Instruction Manual

PH 310 Advanced Physics Laboratory

B. Tech Engg. Physics

Semester VI

Department of Physics
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY GUWAHATI
January—May, 2025
 PH 310 Advanced Physics Laboratory

B. Tech. Engg. Physics

Semester VI

Contents

A. Instructions 3
B. Errors in Measurements 4
C. Least Squares Fit 6
EXPERIMENT
TITLE OF THE EXPERIMENT PAGE
NO.

1 Statistics of Radioactive Decay 7

2 Atomic Spectra 9

3 Faraday Effect 11
4 Microwave Antenna 14
5 Solar Cell 15

6 Zeeman Effect 20

7 25
X-Ray Absorption and Diffraction

2
 A. Instructions
This Laboratory manual contains seven experiments picked up from different areas of
contemporary physics. Being an advanced level lab, only a brief outline of each experiment is
given. Guidelines for preparing tables, graphs to be plotted with the data collected, method of
performing calculations using formulae given and estimation of errors in the measurements and
their expression have not been given. You have to do this yourself with available material. You
are also advised to refer other sources to learn more about each experiment. The experiments are
allotted date-wise to each student. For each experiment, one laboratory session [having Six hours
(three hours for first day and three hours for the second day)] is allotted to each student. One
must complete everything within this period and submit the lab report by the end of session.
Since no extra time will be given to complete any experiment, you need proper preparation and
time plan.

INITIAL PREPARATION: You must read and understand the theory of your experiment
before you come to the lab. Submit a write-up (for all parts of the expts.) containing the title-
page, aim and theory (including working formula, schematic diagram) of the experiment at the
start of the lab. Your initial write-up should be brief and it should not be a blind copy of the
manual. You will lose all credits if you turn up without an initial preparation as specified above.

Set up your apparatus and complete all data collection on the first hour. Show the instructor that
the apparatus is properly set and that you are able to record data in correct manner. Get the raw
data signed by the instructor at the time of recording them. While leaving the lab, you must leave
behind all papers/records. Taking any record outside the lab is not permitted.

You must complete all calculations, graphical representations, error analysis and estimates,
etc. within the stipulated time. Insert the original sheets of recorded (raw) data that had been
signed by the instructor. A fair copy of data is not acceptable. Graphs should be drawn by hand
on graph sheets, if not instructed otherwise. Submit the complete report of your experiment by
the end of the experiment.

Note that your final report should include all: title-page, aim, theory, least counts,
observation tables, graph plots, calculations, error analysis and error estimates, final
results.

Scheme for evaluation:

End Semester Exam
Quiz 20
Day-to-day assessment
Working formula, schematic 5
Initial preparation 5
diagram, apparatus used
Observation 15
Observation 15
Calculation + Graph 10
Calculation 10
Error Analysis 5
Error Analysis 5
Results 2
Results 2
Analysis 3
Analysis 3
Total 40
Total 60

With Best Wishes

The Instructors,
January - May, 2025 session.

3
4
5
6
 Experiment No. 1
Statistics of Radioactive Decay

Objectives

1. To determine the statistical distribution law of radioactive decay events.

2. To determine the goodness of the fit by chi-square test.

Theory

Radioactive decay of a nucleus is a random process governed by the laws of quantum

mechanics. Thus we can talk about only the probability of a decay. Most radioactive
samples that are handled in the laboratory classes have long half-lives indicating that the
probability of decay is small. In this experiment the statistical distribution law of the decay
events will be found out employing the Geiger-Müller Counter. This experiment may be
divided into two parts as given below.

Counting Statistics: If N is the number of counts observed for a fixed duration of time, then
the distribution f(N) cannot be distinguished from a Gaussian distribution. f(N) can be
identified with the frequency of obtaining N counts for the same fixed duration of time.

Decay Statistics: This can be determined by observing the time sequence of the radioactive
decays. It can be shown that the probability distribution is given by

fn(τ) = ρ (ρτ)n–1 e–ρτ / (n–1)!

where n is the number of counts between which the time intervals τ are measured; for
example, n = 1 if the time interval between every count is measured. Here ρ is the mean
counts per unit time; the same time units are to be used for measuring τ.

In this experiment, you have to determine the Decay Statistics.

