Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Active versus passive devices:

Electricity: is the flow of charge or a set of physical phenomena associated with the presence of
Electric charge.
Electronics: means mechanism of controlling the flow of charges in an electric circuit.
Electronic components can be classified as:
. Active
. Passive
An active device is any type of component with the ability to electrically control the flow of
current (electricity controlled by electricity). For a circuit to be called electronic, it must contain
at least one active device. Components incapable of controlling current by means of another
electrical signal are called passive devices. Resistors, capacitors, inductors, and diodes are all
considered passive devices. Active devices include: vacuum tubes, transistors, silicon-controlled
rectifiers (SCRs), and TRIACs.

1.2 Basic quantities.

Two of the main laws that describe the operation of electronic systems are Ohm's law and
Kirchhoff's laws. The main quantities that describe the operation of electronic systems are
resistance R, capacitance C, and inductance L. The derivative quantities are reactance X,
impedance Z, and admittance, or full conductivity G.

It is presumed that the reader has a level of familiarity with the following basic circuit concepts:

1. Ohm's Law
2. Passive Circuit Analysis
3. Kirchhoff's circuit laws
4. Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits
5. The Superposition Theorem

What follows is a short review of some of these concepts.

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1.3 Review of Kirchhoff's circuit laws

Kirchhoff's circuit laws are two equalities that deal with the conservation of charge and energy in
electrical circuits, and were first described in 1845 by Gustav Kirchhoff. These “laws” are
widely used in the analysis and design of electronic circuits.

1.3.1 Kirchhoff's current law (KCL)

Figure 1.3.1: Currents entering and leaving a node.

The current entering any junction in a circuit network is equal to the current leaving that
junction.

i1 + i4 = i2 + i3

This law is sometimes referred to as Kirchhoff's point rule, Kirchhoff's junction rule (or nodal
rule), and Kirchhoff's first rule.

The principle of conservation of electric charge implies that: At any node (junction) in an
electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of currents
flowing out of that node. Otherwise electric charge would endlessly build up on or drain off the
node which is physically impossible. OR, the algebraic sum of currents in a network of

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conductors meeting at a point is zero. (Assuming that current entering the junction is taken as
positive and current leaving the junction is taken as negative).

Recalling that current is a signed (positive or negative) quantity reflecting direction towards or
away from a node; this principle can be stated as the following equation:

Here, n is the total number of branches with currents flowing towards or away from the node.

1.3.2 Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)

This law is sometimes referred to as Kirchhoff's second law, Kirchhoff's loop (or mesh) rule, and
Kirchhoff's second rule.

Figure 1.3.2 Kirchhoff's voltage law

The sum of all the voltages around a loop of circuit elements is equal to zero.

-v1 + (-v2) + (-v3) + v4 = 0

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The principle of conservation of energy implies that:

The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any closed circuit must
be zero. OR, simply, the sum of the electromotive forces in any closed loop is equivalent to the
sum of the potential drops in that loop. OR, the algebraic sum of the products of the resistances
of the conductors and the currents in them in a closed loop is equal to the total electromotive
force available in that loop.

Similarly to KCL, it can be stated as:

Here, n is the total number of voltages measured.

This law is based on the conservation of “energy given/taken by potential field” (not including
energy taken by dissipation). Given a voltage potential, a charge which has completed a closed
loop doesn't gain or lose energy as it has gone back to initial potential level.

This law holds true even when resistance (which causes dissipation of energy) is present in a
circuit. The validity of this law in this case can be understood if one realizes that a charge in fact
doesn't go back to its starting point, due to dissipation of energy. A charge will just terminate at
the negative terminal, instead of positive terminal. This means all the energy (from the power
supply) given by the potential difference has been fully consumed by resistance which in turn
loses the energy as heat dissipation.

