Unit II: Properties Of Matter

Chapter 3 – Atomic Structure & Theories

Early History of Atomic Theories: atom indvisible
 Democritus (400 B.C.):
 developed first idea of atom  all matter is made of tiny, indivisible particles.
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 Antoine Lavoisier:
matter dust fire water air
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 developed Law of Conservation of Mass chemical reaction does not result in a gain or loss in
mass.
Massisneitherdestroyed nor createdbutit canbechangedfromone formto another
 Joseph Proust:
 developed Law of Constant Composition "percent composition by mass in compounds
never changes”.

 John Dalton: developed Atomic Theory of Matter: (Billiard Ball Model)
 Matter is made of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
 Atoms of a particular element are identical.
 Atoms of different elements have different properties.
 Atoms of different elements combine in whole number ratios to form compounds.
 In chemical reactions, atoms cannot be created or destroyed.
 Dalton’s model atom is a solid simple sphere.

 J.J. Thomson: (Raisin bun “Plum pudding” Model)

 discovered electrons as a part of the atom.
 electrons are embedded in a uniform positively charged sphere, like
blueberries in a muffin.
 Number of electrons neutralizes the +ve charge in the atom.
 Thomson’s model blueberry Muffin Model

 Ernest Rutherford: “Nuclear Model”

 Rutherford [Gold Foil] Experiment: using positively charged alpha particles fired at a thin
gold foil (surrounded by a fluorescent screen), he concluded:

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 Atoms are mostly empty space, with a small, dense core nucleus
 Nucleus carries a positive charge & has most of the mass of the atom.
 Nucleus is surrounded by fast-moving electrons found outside the nucleus.
4  Electrons rotate around the nucleus in definite orbits, why
 The central electrical attraction forces = the centrifugal repulsive forces due to rotation. CfR repulsion
fentrifugas
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centrifugalforce thetendencyof arotatingobjecttoberepelledaway ggya.ee
from the centre
  Contradictions of Rutherford’s model:
 Maxwell’s Theory: “Any charged rotating body, must lose parts of its energy in the form of
radiation”
 By applying this theory on the rotating electrons, it should lose parts of it Rq R
energy in the form of radiation, so its path should be going to be narrower

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and narrower till it finally fall in the nucleus and the whole atomic system is e’
finished, which is not practically occurring”.

 Neils Bohr: “The Solar System/ planetary Model”
 Used Planck’s work to improve on problems with Rutherford’s model (according to Rutherford’s
model, e- should constantly emit electromagnetic radiation as they orbit the nucleus and
therefore lose energy and collapse the atom.
 3 parts to Bohr’s theory:
-
1. Electrons are found in very specific energy levels, called orbits or shells. When an e is in its
proper orbit, no energy is emitted. [Maxwell’s theory is applied only on relatively large bodies, not
applied on electrons] Reconciledbetween Maxwell Rutherford
2. Energy is only emitted when e - falls from a higher orbit to a lower orbit. When the e- absorbs a
quantum of energy, it is bumped to a higher orbit  when it loses that quantum of energy,
it falls to its normal orbit & emits light of a specific wavelength.
- -
3. Angular momentum of e orbiting the nucleus is quantized. As the e moves away from
-
nucleus, the potential energy (Ep) of e .
 Bohr’s model solar system model.
 when e- is closest to the nucleus (lowest Ep), atom is in the ground state.
 atom is in the excited state when an e- absorbs energy & moves to a higher level.
 when e- falls back to ground state, it emits radiant energy.

Excited e’
(Absorption unstable

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Atomic Number:
 H.G.J. Moseley:
 proposed an increase in positive charge of nucleus is due to an i nc r e a s e in # of protons in the
nucleus.
 atomic # of an element is equal to the # of protons in an atom. Chemical properties of an atom are
determined by atomic #.

