tate (n o moving parts) de vic e s that are available in all shap e
and forms. The s e devic e s a re rapidly b e co ming an integral part o f m ode m
living. Flash mem o ry is part icularlv well kn own wdav- b e cause of the
popular fla s h mem o ry cards us ed i� digital s till came�as. The e include
Compac t fla s h (CF), Smart Medi a (SM), 1ultTh1 e diaCard _ L\1C). e cure
Digital (S D), Mem o ry S t ick (MS) an d xD Picture cards.

F,gure 3.9
D, erenc cypes of flash
memory cards

For x, mpl ', on\ l\\ emon ti - ,·c1�1me r<l

for digitc1l i tn<l nrn 't i\ \ P :m l 1
in th form of ·d -h,11wd hk ' .1 , im •n ion o
21 .5 50 2.8 mm ml 1 :t ra,:!t' . � morv ti
"' · just --l O an t ln.- zi d.:H, -prote re •erse \:,•hich
u.' r ' to prot t thu written on t Summary cha racteristic
of USB drives
Fl:1:h nwm 1� L' als u:t:d m mam Easy t0 use
phont \ P .-\.', c 1blc T\ � t-t p b :e . Con •enient (small i7. • -
can be placed in a pod· t
USB drive o r on a key chain)
• Large storage capacity
Thi: new n oe no- ·e: have a 2:enerall" compared ro dis . ·
pred n. n g di::"er�n-, · _dud�� ::.ash • Hight' compatible - · pl ,,
I p ·-L B dri"\""e. ne_ o;..er..
IP and pl.a/ (no so '" ·arc
le · <-:c -o ±.em from. _·o r PC,
_m e neededJ
_ our :::2\°0:.rr::e - ngs.
• fas acec
• Pas yard priou:.en.on
XP • o:....., ,.,.. · prorec:t101n
 S TA interfaces
• tem I n terface ), I D C ( I ntegra ted Dev i ce
·ial dvc111ccci Tech nology Attach men t") arc
s
1 S·
n c mg and trn nsf<� n i ng cld ta between per i ph eral de v ic e s
k
1 u " I 's 111o t hcrboa rd p ro v ides the i nterface s for
u
a 1 cl lisl tl 1 i vm· ;i n d rnnss s torage devices such as
2 f
t J I r , 1 1 r;- 1 ys. ' f h r� rn a i n d i ffere n ce hetween
3
• fc1 st 1! 1 r1 1 1 d rn<J rr; cY pc nsi ve h a n J UE devices.
h-performn n r;c l'Cc.., b, 1 t most oftc n on n rJ n-PC
m u l t i tDsk i ng opcrnti ng syste m for muWpl e users)
.n er
andr1 rd , I U L ( f n tcgratcd Device Electronics, a]sr;
a: I n e ra .d Drive El cctro n i u,J a J so called ft -- (Ad vanced
Og) tac.hm �m) is m u ch cheaper and slower than SC5I bm is stm
.d o h � ihree sta n dards because i t h as been in use for over a

tandard, seriaJ ATA (SATA) is potentially the fastest of the three

_ Th _ S(; de ,� rJ::s could transfer data as fast as 600 MB/s now, but the
·..,.., rr �m ·n '>'T a: mec.,hanjsrns of hard drives limit it to being not much fasieY
· � � .:;.:' s :.naarC: ; v £ ATA drives, which can only sustain about 60 MB/s in
:- ;;r: · •.e . . " ost PC� now com e with SATA hard disks . 7
.· _1 :, P.:U and SATA drives are usually attached directly to the
; tr1 ;arc by •,pr;r., ial rjbbon cables.