To summarize, Kirchhoff's voltage law has nothing to do with gain or loss of energy by
electronic components (resistors, capacitors, etc). It is a law referring to the potential field
generated by voltage sources. In this potential field, regardless of what electronic components
are present, the gain or loss in “energy given by the potential field” must be zero when a charge
completes a closed loop.

1.4 Review of Thévenin's theorem

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In circuit theory, Thévenin's theorem for linear electrical networks states that any combination of
voltage sources, current sources and resistors with two terminals is electrically equivalent to a
single voltage source (V) and a single series resistor (R). For single frequency AC (Alternating
Current) systems the theorem can also be applied to general impedances, not just resistors.

This theorem states that a circuit of voltage sources and resistors can be converted into a
Thévenin equivalent, which is a simplification technique used in circuit analysis. The Thévenin
equivalent can be used as a good model for a power supply or battery (with the resistor
representing the internal impedance and the source representing the electromotive force). The
circuit consists of an ideal voltage source in series with an ideal resistor.

Figure 1.4: Any black box containing only voltage sources, current sources, and other resistors
can be converted to a Thévenin equivalent circuit, comprising exactly one voltage source and
one resistor.

1.5 Review of Norton's theorem

Norton's theorem for linear electrical networks states that any collection of voltage sources,
current sources, and resistors with two terminals is electrically equivalent to an ideal current
source, I, in parallel with a single resistor, R. For single-frequency AC systems the theorem can
also be applied to general impedances, not just resistors. The Norton equivalent is used to
represent any network of linear sources and impedances, at a given frequency. The circuit
consists of an ideal current source in parallel with an ideal impedance (or resistor for non-
reactive circuits).

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Figure 1.5: Any black box containing only voltage sources, current sources, and resistors can be
converted to a Norton equivalent circuit.

1.6 Review of the Superposition Theorem

The Superposition Theorem is one of those strokes of genius that takes a complex subject and
simplifies it in a way that makes perfect sense. The strategy used in the Superposition Theorem
is to eliminate all but one source of power within a network at a time, using series/parallel
analysis to determine voltage drops (and/or currents) within the modified network for each
power source separately. Then, once voltage drops and/or currents have been determined for
each power source working separately, the values are all “superimposed” on top of each other
(added algebraically) to find the actual voltage drops/currents with all sources active. To
understand the concept we will analyze the following example circuit and apply the
Superposition Theorem to it:

Figure 1.6.1

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There are two sources of power in this circuit, figure 1.6, therefore we have to calculate two sets
of values for voltage drops and/or currents. The general rule when applying the Superposition
Theorem to a circuit for series/parallel analysis with one source but all other voltage sources are
replaced by shorts, and all current sources with open circuits. We have only voltage sources
(batteries) in this example circuit. Every inactive source will be replaced with a short during
analysis.

The first set is done for the circuit with the 5 volt source removed and replaced with a short
circuit, and only the 2.6 volt source remaining, figure 1.6.2.

Figure 1.6.2

For the second set we replace the 2.6 volt source with a short and with only the 5 volt source
remaining, figure 1.6.3.

Figure 1.6.3

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Analyzing the circuit with only the 2.6 volt source, we obtain the following values for voltage
and current:

R1 R2 R3 R2 // R3 R1+(R2 // R3)
2 0.6 0.6 0.6 2.6 Volts
5 3 2 5 5 mAmps
400 200 300 120 520 Ohms

Table 1.6.1

Figure 1.6.4

Analyzing the circuit with only the 5 volt battery, we obtain another set of values for voltage
and current:

R1 R2 R3 R1 // R2 R3+(R1 // R2)
1.538 1.538 3.462 1.538 5 Volts
3.845 7.69 11.54 11.54 11.54 mAmps
400 200 300 133.33 433.33 Ohms

Table 1.6.2

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Figure 1.6.5

When superimposing these values of voltage and current, we have to be very careful to consider
polarity (voltage drop) and direction (electron flow), as the values have to be added
algebraically. Note: VR1 has negative polarity due to the 5V source and VR3 has negative
polarity due to the 2.6V source.