 James Chadwick:
 discovered the neutron by bombarding beryllium with alpha particles  a neutrally charged
particle with a mass equal to a proton.
 measured masses of nuclei, but they never equalled the sum of protons for the element

2
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 Isaac Newton:
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 said that white light is actually a mixture of colours, & that each colour of light is bent at different
angles by a prism (ex. a rainbow).
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 Spectroscope measures light wavelengths this info is used to analyze light patterns emitted by
energized atoms, therefore we can understand how electrons are positioned around the
nucleus.

 Line Spectrum (characteristic spectrum):

 spectrum of lines produced by an element  they are unique for each element.

 Max Planck Quantum Theory:

 Said that radiant energy (light & heat) is not emitted continuously, but in small
packages called quanta.
 The atoms could only emit or absorb a specific amount of energy at one time, and this
amount of energy is related to the frequency of the radiation:

E = energy (joules)
-1
E = h.
f / v = frequency (s )  Hertz
speedfight
C=.λ
: (new) frequency, λ: (lambda) Wave2s
length
KIF
.
h = fundamental constant of nature = 6.626 x 10 J s plank's
-34
constant
 key to Planck’s work  atoms do not start to vibrate until a specific amount of energy
is absorbed.
 once absorbed, atoms start to vibrate with a specific amplitude.  also, the amplitude
does not slowly  as more energy is absorbed, but will suddenly change when
double the original energy has been absorbed.
 ex. UV vs. infrared light

modern atomictheory
Bohr’s model defects: Wave mechanics model
- It considered electrons as particles only neglecting - Dual nature of electrons; [De Broglie]
their wave properties.
Electron has: Matter nature + wave properties

- It suggested that it is possible to determine both - Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle;

velocity and location of the electron around the
“It is impossible” to determine both velocity and
nucleus at the same time.

B
location of the electron around nucleus
simultaneously, but it depends on probability.

- It considered the hydrogen atom as planar shaped, - Schrödinger’s wave equation;

but it was found later that it has 3-D structure.
He derived an equation describing the path of the
electron around the nucleus, and he found that
orbit 153,80B “electron cloud/Orbital” is the best to describe the
orbital electron movement around the nucleus.
 Electron cloud/Orbital; the 3-D area
around the nucleus in which the electron
may exist.


Bohr mechanics
Concepts: Orbit & Orbital
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ORBIT
ORBITALS 3

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4
Electron Population:
 lowest energy levels are filled first.
 problem with Bohr’s model occurs with elements with atomic number greater than 20,
therefore, need a new model.
 Quantum (Wave Mechanical) Model:

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  keeps idea of quantized energy states but gets rid of fixed orbits.  atom is now a positive
charged nucleus with pulsating e- waves.
 e- are found in areas called orbitals where e- possibly exist over time.  exact position of the
e- is a probability only.

Energy Sub-levels:
 each e- in any given atom has a different amount of energy.
 evidence suggests that there are different sub-levels within each orbital the # of energy
sub-level within any orbital is equal to the principle quantum number (n).
 the sublevels are labelled s, p, d, f s has the lowest energy & f has the highest.
 ex. the 1st energy has one sub-level (s). The 2nd energy level has two sub-levels (s, p)
 total # of orbitals available in a given energy level = n2.
 each orbital can contain a maximum of 2 e-, therefore, maximum # of e- in any given energy
level = 2n2.

 Quantum Numbers:
 a set of 4 integers that are used to define the location of the e - in 3-D space.
-
 Pauli Exclusion Principle: no 2 e can have the same set of quantum numbers.  quantum numbers
are represented by integers n, l, ml , ms  all 4 numbers are interrelated.
 Principle Quantum Number (n):
 indicates principle energy level of e-  determines total energy of e- & average distance from
nucleus.
 also equal to the number of different types of orbitals in each energy level.
 ex. n = 3, 3 types of orbitals s, p, d
 Angular-Momentum (subsidiary) Quantum Number ( l ):
 determines shape of orbital.
4
 l assumes whole numbers (0 to n-1)
 if n = 1, l = 0 only one sub-level (s)
 if n = 2, l = 0, 1 e- can be in s or p orbital.
 Magnetic Quantum Number (ml):
 determines spatial orientation of orbitals. a e in
 for each value of l, ml may equal –l to +l ex. if l = 1, ml = -1, 0, +1 (this suggests there are three
orbitals with the same energy and shape, but differ only in their orientation in space).
 Spin Quantum Numbers (ms):
 distinguishes the oppositely spinning e- found in any orbital.