Procedure

1. Before switching on, make sure that all the knobs are set at minimum.
2. Place the given source (say Cs137) at 1 or 2 cm from the end window of the GM tube.
3. Increase slowly the EHT voltage supply to the GM tube and stop exactly when the
counter starts recording counting. Verify whether this voltage is a reasonable value of
starting voltage. If yes, proceed to the next step.
4. Continue to increase slowly the EHT voltage and set it to the operating voltage of the
given GM tube. The operating voltage may be around 550 V (verify!)
5. Set the Counting System in the “Acquisition Mode” and connect it to the DSO.
6. Observe the time sequence of events on the DSO.
7. Connect the DSO to the computer through the USB port.
8. Open the “NI Signal Express” program. Click “Next”, choose “TDS2000B”, and click
“finish”.

7
 GM tube

Insulator C
Scaler
Wire

Ar Gas Amplifier
Source
R

HV supply

Fig. 1.1: Schematics of the GM tube and the associated electronics

9. Click “Sync to Scope” and click “Run”.

10. In “Step setup” click “vertical” and set “Channel No.”, “Scale” at 1 V/div. (or mV/div),
“probe type” to voltage, “probe attenuation” at 1X, “position” at –3 or –3.5, “bandwidth”
full. Then click “horizontal” and set “scale” around 10 ms and “acquisition mode” to
sample.
11. Now click “data view”, drag the next icon (TDS2014B) to the window displaying a graph
sheet.
12. Time sequence of peaks will be observed on the graph sheet.
13. Click “stop” and record the data.
14. Click “run”. Click “stop”. (Alternatively, click “Run Once”.) Record the data once again
(in a separate table).
15. Repeat Step 11 many times until sufficient data is collected. From this data you should
be able to find fn(τ).
16. Plot histograms corresponding to fn(τ) for n = 1, 3.
17. Find the parameter(s) of the distributions fn(τ).
18. Superpose theoretical curves on the histograms.
19. Estimate the goodness of the fit for n = 3 by chi-square test.

Attention: Before leaving, decrease slowly the EHT voltage to zero; also set all other knobs
to minimum.

References

1. G. Knoll, Radiation Detection and Measurement, John Wiley, 1999.

2. K. S. Krane, Introductory Nuclear Physics, John Wiley, 1988.
3. W. Feller, An Introduction to Probability Theory and its Applications, vols. 1 and 2, John
Wiley.

8
 Experiment No. 2
Atomic Spectra
Objective

To determine the wavelengths of emission lines of an element employing a constant

deviation spectrometer

Background and Theory

The emission spectra of many elements, including hydrogen, has been observed and
experimented with for a long time since long before the advent of Quantum Mechanics.
Such measurements find applications in Astronomy, Astrophysics, Plasma Physics apart
from being of pure academic interest. It is of course known to everybody that without the
experimental study of atomic spectra the validity of Quantum Mechanics could not have
been tested in a straightforward way.

In this experiment a constant deviation spectrometer is used. This spectrometer has two
arms CP and PT fixed at right angles (see figure 2.1). One of the arms (CP) is fitted with a
collimator while the other (PT) with a telescope. At the junction P where the arms would
meet, a constant deviation prism is held at a proper orientation. The prism can be rotated
with the help of a drum. The collimator slit is illuminated with the desired light and the
resulting spectrum is observed through the telescope. The telescope eyepiece can be
displaced horizontally with a micrometer.

Fig. 2.1: Constant Deviation Spectrometer

The wavelengths of Sodium lines will be assumed known in this experiment. The
wavelengths of Hydrogen lines are to be determined with respect to the sodium lines. To do
this, first a sodium lamp is placed in front of the collimator slit and next the hydrogen
discharge tube is placed. To find wavelengths, Hartmann’s interpolation method can be
employed:
λi = A + B / (xi – C)

9
where xi is the position of the ith line with wavelength λi and A, B, C are constants. Three
known wavelengths can be used to evaluate the constants A, B, and C. This formula works
well when the unknown wavelengths fall within the three known wavelengths used above.