1
 17

2 m m o�· hie · e on -he n a·�

oard wn i r o and RO_ chi� 18
3 Random �· c � s 1emon- (� I) �s �mmedia-el�
a·· a"lab]..., o he processor and holds data and 9
in ruc-i ns .,mporari):·, •thi e proces :ng <a·-e
plae, . 1 also holds processed da2 -har is T•-aitino- -o
b � ou pu or swred in a econdary swrage de -ice. (u o 100).
at.a can be rr-;ad from and �·-ri e n o R..-\1 L RAJ : i 20 t i\ l i.
olatih�. limited and expensi· e. n 1 t1t , · · 1 1 1
J.1ea<l Only cmor:· rRo:.1) chips ho1d dara and t'\·il c ind
jnstructiCJn� n<�c�ssar:,r for scar-ring up he
c<Jmputer wh�n it 1s si ,frched on. Data can or,·_- be
n:ad frrJm J-1 iv1 chips. R0,\1 js non-· ola-:.e.
5 pJ,rJM and LVi-'O .v1 arc var·ation o -he 0
wh i r,h a11(JW data to hr; added, rJ r,f; in he ca 22 l -I '\\' ,l 11 i
11 1-<OM and man r i mes for l·Y F1 · . . 1cn s� tt d.1t 1 stor I .
6 A bit i s the sma l ] c!st u n i <Jf s orag ·. 23 y i $ 1 H H H' )\,1 t ih , sol i 1 sl H t ' 1 1 H tnt > l y
7 A byt,: is m�Hk up of a comhin, ti n th,ll t� i m·orpor,1tt'd i n tn srn,1 11
a nd hns t h ! �torag1: po ,vc! r t< w pr ,n 1 h 1:-; dt\• it l l st i l l Ll llH r;1s, t t' l l t l ll 11t'S,
w rill c : 1 1 dw rncU; r . 1 1 1 \ �w t lop ho\t'S .1 1 1 l v idt·n gt t nw ·
/\ wrn d is tile c1 111ou n l of hit: . 1
pl OL<\SS i ll 011e op1 •.1, 1 ! 1t) J \ . · 1 1 ( "' I ( ( ' \\ t y pe o r ll.1sh l l H' l l 1 0 1 ',V tit v it l
1 1 t1 1 11hc1 ol bi ls 1 11 . 1 \\ Oll i . iurn, l ro 1 1 1 B M l t o I c ; n or rn o n · .
9 0 11 c h lol >ylt' ( I B ) i� ;q 1d p l u g i l l t o ii U ' H port o i 1 t l u:
0 1 1 n 11wg,1b., tt• 1 1 · l i t i o 1 1 ;t l �o i l wet n: is t H:t :lkd ! c i r
h y t f':,; '1 1 1d ot1t! 0 1 , 1 M l· ..
h i l l io11 h, l<'-'· pu lt: J Syslc : 11 I I 1 1 l c:r[;1c1 \ ), 1 1 I <:
,(! l.J<;r,tr ( JJJ ics ) ; !l ld !-,;\' I '/\ ( S1 : 1 irt l
10 St'C< H Hl.l t. �ll •i
i nsl ruct itrns 1 11ugy A ad1 1 nc:ri t ) :i r e: ,i l l d < ! v i u�:-;
1np 1 i n l . rd of a ,c1tn pu t<:r w l i id1 prnvid,!
�viu!s such a<.; i n t< H 11,d t i n rd d iHk
1 ss s , ag,� dcvi, ,r:s to ,,o n r1 1 !Ll I <, L I H :

13
 Questions Magnetic tape i u e d to :
·ca) H old data nece a1_ , for 't,1 n i ng u p the
computer
Mu ltiple choice (b) Back up larg ., a mo u n t ' of data