6
 -
 e can spin only in 2 directions, therefore, ms may only equal +½ (clockwise spin) or
-½ (counter clockwise spin).
 remember, atoms of each element have a unique set of quantum numbers.

 Pauli Exclusion Principle:

 states that orbitals can only contain a maximum of 2 e -, each with an opposite spin
(i.e. a unique set of quantum numbers).
 because of this, energy levels have a maximum e - population.

 Sample Problems
1. Name the orbitals described by the following quantum numbers using the energy level number
and the orbital shape (ex. 4s).
a. n = 2, l = 0: __________ b. n = 3, l = 2: ____________
c. n = 2, l = 1: __________
2. Give the n and (l ) values for the following orbitals:
a. 1s: __________ b. 3p: __________
c. 4d: __________

3. What are the possible ml values for the p sublevel?

a. Therefore, how many orbitals are present in the p sublevel?

b. If each orbital can hold 2e-, how many e- can the p sublevel hold?

4. How many possible sublevels are there for n = 2?

a. How many orbitals are present in n = 2?

b. How many electrons can n = 2 hold?

 Electron Distribution in Orbitals:

- the way electrons are distributed in an atom can be represented by an energy level diagram
or e- configuration

 Rules for drawing energy level diagrams:

1. Pauli exclusion principle – no two e- in an atom can have the same 4 quantum numbers
_thT
(place one e- with ↑ and the other e- with ↓ to indicate opposite spin)

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2. Aufbau principle – electrons occupy energy sublevels according to increasing of energy.
The lowest energy sublevel is filled first. That's why the 4s sublevel should be filled before the
3d sublevel.
3. Hund’s principle – one electron is placed into each of the orbitals before doubling up any
pairs of electrons
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 HY QUANTUM NUMBERS WORKSHEET 1

1. State the four quantum numbers, what they represent, and the possible values they may
have.
subsidiary on magnetic Qn spin Qin
PrincipalQ
I Means Energylevels sublevels orbitals é spin
2 symbol n l

F Numbers 12,3 y 5 0 EI.de z lto tl

6
2. Name the orbitals described by the following quantum numbers using the energy level
number and orbital shape (ex. 1s orbital).

a. n = 3, l = 0 _______________________
b. n = 3, l = 1 _______________________
c. n = 4, l = 3 _______________________
d. n = 5, l = 0 _______________________

3. Give the n and l values for the following orbitals:

a. 1s _______________________
b. 3s _______________________
c. 2p _______________________
d. 4d _______________________
e. 5f _______________________

4. What are the possible ml values for the following types of orbitals?

a. s _______________________
b. p _______________________
c. d _______________________
d. f _______________________
5. Therefore, how many orbitals are present in each sublevel above? Also provide a sketch of
what this would look like (using circles as orbitals).
t
how many e's
a. s _______________________ _______________________
b. p _______________________ _______________________
c. d _______________________ _______________________
d. f _______________________ _______________________

6. How many possible sublevels are there for n = 4 and what are their shapes?

a. How many orbitals are present in each of these sublevels? Show how you arrived at
this answer.

b. How many electrons (total) can each sublevel hold? (Remember how many electrons
can be held in one orbital!)

c. How many electrons can inhabit the n = 4 energy level (total)?