Procedure

1. Place the Sodium lamp in front of the collimator slit.

2. Rotate the prism and ensure that most lines of Sodium are visible.
3. Fix the prism so that the left part of the spectrum is in the field of view of the telescope.
4. Displace the eyepiece with the help of the micrometer screw and make the crosswire
coincident with one line. Note down the colour and the micrometer reading.
5. Without rotating the prism, displace the eyepiece crosswire to the next line. Note down
observations.
6. Repeat Step 5 until all lines in the field of view are exhausted.
7. Replace the Sodium light with the discharge tube provided.
8. Repeat observations as were done in Steps 4, 5, and 6 for the most prominent lines in
the longer wavelength side
9. Note that the prism must be fixed in the above steps as was initially set in Step 3.
10. Place the Sodium source again
11. Rotate the prism so that the next part of the spectrum is in the field of view.
12. Now keep the prism in this second fixed position repeat Steps 3 to 6.
13. Similarly, you can note down a third part of the spectra as well.
14. Use Hartmann’s interpolation method separately in different regions of the spectra.
Hence find the wavelengths of spectral lines.

Sodium Lines
VB (v.v.v. faint) 4494—4498 Å
B (v. faint) 4665—4669 Å G (bright) 5683—5688 Å
B (v.v. faint) 4748—4752 Å Y (D lines) 5890—5896 Å
G 4979—4983 Å R (bright) 6154—6161 Å
G (faint) 5149—5154 Å

Questions
1. What determines the resolution of the spectrometer?
2. Do you think the spectral lines are due to electric dipole transitions?

References

1. J. L. Powell and B. Crasemann, Quantum Mechanics, Narosa.

2. H. E. White, Introduction to Atomic Spectra, McGraw-Hill.

10
 Experiment No. 3
Faraday Effect
Objective
To study the Faraday effect and to determine the Verdet constant of the material for a given
wavelength of light

Principle: The Verdet constant is the proportionality constant between the angle of rotation
of the plane polarized light and the product of the path length through the sample and the
applied magnetic field , that is, or Verdet Constant, .

Fig. 3.1 : Experimental setup

Theory: The Faraday Effect is a widely used magneto-optical effect in which the plane of
polarization is rotated as it passes through a medium placed in a magnetic field. The
magnetic moment associated with the electron spin in the medium experiences a force trying
to align it along the DC magnetic field. This results in a precession of the spinning electrons
about the direction of the magnetic field. A linearly polarized light beam passing through the
medium parallel to the magnetic field can be considered to be comprising two opposite
circular polarizations. Owing to the precession of the magnetic moments each circular
polarization experiences a different magnetic permeability inside the medium. As a result the
two circular polarizations travel with different speeds and come out from the other side of
the medium with a phase difference. These two opposite circular polarizations when
recombined gives rise to a linear polarization rotated by a certain angle with respect to the
original polarization direction. The amount of rotation is proportional to the distance
travelled by the light through the medium and the strength of the magnetic field. Thus θ =
VlB. The proportionality constant V is called the Verdet constant. The strength of the
magnetic field is B = πNI, where N is the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid and
I the current through the solenoid.

11
 Fig. 3.2 : Rotation of the polarization plane
Procedure:
Arrange the components as shown in figure 3.1 above. Align the laser beam in order to pass
it through the axis of the solenoid containing the glass rod and the centre of the pin hole
detector. Rotate the polarizer to get the maximum transmitted light. Switch on the power
supply of the electro magnet. Increase the current through the solenoid at suitable intervals
(so that the change in polarization angle can be detected) starting with zero current. Now
rotate the lead screw of the analyzer in order to get a minimum intensity position and note
the corresponding readings from the dial of the analyzer (relative to the zero current
position). This is the angle of rotation . Perform the experiment for both the lasers (green
and red) and comment on your observations.

Fig. 3.3 : Verdet constant as a function of wavelength

Observations:
Number of turns in the solenoid = 2508
Length of the solenoid = 15 cm
Number of turns per unit length N = =
Length of the glass rod l = 10 cm

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Calculate the Least count (in minutes).

Magnetic Field
SI Current I Verdet Constant
No. (ampere) (minute)
(oersted)

Find the Verdet

constant by
plotting I vs 
and making a
least square fit.