Voltage With only 2.6V source With only 5V source With both sources
VR1 2 -1.538 2 + (- 1.538) = 0.462
VR2 0.6 1.538 0.6 + 1.538 = 2.138
VR3 -0.6 3.462 (- 0.6) + 3.462 = 2.862

Table 1.6.3

Applying these superimposed voltages to the circuit, the end result looks something like this:

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Figure 1.6.6

Currents add up algebraically as well, and can either be superimposed as done with the resistor
voltage drops, or simply calculated from the final voltage drops and respective resistances
(I=V/R). Either way, the answers will be the same. Here we show the superposition method
applied to current:

Current With only 2.6V source With only 5V source With both sources
IR1 5mA -3.845mA 1.155mA
IR2 3mA 7.69mA 10.69mA
IR3 -2mA 11.54mA 9.54mA

Table 1.6.4

Once again applying these superimposed figures to our circuit:

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Figure 1.6.7

It must be noted that the Superposition Theorem works only for circuits that are reducible to
series/parallel combinations for each of the power sources at a time (thus, this theorem is useless
for analyzing an unbalanced bridge circuit), and it only works where the underlying equations
are linear (no mathematical powers or roots). The need for linearity also means this Theorem
cannot be applied in circuits where the resistance of a component changes with voltage or
current. Hence, networks containing components like incandescent light bulbs could not be
analyzed. Another prerequisite for Superposition Theorem is that all components must be
“bilateral,” meaning that they behave the same with electrons flowing either direction through
them. Resistors have no polarity-specific behavior, and so the circuits we've been studying so far
all meet this criterion. Unidirectional devices like diodes cannot be included in the circuit being
analyzed.

The Superposition Theorem finds use in the study of alternating current (AC) circuits, and
semiconductor (amplifier) circuits, where sometimes AC is often mixed (superimposed) with
Direct Current (DC). Because AC voltage and current equations (Ohm's Law) are linear just like
DC, we can use Superposition to analyze a circuit with just the DC power source, and then just
the AC power source, combining the results to tell what will happen with both AC and DC
sources in effect.

1.7 Materials classification

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Based on their conductivity of electricity; materials are classified as conductors, insulators and
Semi-conductors.
1.7.1 Conductors
The term conductor is applied to any material that will support a generous flow of charge when a
voltage source of limited magnitude is applied across its terminals. Such materials have
resistivity ranging from 10-8 to 10-6 Ohm-meter.
1.7.2 Insulators
An insulator is a material that offers a very low level of conductivity under pressure from an
applied voltage source. Resistivity of insulators ranges from 10+7 to 10+8 Ohm-meter.
1.7.3 Semiconductors
The label semiconductor itself provides a hint as to its characteristics. The prefix semi is
normally applied to a range of levels midway between the two limits, conductors and insulators.
A semiconductor, therefore, is a material that has a conductivity level somewhere between the
extremes of a conductor and an insulator, and their resistivity varies from 10-5 to 10+4 Ohm-meter
as compared to the values of conductors and insulators.
Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are the two most important semiconductors used in electronic
devices. Both Ge and Si are referred to as tetravalent atoms because they each have four valence
electrons. A bonding of atoms strengthened by the sharing of electrons is called covalent
bonding.

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Fig-1.7.1: Atomic structure a) Germanium b) Silicon fig-1.7.2: covalent bonding of silicon
atom

1.8 Solid-state diodes and diode characteristics

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal component with an asymmetric current vs. voltage

characteristic, with low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one direction, and high
(ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A silicon semiconductor diode, the most common type,
is a single crystal piece of semiconductor material with a PN junction connected to two electrical
terminals.