7. Tabulate all possible orbitals by name (i.e. 4s) for n = 3 and give the three quantum numbers
which define each orbital. Note, there may be more than one ml value for each orbital.
 QUANTUM NUMBERS WORKSHEET 2

1. Write the quantum numbers associated with each of the following:

a. the fifth principle energy level ______________________________

b. the 6s sublevel ______________________________
c. an orbital in the 3d sublevel ______________________________
d. the first electron added to the 4f sublevel ______________________________

2. Indicate the maximum number of electrons in an atom that can have as the following as part of
their set of 4 quantum numbers. (Hint – Some may not be possible).

a. n = 3 _________ f. n = 7, l = 2 _________
b. n = 2, l = 1 _________ g. n = 4, l = 2 _________
c. n = 4, l = 3, ml = 2 _________ h. n = 2, l = 2 _________
d. n = 6, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = +1/2 _____ i. n = 4, l = 3, ml = -1, ms = +1/2 ____
e. n = 4, l = 2, ml = -3 _________ j. n = 3, l = 1, ml = +2 _________

3. With reference to quantum numbers, explain why the 4f sublevel can hold a maximum of 14
electrons.

4. Name the orbitals described by the following quantum numbers (ex. n = 2, l = 1 is 2p).

a. n = 3, l = 0 _________ d. n = 5, l = 0 _________
b. n = 3, l = 2 _________ e. n = 3, l = 1 _________
c. n = 3, l = 3 _________ f. n = 5, l = 4 _________
5. How many orbitals are present in each of the following?

a. 5p _________ d. 4d _________
b. 3s _________ e. n = 3 _________
c. n = 4 _________ f. 4f _________
6. If each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons, how many electrons can each of the
following hold?

a. 2s _________ d. 3d _________
b. 5p _________ e. 4d _________
c. 4f _________ f. 2p _________

7. State whether the following sets of quantum numbers are possible, or not possible.

a. n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = +1/2 _________________________
one S
b. n = 4, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = +1/2 _________________________
c. n = 3, l = 3, ml = -3, ms = -1/2 _________________________
d. n = 2, l = 1, ml = 1, ms = -1/2 _________________________
e. n = 2, l = 1, ml = 2, ms = +1/2 _________________________

8. Indicate whether the following statements are true or false.

a. The n = 3 energy level has no f orbitals. _________

b. The 2p orbitals can have a maximum of 6 electrons. _________
c. The s orbital has a spherical shape. _________
d. The n = 4 energy level has three sublevels. _________

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 Anelectronpreferstopairin samesublevel
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- the following order is followed when filling orbitals:

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block
f
- ex. Nitrogen (Atomic #7)

energy level diagram =     

1 1s2 2s2 2p3 25 2P
 Sample Problems 35 T.E.is 3P
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1. Draw the energy level diagram for an atom of oxygen.

80 15325,2 4 yd
767 7 n 55 5p
4f 54 6P
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as 5f 6d 7P
2. Draw the energy level diagram for an atom of iron.Explainthe
iii 4quantum oflasté
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State the 4 quantum numbers that describe the location of the last electron added to
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5s 5p

6s 6p

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 The Periodic Table and Auf Bau Principle:

81
I 2 3 4 5

3p6
4
5
57
5

Cns ns 2 n 1 d 10 ns apr 8 npb

473 n
2
n 1d n 2 f 14
Lanthanides
same properties RareEarthelements
Actinides
Artificialradioactiveelements
Main group Reactive inert
onlyhighest E L.is incomplete
main a less
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highest
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3rd T.s.LI
highest'sEL'sincomplete

Lanthanides 47 Rare EarthElements identical

Actinides 15ft Radioactives synthetic

9
 Electron Energy Diagrams:
Ex: Ca Br:
35
4p5
3d
4s 4s

3p 3p

3s 3s

2p 2p

2s 2s

1s 1s

 Energy Level Diagrams for Anions:

- use the same method as drawing atoms, except add the extra electrons
corresponding to the ion charge to the total number of electrons

 Sample Problem
Draw the energy level diagram for the sulfide ion.