Choose the most a p propriate answer for each (c) H old data that th co mpu t · r i, pnKc ssi ng �ll
question . the time
1 The acro nym ROM stands for: ( cl) None of the ahove
S ,SI , T r E and ATA provid > :
lJ) Ra ndom O n l y Me mory
( n ) sto 1 ;1ge spcic
(b) Read Only I\l c rnor}
( c) Read Optical f\ l ndu l e ( IJ ) p rocess i ng power
(d, Random )r�,m i.·i 11.�1 f\ Tc 1 1 1 nry ( L ) ;i n i n t r fo ,
2 \n1 ich du ice ho! .hi d,1t:1 ,1 1 1 d 1 11 Rt ru ct i o n s w h e n i l ( d ) n o n<, rJf h , ab ve
i s not i n use .
(81 l rimar> St<. 1,1�c Tru r Fa l e ?
(b) .=> -.' tem unit 1 A 3 . 5-inch diskette is capable o f holding
( �1 mt )f a large amount of graphical da a . TO F
1... d 1 �e ndary storage 0
2 Primary storage consisrs o � RA and
3 The mall est unit of storage is a: ROM chips. TO F
(a) Byte 0
(b) Bit 3 A magnetic disk has a number o f
(c) Megabyte concentric circles ca1led tracks.
d) Tera.byte 4 RAM chips hold data permaneml) .
\\1lich device has the largest storage capacity? 5 The user inputs data and instructions
(a) Diskette into a ROM chip.
6 A byte has the capacity to repre em
□
(b) CD-ROM
(c) DVD one character. T FO
(d) Hard disk 1 EPROM chips cannot be era ed. T0 FJ
5 Another name for primary storage is: 8 Magnetic tape allow· direct acce � �
to data stored. TO FQ
(a) Secondary storage
9 Magnetic tape is difficult to update. □
T FO
(b) Immediate access storage
(c) Magnetic tape
10 Floppy disks provide direct ac e n . □
T FO
1 Some C D-ROM can hol 1 mor th n
T□ FO
(d) Hard disk
650 MR of data.
T□ FO
6 Where are data and instructions held so that they
1 2 DVDs are used t o tore rn "i ' -.' .
are available to the CPU for processing?
1 3 A USB drive cannot l c t>cl" ilv removed
T□ FO
(a) ROM
from a syst m.
(b) DVD
1 digital am 1 1 is n . evicc that
(c) CD-ROM
us s f l 1sh rn � 1110 n . T0 F0
(d) RAM
1 Bl u-rc1 \ is the rnosc suicabl optical disk
7 When a disk is formatted, wh ich of the fol l wing rypc for s to1 ing high-d finition vide o .
happens?
1 , Sl , 1 D · 'm I AL are i nterface to
(a) All data on the djsk is erased onn t i vi Je such a internal hard
(b) It becomes damaged disl driv s and mas storage devices to
(c) Data files are copied onto the disk the computer.
(d) I t contains files to boot up the computer 1 7 SCSI drives and device are slower and
l e ss expensive than I DE devices. T0 f
 Fill in h bla n ks 1 L ! sl T l 1 1 I'.i F, prculll lions for the care of optical
Fill in the blanh, w i th th most ,1ppro p ri .1tc wo, ci . d isks.
1 Ltst Tl 1 1 b l•: preca u tions tor the care of floppy
1 A _________ cc111 hold the oc.ic for o n '
cha r�1ctc r. d i sks.
2 ,\ _________ is th srnal l c�t u n i t nf 1 7 {. , ivl' t lw si m i l ar i ti es and d i fferences between each
stor,H,t . n l t h e lol lo 1 i ng tm i rs:
3 _________ is the d ,ltd c l ( < ( SS met hod ( �1 ) I 1\ 1 cl !Hl J (_ M
n,'cd l > mngnl" t iL dish. ( I } ) 1 1 11 1 c l d i sk ,1 ncl tl oppy d i sk
__________ is ,1h01 1 t l h i l l i 111 h\' t 1 ,' ( 1 ) I I 1 1 d c l itd· t1 11 d tn ctgn ctic t;1 pr,
5 l\l-1bnctk tapes ,ire m.1i11lY ll,'('d tp1 ( d ) I ' 1 i 1 1 1,, r y , 1rr1 • c ci nd sr:r,qndary strJTage
1

\ ' 1 , 1 t I I ( ' f ( l tl i tf e r , II U:S h<�twc ,n B}uaray and

ptk,11 disL ,ir ' n ,hi l , l 1V { l n pl i c , t l l i . k
7 The C011l entrh 'ff le : l l l l ll tsl tl l'l' l 11() \\ 1 1 rlS l.x p l ;1 1 1 1 t l H: f<'rtll I i re I m,