Note that N is the number of turns per unit length

Result: Verdet constant of the substance = ............................... minute / oersted / cm

Reference

K. Iizuka, Elements of Photonics, Wiley-Interscience (2002)

13
 Experiment No. 4
Microwave Antenna
Objective
(a) To study the polarization properties of microwave using horn antennas.
(b) To find the wavelength of microwave radiation using Lloyd’s Mirror.
(c) To study diffraction of microwave using double slit.
Background
Horn antennas can produce a uniform wave front. Such antennas are not new; the Indian
physicist, Jagadish Chandra Bose, constructed a pyramidal horn antenna in 1897. In this
experiment, two pyramidal horns will be used — one functioning as the radiator (or
transmitter) while the other as detector (or receiver). Both the horns are mounted on
graduated rails (scales) and their position can be varied. The transmitter emits in the
microwave region. In this experiment various properties of microwaves will be studied.
Procedure for Polarization measurements
1. Set the rails holding the transmitter and receiver collinearly.
2. On the Gunn Power Supply Box, set the “Gunn Bias” high.
3. On the Microwave Receiver Box, set the “Gain” high.
4. Adjust the “Sensitivity” knobs so that a proper zero offset is made.
5. The settings at the transmitter and receiver knobs should be such that full scale (or large)
deflection can be observed on the meter connected with the receiver. Care should be
taken the zero offset is maintained. Check for zero offset after doing all adjustments.
6. Rotate the receiver about its “axis” in steps of 10o and note down the meter readings.
7. Plot a suitable graph with the above data.
8. Set the receiver so that it is in the same orientation as the transmitter (use above result).
9. Put the polarizer between the transmitter and receiver (so that the slits are inclined at 45o).
10. Repeat steps 6 and 7 above.
Procedure for Lloyd’s Mirror experiment
1. Set the transmitter and receiver arms collinearly and at the same distance from the centre.
2. Use the previous results to set the receiver and transmitter in the same orientation.
3. Set the third arm perpendicular to the transmitter and put the reflector on it.
4. Slide the reflector backward from the centre.
5. Record deflections and the corresponding positions of the reflector as it is moved in steps
of a few millimetres.
6. Draw suitable graph using the above data.
7. Find the wavelength of the microwave radiation from the above.
Procedure for Double slit diffraction measurements
1. Use the previous results to set the receiver and transmitter in the same orientation.
2. Put the double slit arrangement between the transmitter and receiver.
3. Measure the slit widths with a scale.
4. Note down the meter reading when the receiver arm is collinear with the transmitter arm.
5. Rotate the receiver arm in steps of 1o or 2o and note down the corresponding deflections.
6. Plot a suitable graph to see the diffraction pattern.
7. From the above, find the wavelength of the microwave radiation.
References
1. J. D. Kraus, Antennas, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2nd edition, New Delhi.
2. D. M. Pozar, Microwave Engineering, John Wiley, 3rd edition,

14
 Experiment No. 5
Solar Cell
The experiment consists three parts
Objectives
(a) To demonstrate the I-V and P-V characteristics of PV module with varying radiation and
temperature level.
(b) To demonstrate the I-V and P-V characteristics of series and parallel combination of PV
modules.

Theory: Part (a)

PV module is characterized by its I-V and P-V characteristics. At a particular solar insolation
and temperature, module characteristic curves are shown in Fig. 5.1 and 5.2 respectively.

Fig. 5.1: I-V characteristic of PV module

Fig. 5.2: P-V characteristic of PV module

Characteristic curves of solar cell

In I-V characteristic maximum current at zero voltage is the short circuit current (Isc) which
can be measured by shorting the PV module and maximum voltage at zero current is the
open circuit voltage (Voc). In P-V curve the maximum power is achieved only at a single
point which is called MPP (maximum power point) and the voltage and current
corresponding to this point are referred as Vmp and Imp. On increasing the temperature,
Voc of module decreases as shown in Fig. 5.3, while Isc remains the same which in turn
reduces the power. For most crystalline silicon solar cells modules the reduction is about
0.50%/°C.

15
 Fig. 5.3: Variation in VOC with change in temperature

On changing the solar insolation Isc of the module increases while the Voc increases very
slightly as shown in Fig. 5.4

Fig. 5.4: Variation in I-V characteristic with insolation

Fill factor:
The Fill Factor (FF) is essentially a measure of quality of the solar cell. It is the ratio of the
actual achievable maximum power to the theoretical maximum power (PT) that would be
achieved with open circuit voltage and short circuit current together. FF can also be
interpreted graphically as the ratio of the rectangular areas depicted in Fig.5.5. A larger fill
factor is desirable, and corresponds to an I-V sweep that is more square-like. Typical fill
factors range from 0.5 to 0.82. Fill factor is also often represented as a percentage.