165 is 2s 2p0,3s 3P CAR

Energy Level Diagrams for Cations

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- must draw the energy level diagram for the neutral atom first, then remove the
number of electrons that correspond to the ion charge from the orbitals with the
highest principle quantum number, n

Sample Problem
Draw the energy level diagram for theFeet

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zinc ion.

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Electron Configurations
- provide the same information as the energy level diagrams, but in a more
concise format
- each orbital must be identified with a principle quantum number. - # of e- in each
orbital is written as a superscript.
- ex. 3s2
2P
ex. Nitrogen (Atomic # 7) electron configuration = 1s22s2p3
I
10
  Sample Problem
Write the electron configuration for the chlorine atom.

- starting with potassium, all Group IA and IIA elements will fill the outer s orbital before
filling the lower d orbitals  these s orbitals have slightly lower energy levels.
- exception to rule  chromium and copper  it appears that in some cases, atoms
achieve a lower, more stable energy configuration when d orbitals are all half-filled than
when the orbitals are empty, therefore, these orbitals “borrow” e- from higher s orbitals.
- similarities in chemicals and physical properties reflect similarities in e -configurations.
- complete s & p orbitals reflect stability.
- chemical behaviour is due to e- configuration of valence levels.

 Orbital Blocks of the Periodic Table:

 periodic table can be broken down into 4 blocks  s block, p block, d block and f block.
 there is a relationship between e - config. & position of element in Periodic Table
 ex. Osmium (Atomic #76)
 after lanthanides, therefore, 4f orbitals are filled.
 6th element in 5d block, therefore, has 6 e- in 5d orbital.
 3 highest sub-levels have config. of 6s24f145d6  all lower elements are filled
 therefore, electron configuration for Osmium is written as:

70s I 1s2,2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d6

 Electron Configuration of Ions: Effe

 many simple positive and negative ions are isoelectronic with noble gases.
 ex. Ne & Na+, Cl- & Ar
 the easiest e- to remove are the ones with the highest quantum number
 ex. write electron configuration. for each of the following:
1 . Ti 525,276,3 38 45,302
2. Ti2+ 15,252,286,355316
8,312
 can now explain multiple valences of some metallic ions:

Rising Idt
1. Fe2+ & Fe3+
i3p94 3d CAS
ii and.si 3pt 4 3d5
qi.zszp6yi.sp6 usisd'ftp.if
yfIf fffffffy
2. Pb2+& Pb4+

Pd rs 2p6 ss 3p6.45sd 4P
sfdf5pt6 dI__fz
tef
Shorthand (abbreviated) Electron Configuration:
- an element is expressed as the preceding noble gas, and electrons are added beyond this
point
- ex. Cl = 1s1 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 becomes Cl = [Ne] 3s2 3p5
Ines
 Sample Problem
1. Write the shorthand electron configuration for the strontium atom.
Sr C 55

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11
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2. Write the shorthand electron configuration for the lead atom and the lead (II) ion.

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Wave Mechanical Model of Atom:
Fefmency
Matter Waves: target.to Energy
 Louis de Broglie: matter has both wave and particle characteristics.
 every particle is associated with a wave, the frequency of wave depends on velocity of particle.
 = h. mv  = wavelength of particle, h = Planck’s Constant 6.626 184.5
m = mass of particle, v = velocity of particle

Periodic Trends; (Ionization potential)

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Atomic radius
infffÉtional
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Atomic stability
Break stability high I E lowE.A
lead to stability lowi.E.ehighe.at 12
MagneticProperties of matter
1 Ferromagnetism The strong magnetism of substance
exhibited by materials that contains Fe Co Ni
Fe Ar 45 346 7471 1H unpairede's
Co Ar 45 307 7474 1H 3unpairede's
Ni Ar 45 318 7474411 2unpairede's
The of unpaired e's represents the magnetic momentum
of the substance since each unpaired é behaves as
a small magnet
2 Paramagnetic substance These are substancetha
are attracted to external magnets dueto having
one or more unpaired e's
Mn Ar 4533451 7 7 71 highlyparamagnetic