1.8.1 The PN junction

A PN junction is formed by joining p-type and n-type semiconductors together in a single crystal
lattice. The term junction refers to the boundary interface where the two regions of the
semiconductor meet. If the junction was constructed of two separate pieces this would introduce
a discontinuity in the crystal lattice, so PN junctions are created in a single crystal of
semiconductor by introducing certain impurities called dopants, for example by ion
implantation, diffusion, or by epitaxy (growing a layer of crystal doped with n-type impurities on
top of a layer of crystal doped with p-type impurities for example).

PN junctions are the elementary building blocks of almost all semiconductor electronic devices
such as diodes, transistors, solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits; they are the active sites
where the electronic action of the device takes place. For example, a common type of transistor,
the bipolar junction transistor (BJT), consists of two PN junctions in series, in the form NPN or
PNP.

1.8.2 Properties of a PN junction

The PN junction exhibits some interesting properties which have useful applications in solid
state electronics. A p-doped semiconductor is relatively conductive. The same is true of an n-
doped semiconductor, but the junction between p and n type regions is a nonconductor. This

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non-conducting layer, called the depletion layer, occurs because the electrically charged carriers,
electrons in n-type and holes p-type silicon, diffuse into the other type of material (i.e. electrons
in p-type and holes in n-type) and eliminate each other in a process called recombination. This
diffusion of charge causes a built in potential difference across the depletion region. By
manipulating this non-conductive layer, PN junctions are commonly used as diodes: circuit
elements that allow a flow of electricity in one direction but not in the other (opposite) direction.
This property is explained in terms of forward bias and reverse bias, where the term bias refers
to the application of an electric voltage across the PN junction. A PN junction will conduct
current when the applied external voltage exceeds the built in potential of the junction.

1.8.3 Equilibrium (zero bias)

In a PN junction, without an external applied voltage, an equilibrium condition is reached in

which a potential difference is formed across the junction. This potential difference is called the
built-in potential, VBI.

At the junction of p-type and n-type semiconductors, higher concentration of electrons in the n-
type region near the PN interface tend to diffuse into the p-type region. As electrons diffuse, they
leave positively charged ions (donors) in the n region. Similarly, the higher concentration of
holes on the p-type side near the PN interface begin to diffuse into the n-type region leaving
fixed ions (acceptors) with negative charge. The regions just adjacent on either side of the PN
interface lose their neutrality and become charged, forming the space charge region or depletion
layer (see figure 1.8.1).

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Figure 1.8.1 PN junction at equilibrium

The electric field created by the space charge region opposes the diffusion process for both
electrons and holes. There are two simultaneous phenomena: the diffusion process that tends to
generate more space charge and the electric field generated by the space charge that tends to
counteract the diffusion. At equilibrium these two forces balance each other. The carrier
concentration profile at equilibrium is shown in figure 8.1 with blue and red lines. Also shown
are the two counterbalancing phenomena that establish equilibrium.

The space charge region is a zone with a net charge provided by the fixed ions (donors or
acceptors) that have been left uncovered by majority carrier diffusion. When equilibrium is
reached, the charge density is approximated by the displayed step function in the figure 1.8.2
Q(x) graph. In fact, the region is completely depleted of majority carriers (leaving a charge
density equal to the net doping level), and the edge between the space charge region and the
neutral region is quite sharp. The space charge region has the same charge on both sides of the
PN interface, thus it extends farther into the less heavily doped side (the n side in figures 1.8.1
and 1.8.2).

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Figure 1.8.2

1.8.4 Forward bias

In forward bias, a positive voltage is applied to the p-type side with respect to the n-type side of
the junction. With a voltage applied in this way, the holes in the p-type region and the electrons
in the n-type region are forced towards the junction. This reduces the width of the depletion
layer. The positive charge applied to the p-type material repels the holes, while the negative

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charge applied to the n-type material repels the electrons. The distance between the electrons and
holes decreases as they are forced towards the junction. This lowers the built in potential barrier.
With increasing forward-bias voltage, the depletion layer eventually becomes thin enough that
the built in electric field can no longer counteract the charge carrier motion across the PN
junction, consequently reducing the electrical resistance. The electrons which cross the PN
junction into the p-type material (or holes which cross into the n-type material) will diffuse in the
near-neutral region. Therefore, the amount of minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones
determines the amount of current that may flow through the diode.