16
 Fig. 5.5: Graphical interpretation of the Fill factor (FF)

Experimental set-up
The circuit diagram to evaluate I-V and P-V characteristics of a module is shown in Fig.5.6.
Form a PV system which includes PV module and a variable resistor (pot meter) with
ammeter and voltmeter for measurement. Pot meter in this circuit works as a variable load for
the module. When load on the module is varied by pot meter the current and voltage of the
module gets changed which shift the operating point on I-V and P-V characteristics.

Fig. 5.6: Circuit diagram for evaluation of I-V and P-V characteristics

Observations:
Table for I-V and P-V characteristics of PV module :

17
Take 3 sets of data for different radiation and temperature levels but in one set the values of
radiation and temperature will be constant.
Theory: Part (b)

PV module is characterized by its I-V and P-V characteristics. At a particular level of solar
insolation and temperature it will show a unique I-V and P-V characteristics. These
characteristics can be altered as per requirement by connecting both modules in series or
parallel to get higher voltage or higher current as shown in Fig. 5.7 and 5.8 respectively.
Therefore, if modules are connected in series then power reduction is twice when connected
in parallel. On changing the solar insolation, Isc of the module increases while the Voc
increases very slightly, therefore there is overall power increase. In parallel connection power
increment is twice than when connected in series. On increasing the temperature, Voc of
modules decrease while Isc remains same which in turn reduces the power.

Fig. 5.7: I-V characteristic of

series connected modules

Fig. 5.8: I-V characteristic of

parallel connected modules

Experimental set-up
Form a PV system with modules in either series or parallel and a variable resistor (Pot meter)
with ammeter and voltmeter for measurement. Modules in series or parallel are connected to
variable load (pot meter). The effect of load change on output voltage and current of the
modules connected in series or parallel can be seen by varying load resistance (pot meter).

18
Observations:
Table for I-V and P-V characteristics of PV modules in series:

Table for I-V and P-V characteristics of PV modules in parallel:

19
 Experiment No. 6
Zeeman Effect

Objective: To verify the ratio of the Bohr magneton and the fundamental constant hc using
Zeeman effect.

Apparatus:
 Electromagnet with power supply
 Mercury discharge tube with power supply
 IR filter, Green filter, polarizer
 Fabry-Perot etalon, CCD camera

Theory: Zeeman Effect is the phenomenon of splitting of energy levels of an atom in the
presence of an external magnetic field. The spectral term associated with an energy level is
denoted by 2S+1LJ, where L, S and J are the respective orbital angular momentum, spin
angular momentum and the total angular momentum quantum numbers. In the presence of a
magnetic field (B), the magnetic moment J associated with J will have number of
orientations represented by the quantum number mJ, where mJ = J, J-1,…….., -J+1, -J.
Different orientations of the magnetic dipole in the field B correspond to different potential
energies, so that the shift in energy of a particular mJ level is given by

E=gJ mJ B B (1)

Where is the Lande g factor, and

B=Bohr magneton= .

Figure 6.1

20
The selection rule for allowed transition is given by . When viewed
perpendicular to the magnetic field, the radiation due to transition (-components)
are plane polarized parallel to B while the radiation due to transitions (-
components) are plane polarized perpendicular to the magnetic field.
If g1 and g2 are the g factors of the lower and upper energy levels, respectively, then the
energy shift (relative to the original line) of a -component corresponding to a given mJ is

E(mJ) =(g2-g1) mJ B B (2)

Considering two -components corresponding to mJ and -mJ

E(mJ)+ E(-mJ) =2(g2-g1) mJ B B (3)

Writing the energy shift in the wave number unit

(mJ)+ (-mJ)= 2(g2-g1) mJ B B/(hc) (4)

Hence the ratio

B /(hc)= {(mJ)+ (-mJ)}/{ 2(g2-g1) mJ B} (5)

Thus measuring the wave number shifts for the two -components, the ratio of the
fundamental constant can be obtained as g1, g2, mJ and B are known.