In Ar 4s 30111Mt The Diamagnetic

No magnetic properties
CI Ar 45 349 1L 1471111 paramagnetic

2ft Car 45,348.1L 12741 1 a unpaired e's

 Energy-Level Diagrams Worksheet α1

1. Complete electron energy-level diagrams for the: write the 4 Q M s of the last
electron
a. phosphorous atom b. potassium atom
µ as.at35,3ps

Is 2s 2,63s 3ps 4,2 3d

c. magnesium atom d. scandium atom

e. argon atom f. nitride ion

 g. bromide ion h. cadmium ion

i. d ion
chlorine j.
Silver ion ion
chromium(II)

2. Write a set of 10 quantum numbers that describe the 10 electrons in neon, Ne, in order of how
they are added to an energy-level diagram.

e's n e me ms
15 7171 0 0
IE
1 0 0

25 2 0 0
I
0 0
2

I
32
2
Ʃ I
me 1 01H
 Electron Structure Review - Multiple Choice Questions

1. The number of electrons a single d orbital can hold is

a. 10 b. 6 c. 2 d. 14

2. How many d electrons can the second energy level hold?

a. 0 b. 2 c. 6 d. 10

3. The number of s electrons in a single oxygen atom is

a. 0 b. 2 c. 4 d. 6

4. What is the total number of orbitals containing electrons in a nitrogen atom?

a. 5 b. 3 c. 4 d. 6

5. Of the orbitals shown, the one with the lowest energy is

a. 2s b. 3s c. 3d d. 2p

6. The maximum number of electrons that can occupy a 3p sublevel is

a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 6

7. The electron configuration of an atom is 1s22s22p6 3s23p3. The atomic number of the atom is
a. 15 b. 11 c. 5 d. 3

8. The electron configuration of an atom is 1s22s22p6 3s23p6. The number of unpaired electrons in this atom
is
a. 2 b. 3 c. 5 d. no correct answer given

9. The electron configuration of an atom is 1s22s22p6 3s23p6. The number of orbitals occupied by electrons
is
a. 5 b. 9 c. 11 d. 15

10. The maximum number of electrons in the 4d sublevel is

a. 2 b. 6 c. 8 d. 10

11. Which is the electron configuration of atomic number 18?

a. 1s22s22p63s23p2 c. 1s22s22p63s23p44s2
b. 1s22s22p63s23p6 d. 1s22s22p63s23p64s2

12. The correct electron configuration for 25Mn is

a. 1s22s22p63s63d2 c.1s22s22p62d103s23p3
b. 1s22s22p63s23p64s24p5 d.1s22s22p63s23p64s23d5

13. [Ar] 4s23d2 is the noble gas notation for

a. Scandium b. Titanium c. Vanadium d. Zirconium

14. [Kr] 5s24d10 is the noble gas notation for

a. Br b. I c. At d. Cd
15. Which atom does not have an unpaired electron in its ground-state electron structure?
a. C b. Ca c. P d. Cl

16. Which of the waves is not part of the electromagnetic spectrum?

a. X-rays b. microwaves c. sound waves d. red light

17. Regions of space around the nucleus of an atom that can be occupied by one or two electrons with
identical energy are called
a. shells b. energy levels c. photons d. orbitals

18. The first energy level which has f orbitals to fill is

a. 2 b. 3 c. 4 d. 5

19. Members of oxygen’s family on the periodic table have electron configurations which end with
a. ns2 b. ns2np1 c. ns2np2 d. ns2np4