Tht tr.1 ·l ,' , 1t1 tl ' . ,H 1c n u mber in c.i< h d i�l i 11 ,1

dis · 1 ,1 ,1 d.rc l dS ---------�

ll · :t l --------� l w ! 01 c·

1 ·n .· . H.1 kvircs a.re often found in

_________ res.
1 - ATA and �A.TA drin'.::: are usually
ct1y to the motherboard by special
_________ cables.

s er questions
Exp:ain the functions of RAM and ROM.
2 Explain with the use of examples the difference
be.,.\'\Teen the terms 'storage device ' and 'storage
me ': ..u11'.
3 That is the function of secondary storage?
Lis the criteria used in selecting a secondary
storage device for a particular use.
5 \7ha kinds of secondary storage devices do large
computer systems use ?
Across
6 Explain, using exampl es, the terms 'serial access'
1 Memory dev ice used in digital 'elm ' _,_- L . .J. - 1
and •dfrect access'.
ph(� l1CS ( 5)
7 Denne the following term s: bit, byte, word and
word 1ength. 4 l l o lds dnt1 a nd i nstruct ions nt' 't'�,'
u p lhc 'Otnputc r (: 1)
8 Define the termH Lraf.,k, sector and cylinder.
� Storns mov i l'.s w ilh h i�ll lt1.1l i t \ :1.Hltl l -1111..1 ·i -l '
9 Explain what h appens to a di6k whcm it is
(])
formatted .
T h i s 1 1 1cd i u n 1 0 11 I,, pn), i I ',' sni.1l l 1 'l't' S,' l -l)
10 Explain how data iB acu�ssnd from a disk tliat h rn-;
7 ly pl'. or SIP l'il,',l' \\' l udl lwl ts d,tt,l l n ,l pe r nm n -'llt
one read/wrHe head .
\ J. i s b lt > 1 L i lt r l l SC ( �l )
11 Name a n application i n which a C U� !<.< > M i s u sed
for storing, information .
11 State the advantage s a n d disadvantages o !' u s i 11g 1 l 'm l'o rn l i ug t h is o pcrc1 t io 1 1 o n a d isl· t' L\lscs .ill the
CD-ROMs rather than diskettes. i 1 1 fo l'll l i l l i o n ( l O )
1 Give one of the main uses of DV D s .
••
'l'hu 1 1 t 1 111l H' l' ot' b its t he co tnp t t tcr c m pL\)et'SS i n
14 Explain, giving exam ples, TH REE ways i n w h ich 0 1 1c opc m t io t 1 ( 'I )
data may be l ost i n an optical d isk . 3 I t co n tn i ns rn i l l io t 1s o f t rn nsistors �1 1 1d c.1 µ,1 ·itors (-!)

•
43 ••
 Before a disk can be used to store da la, it m usl be ro rmn tlcd .
Formatting a disk means writing electro n ic i n [orma l i o n o n lhc Track OO

disk so that the computer ca n recogni se the d i sk as a va l i d

0
storage device and data can be stored. The forr11c1 lti ng process
sets up a method of assign ing addresses to the cl i ffc ru n t a reas. I l Track 02
also sets up an area for keeping the list of add resses. W i l h ou t
formatting there would be no way to know w h a t d n lt1 is where.
When a disk is formatted the following ha ppens:
1 All data in the disk is erased .
2 The surfaces of the disk are checked [o r n ny phy1-d co l 1 1 1 1d
magnetic defects.
3 A file allocation table (FAT) is -r atccl lo record w h o re : dn l n lnMrrnosl trac�
k �=:::::::::::::=:::::
i s stored. has highest number

Floppy disks are use ful for transferring cl;:i la between co m p u lc rs ri nd f b r Figure 3.3
keeping a backup of small files. They are re l;:i tively slow t o access beca use o f How data is laid out on a disk
their rotation speeds. Floppy disks hold 1 .44 M B o f i n forma t i o n , T h i s is
plenty o f space for most text documents (Word and Exce l files), b u l fo r files
containing graphics, a floppy's capacity may be i ns u fficie n t.
r
Although generally PCs come with floppy drives, these a re bei ng re p laced Summary characteristics
by CD drives, especially in most laptops. However, an exte rnal fl oppy drive
of floppy-disks
can easily be attached via any of the USB ports available in modern
• Provide direct access to
computers. The present 3.5-inch floppy disk, like its predecessor, will
data stored
nevertheless soon become obsolete as smaller devices with higher storage
• Small and very portable
capacities become available.
( e.g. files can be
transported from one
Care of floppy disks computer to another)
Toking care of your disks and handling them in the right way can prevent • Suitable for backing up
your data from being lost. Here are some simple precautions to protect the small files
data on your disk: • Data security (e.g. you can
• Keep your disks away from liquids, dampness, dust and dirt. store small files that you
• Do not bend disks or h andle them roughly. don't want other
• Do not touch exposed portions of a disk. computer users to see)
• Toke care when inserting or removing a disk from a computer's disk • Easy to store
drive. • Limited shelf-life (2 years)
• Keep your disks in a disk box, not loose in your pocket or inside a book.
• Do not leave the disk in the drive. If you do the read/write head remains
resting on the disk surface.

Hard disks
Hard disks as the name implies are· thin but rigid, inflexible disks made of
highly polished metal . The surface of each side of a disk (also called platters)
is covered with a substance that can be magnetised, thereby allowing data to
be stored on both sides as magnetised or unmagnetised spots.
The disks constantly rotate at a high speed and may have one read/write
head per disk (moveable head) or, on more expensive disks, every track in
each disk may have its own read/write head (fixed head) . The combination
of the disk, read/write head and the circuitry that goes with these is called
the hard disk drive.
The access time (time to get data) from a spinning disk with one read/writ e
head is a combination of:
• Seek time - how long it takes the head to get to the right track; Figure 3.4
• Rotational delay or latency time - how long it takes for the data to rotate
under the head; and
The inside of a hard disk
••
•
33 ••