Figure 6.2
The experimental setup:
In this experiment the Zeeman splitting of the 546.1 nm line due to 73S1 63P2
transition of mercury is considered. The transitions in the absence of and in the presence B
are shown in figure 6.1. The filters in the set up as in figure 6.3 ensure that light around
546.1 nm only enters the Fabry-Perot etalon. Using the polarizer it can further be ensured
that only light with polarization parallel to B (i.e. -components) is considered. Transmitted
light through the etalon are focused by a lens onto the camera. If the plates of the etalon are

21
properly aligned and B=0, circular fringes as in figure 6.2 (a) will be seen in the camera
image.
The radius of the circular fringes m, m+1, m+2, etc can be measured from the CCD image by
knowing the dimension of one CCD pixel (=2.75 m). If n2=m+n2-m2 , the thickness of the
etalon, t, is given by

t = nD2/n2 (6)

where D=65 mm is the separation between camera and etalon.

As the magnetic field increases from 0, each circular fringe will split into three. As seen in
figure 6.2 (b) three rings corresponding to each order are having square of the radii as a, b,
and c. Defining ab=b-a and <ab> as the mean over all the orders in the field of view and
<> as the mean of 12, 23, 34, where mn is difference between square of the radii of nth
order circular fringe and mth order circular fringe, the wave number separation corresponding
to a and c can be written as
  ab 
 ab  (7)
2t   
Similarly,
  bc 
 bc  (8)
2t   
Therefore, using equation (5) and for the given transition 73S1 63P2
B
 ( bc   bc ) / B (9)
hc
Thus the ratio of the fundamental constants can be verified.

Procedure:
Magnetic Field Calibration

Calibration table is provided.

Experiment set up:

Figure 6.3
Replace the gauss meter probe with mercury lamp. Place the Zeeman Effect Experimental
setup as shown in the above figure. Install the USB camera driver software and Image

22
analysis software in the computer. Plug in the camera probe to USB port. Now we can see
the fringes of the etalon in the monitor. Fine tune of the etalon in order to get better results
(Caution: Care should be taken while tuning the etalon. It is not an easy job to make the
plates of the etalon exactly parallel. If the fringes are not perfect, we can’t observe Zeeman
splitting clearly).

For taking photographs, we can find out a camera icon on the task bar of the monitor.
Right click the mouse and select ‘snap shot’. Save the image of zero magnetic fields as
Z0 (say). Switch on the electromagnet power supply and increase the current. Rotate
the polarizer in order to get only two transitions on a single line. Take photographs
with various current and save it in the computer.

Thickness of the Etalon

For finding the thickness of the etalon we measure the radius of the circular fringes. Open the
image of zero magnetic field with the image analysis software ‘Image J’ {File: open (file
name)}. Select ‘\’. Measure the length of the fringe by dragging the mouse. Note that the line
should be exactly straight. We can take the reading from the top menu of the software
window. The radius of the first circular fringe is taken as and the following as
etc. These values are in pixels. Convert the values in to standard units.

The distance between the etalon and the camera as D. Here, D = 65 mm = 0.65 m.

=
Si. No. D (meter)

Mean ‘t’ = Thickness of the Etalon t =..............................................

Zeeman Effect

Apply magnetic field with different

current. Take the photographs for
different currents. Open the photographs
with Image analysis software and take the
measurements.

(
Ring No. Average
a b c
1

23
 2

4
Average

Where < > is the average of the values, ‘t’ is the thickness of the Etalon.
By putting in the above equation, we can also find . From the above discussion, we
know that,

This comparable to the expected value of , . The

experiment can be repeated for various values of currents and can take average value.

Fundamental constants:

Bohr magneton ( ) = 9.27400915 Joule/Gauss

Planks constant (h) = 6.62606896 x 10-34 Joule- Sec
Velocity of light (c) = 3 cm/Sec

From experiment, =........................................

= 4.6654 3
Percentage of Error =......................................
References:
1. “The Physics of atoms and quanta”, Haken and Wolf
2. “Introduction to atomic spectra”, H E White
3. “Optics”, E Hecht.