Only majority carriers (electrons in n-type material or holes in p-type) can flow through a
semiconductor for a macroscopic length. With this in mind, consider the flow of electrons across
the junction. The forward bias causes a force on the electrons pushing them from the N side
toward the P side. With forward bias, the depletion region is narrow enough that electrons can
cross the junction and are injected into the p-type material. However, they do not continue to
flow through the p-type material indefinitely, because it is energetically favorable for them to
recombine with holes. The average length an electron travels through the p-type material before
recombining is called the diffusion length, and it is typically on the order of microns.

Although the electrons penetrate only a short distance into the p-type material before
recombining, the electric current continues uninterrupted, because holes (the majority carriers)
begin to flow in the opposite direction replacing the ones that the minority carrier electrons
recombined with. The total current (the sum of the electron and hole currents) is constant in
space, because any variation would cause charge to build up over time (this is Kirchhoff's current
law). The flow of holes from the p-type region into the n-type region is exactly analogous to the
flow of electrons from N to P (electrons and holes swap roles and the signs of all currents and
voltages are reversed).

Therefore, the macroscopic picture of the current flow through the diode involves electrons
flowing through the n-type region toward the junction, holes flowing through the p-type region
in the opposite direction toward the junction, and the two kinds of carriers constantly
recombining in the vicinity (given by the diffusion length) of the junction. The electrons and

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holes travel in opposite directions, but they also have opposite charges, so the overall current is
in the same direction on both sides of the diode, as required.

1.8.5 Reverse bias

Reverse bias usually refers to how a diode is used in a circuit. If a diode is reverse biased, the
voltage at the cathode is higher than that at the anode. Therefore, no current will flow until the
electric field is so high that the diode breaks down.

Because the p-type material is now connected to the negative side of the applied voltage, the
holes in the p-type material are pulled away from the junction, causing the thickness of the
depletion layer to increase. Similarly, because the n-type region is connected to the positive side,
the electrons will also be pulled away from the junction. Therefore the depletion layer widens,
and does so increasingly with increasing reverse-bias voltage. This increases the voltage barrier
causing a high resistance to the flow of charge carriers thus allowing only a very small electric
current to leak across the PN junction.

The strength of the depletion layer electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases.
Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the PN junction depletion layer
breaks-down and current begins to flow, usually by either the Zener or avalanche breakdown
processes. Both of these breakdown processes are non-destructive and are reversible, as long as
the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to
overheat and cause thermal damage.

Actual Diodes

The figure below gives the schematic symbol for a diode (a) and a picture of a typical diode from
the lab (b). Diodes are quite common and useful devices. One can think of a diode as a device
which allows current to flow in only one direction. This is an over-simplification, but a good
approximation.

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(a) Diode Schematic Symbol

(b) Small signal diode.

Semiconductor diodes are fabricated as a two layer structure forming a PN junction.

Semiconductors, such as silicon or germanium, can be doped with small concentrations of
specific impurities to yield a material which conducts electricity via electron transport (n-type) or
via holes (p-type). When layers of these two types of doped semiconductor are constructed to
form a PN junction, electrons migrate away from the n-type side and holes migrate away from
the p-type side, as shown in figure. 1.8.1. This redistribution of charge gives rise to a potential
gap VBI across the junction, as depicted in the Figure. This gap is VBI ~0.7 V for silicon and ~0.3
V for germanium.

Figure 1.8.3 A PN junction, forming a voltage gap across the junction

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When this PN junction diode is now connected to an external voltage, this can effectively
increase or decrease the built in potential gap.

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