Use the following spectra to answer Questions # 21 – 24

R O Y G B I V
F l ll l l l llll
Mg ll ll ll ll
Co l ll l ll
He l l l l l

20. Which element has the fewest energy levels?

a. F b. Mg c. He d. Co

21. Which element has energy levels with more transitions of low energy?

a. F b. Mg c. He d. Co

22. Which element has more levels in the “excited state”?

a. F b. Mg c. He d. Co

23. Which element has electrons releasing the most photons of light of medium energy?

a. F b. Mg c. He d. Co

Given: c = (wavelength)(frequency) c = 3.00 x 108 m/s

24. What is the wavelength of photons of light of frequency = 1150 kilocycles/sec

a. 26 m b. 3.4 x 1011 m c. 261 m d. 3.4 x 1014 m

25. What is the frequency (in 1/s) of light with wavelength equal to 5 x 10-6 cm?

a. 6 x 1015 b. 6 x 1014 c. 1.5 x1015 d. 1.5x103

 Electron Configuration Worksheet W 311

Write the unabbreviated electron configurations of the following elements:

1) copper_____________________________________________________

2) iodine ________________________________________________

3) potassium ________________________________________________ i

4) bismuth ________________________________________________

5) zirconium ________________________________________________

Write the abbreviated electron configurations of the following elements:

6) iridium ________________________________________________

7) chlorine ________________________________________________
i
8) nobelium ________________________________________________

9) caesium ________________________________________________

10) magnesium ________________________________________________

The following electron configurations belong to which elements:

11) 1s22s22p63s1 ____________________________________

12) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d6 ____________________

13) [Kr] 5s24d10 _____________________________________

14) [Xe] 6s24f145d106p2 _______________________________

15) [Rn] 7s25f146d4 __________________________________

Determine if the following electron configurations are correct:

16) 1s22s22p63s23p64s24d104p65s1 ____________________

17) 1s22s22p63s3 _________________________________

18) [Rn] 7s25f96d2 ________________________________

19) [Ar] 5s24d105p5 _______________________________

20) [Xe] 6s24f10 __________________________________

Everett Community College Tutoring Center

Student Support Services Program
Name: ___________________________ Date: _____________________
Electron Configuration Assignment
1. (a) Explain why the relative atomic mass of cobalt is greater than the relative atomic mass of nickel,
even though the atomic number of nickel is greater than the atomic number of cobalt.

(b) Deduce the numbers of protons and electrons in the ion Co2+. (1)

Deduce the electron configuration for the ion Co2+.

(1)
(c)

(d) Identify a radioactive isotope of cobalt and state one of its uses. (1)

2. The electron configuration of chromium can be expressed as [Ar]4sx3dy. (Total 4 marks)

(i) Explain what the square brackets around argon, [Ar], represent. (1)

(1)
(ii) State the values of x and y.

(iii) Annotate the diagram below showing the 4s and 3d orbitals for a chromium atom
using an arrow, and , to represent a spinning electron. (1)

(1)
(Total 3 marks)

3. An ion has the electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10. Which ion could it be?
A. Ni2+
B. Cu+
C. Cu2+
D. Co3+

1
4. What is the electron configuration of vanadium? (Total 1 mark)

A. 1s22s22p63s23p63d24s3 C. 1s22s22p63s23p63d44s1
B. 1s22s22p63s23p63d34s2 D. 1s22s22p63s23p63d5

(Total 1x7 mark)

5. What is the order of increasing energy of the orbitals within a single energy level?

A. d<s<f<p C. p<s<f< d

B. s<p<d<f D. f<d<p< s

6. Which species possesses only two unpaired electrons?

A. Zn C. Ti2+
B. Mg D. Fe2+

7. What is the electron configuration of the Cr2+ ion?

A. [Ar] 3d5 4s1 C. [Ar] 3d6 4s1
B. [Ar] 3d3 4s1 D. [Ar] 3d4 4s0

8. What is the electron configuration for the copper (I) ion, (Z = 29)?
A. [Ar]4s23d9 C. [Ar]4s13d9
B. [Ar]4s13d10 D. [Ar]3d10

9. What is the ground-state electron configuration of an isolated Fe atom?

A [Ar] 3d8 B [Ar] 4s23d6 C [Ar] 4s23d8 D [Ar] 5s24d6 E [Ar] 4d8

10. Which one of the following electron configurations is inconsistent with Hund's rule (AKA “The
Empty Bus Rule”)?