24
 Experiment No. 7
X-ray
(Do not operate the instrument without the presence of the lab demonstrator)

PART A: Moseley’s law and the Rydberg constant

1. Analyse the copper X-radiation with the aid of a LiF monocrystal and as a function of the
Bragg angle without and with several K edge absorption samples as absorbers.
Determine the K absorption edges of different absorbers based on the spectra.
2. Calculate the Rydberg constant and the screening constant based on the energy values of
the K absorption edges.

Principle
Samples of various thicknesses are irradiated with the polychromatic X-rays of a copper X-
ray tube. The radiation that passes through the samples is analysed with the aid of a
monocrystal. The Rydberg constant is calculated based on the glancing angles of the
absorption edges.

Theory
When X-rays interacts with matter, they lose energy due to Compton scattering, pair
production, and photoelectric effects. The respective strengths of these three effects depend
on the energy of the radiation. In the range of energy in this experiment, the photoelectric
effect plays the most important role. The cause of the irregularity that is known as “edge
absorption” is the photoelectric effect. The binding energy En of an electron in the nth shell
is approximately:
m e4 1
E n   e2 2 (Z   )2 2 (1)
80 h n
where  = screening constant, n is the principal quantum number. Equation 1 can be written
in terms of Rydberg constant R as
En = – R (Z – σ)2 / n2 (2)

For electrons in the K shell (n=1),   1. Using Bragg equation 2dsin   n , with n=1 and
E = hc/λ gives the edge absorption E = (hc)/(2d sin θ). Thus from equation (2), we have

Z = (E/R)1/2 + σ (3)

Setup: Take help of your demonstrator to connect the goniometer if not connected already.
Preparation of samples: At least four samples are already prepared

Settings of the goniometer and X-ray unit:

 2:1 coupling mode
 Scanning range: 4°-21°
 Angle step width 0.1°
 Anode voltage UA = 35 kV; anode current IA = 1 mA

Recording without an absorber: Gate time 2s

Recording with a K edge absorber: Gate time 4s

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Procedure

1. Connect the X-ray unit via USB cable to the USB port of your computer
2. Start the “measure” program. A virtual X-ray unit will be displayed on the screen.
3. You can control the X-ray unit by clicking the various features on and under the
virtual X-ray unit. Alternatively, you can also change the parameters at the real X-ray
unit. The program will automatically adopt the settings.
4. Click the experiment chamber to change the parameters for the experiment. Select the
settings as shown in the overview for the various experiments.
5. For the recording, use the diaphragm tube with a diameter of 2 mm.
6. If you click the X-ray tube you can change the voltage and current of the X-ray tube.
7. Start the measurement by clicking the red circle.

Observations

1. Record the characteristic spectrum of Cu using the LiF crystal without absorber
2. Record the characteristic spectrum of Cu using the LiF crystal with the given
absorbers
3. Identify the K absorption edges
4. Determine the edge absorption energy E. For LiF, interplanar spacing d = 201.4 pm.
5. Present your result in the following tabular form

Element Atomic number (Z) exp (in degrees) K Edge energy E

in keV

6. Make a plot of Z vs E , which should follow a straight line.

7. Determine R (in eV) and  from the plot (via least square fit).



Fig. 7.1: Diaphragm and the goniometer setup

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 PART B: Structural analysis using Laue method

Objectives
1. Take a photograph of the Laue pattern of a LiF monocrystal.
2. Assign the Laue reflections to the lattice planes of the crystal.

Principle
Laue diagrams are produced when mono-crystals are irradiated with polychromatic X-rays.
This method is primarily used for the determination of crystal symmetries and the orientation
of crystals. When a LiF mono-crystal is irradiated with polychromatic X-rays, a characteristic
diffraction pattern results in. This pattern is photographed and then evaluated.

Theory
Laue diagrams are produced when mono-crystals are irradiated with polychromatic X-rays.
This method is used mainly for the determination of crystal symmetries and the orientation of
crystals. A complete analysis of the diagrams is only possible with simple crystal structures.
A necessary, although insufficient, condition for the constructive reflection at the various
lattice planes is the Bragg condition:
2dsin   n (4)

(d = inter-planar spacing, θ = glancing angle, λ = wavelength, and n = 1, 2, 3, ...)



Fig. 7.2

With the lattice constant a of a cubic crystal, the following is valid for the spacing d(hkl)
between the individual lattice planes:
a
d(hkl)  (5)
h  k 2  l2
2


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 Fig. 7.3
If L is the distance between a reflection and the centre of the Laue pattern, and D the distance
between the film and the sample (Fig. 7.2), then the glancing angle θexp that is determined in
an experimental manner is:
1 L
exp  arctan ; L  x 2  y 2 (6)
2 D
y and z are the distances of the reflection in a system of rectangular coordinates with its
origin in the centre of the pattern.
If the X-ray beam coincides with a certain crystallographic direction [h*,k*,l*] (here, the

[100] direction) and if it impinges on a crystal plane (h,k,l), then the angle of incidence α is
determined by the scalar product of the normal vector of the plane and the incident vector.

hh*  kk*  ll *
cos  (7)
(h 2  k 2  l 2 ){(h* ) 2  (k * ) 2  (l* ) 2 )

Then, the following is valid for the glancing angle: θcal = 90° – α.
According to the addition theorem and with (h*,k*,l*) = (100), it follows from (7) that:
 h
sin   (8)
h  k 2  l2
2

Task 1: Take a photograph of the Laue pattern of a LiF monocrystal

If the diffraction patternis rotated by 90° around the direction of the primary beam, it is
again brought to coincidence. Since the primary beam impinges perpendicularly on the
(100)-plane of the LiF crystal, the crystal direction [100] is a four fold axis of symmetry. The
intensity of the reflections depends on the reflecting crystal surface as well as on the spectral
intensity distribution of the X-rays.

Task 2: Assign the Laue reflections to the lattice planes of the crystal

The glancing angle θcal is calculated from (8) for all of the planes with low (h,k,l) indices.
The angle θexp is determined using (6) based on the diagram. The assignment of the
reflections to the lattice planes is found when the angles coincide (θcal = θexp) and when the
condition k/l = y/z is fulfilled, with z and y being the coordinates of the reflections.

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Present your result in the following tabular form:

Spot y (mm) z (mm) L (mm) exp (h k l) cal k/l y/z

No. (in deg) (in deg)

Taking a Laue photograph with the aid of self-developing X-ray film

A monocrystal X-ray structure analysis can be performed with the aid of self developing X-
ray films in combination with the XR 4.0 expert unit. The Cu X-ray tube takes only about10-
12 minutes.

X ray unit settings for the Cu X-ray plug-in unit

Tube voltage: 35 kV
Beam current: 1 mA
Diaphragm: 1 mm
Exposure time: 25 minutes
Position of the screen: To be determined with the aid of the mm scale on the optical bench.

The X-ray film is not positioned centrally in front of the crystal. Instead, it is offset, since
only a quadrant of the diagram is sufficient for the evaluation. As far as the development of
the film is concerned, please refer to the instructions for use that are enclosed with the films.
We recommend developing the film for 2 minutes instead of only 50 seconds. It is very
important to hold the developed film under flowing water once it has been taken out of the
wrap. Do not wipe the film with towels. Only let it air-dry.

Procedure
Insert the diaphragm tube with a diameter of 1 mm into the beam outlet of the X-ray
plug-in unit. Add the crystal holder for Laue patterns. Install the LiF crystal with its two
pins in the holder so that the rounded sides of the crystal holder face the X-ray tube.
Position the film and confirm that the holder is firmly closed. Fix the holder into the
holder of the fluorescent screen and position it on the internal optical bench at a distance
D = 1.5-2 cm from the crystal. The precise determination of this distance is very important
for the subsequent evaluation. The film plane should be parallel to the crystal surface.
The X-ray tube is used at maximum power (anode voltage UA = 35 kV, anode current IA
= 1 mA). In the case of a tungsten tube, the exposure time is 15-30 minutes. It can be set
and activated as follows:
1. Select the tube operating parameters and confirm them with “Enter”.
2. Under “Menu”, select “Timer” → “Duration”. Set the desired time with the aid of
the arrow buttons. Confirm with “Enter”.
3. The window “Mode” appears. Select “On” and confirm with “Enter”.
4. To start the experiment, close and lock the sliding door and press the button under
“Start”.
The irradiation starts. It will stop automatically after the preset exposure time. On the
display, the remaining time can be observed based on a backwards running clock and a
display bar.

………………..………………………Best Wishes……………………………………………

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