Contents of second lecture:

1- Characteristics of Computer Network:

• Fault Tolerance
• Scalability

• Quality of Service (QoS)

• Security
2- Data Flow: Simplex, Half-Duplex, Full-Duplex
3- Elements of Protocols:

• Message Encoding
• Encoding and transmission of data.

• Message Formatting & Encapsulation

• Message Timing
• Message Size

• Delivery Options: Unicast, multicast, and broadcast communication.

4- Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network: Direct Device Communication
5- Client-Server Network: Centralized Network Architecture
6- Three Main Components of a Computer Network

• Nodes: End Nodes and Intermediate Nodes.

• Media- Wired: Ethernet, fiber optic.

• Media- Wireless: Infrared, radio waves, microwaves, satellite communication.

• Services: email, messaging, file sharing, VoIP, web browsing.
7- Devices in each Network:

• LAN Devices: switches, routers, and hubs.

• MAN Devices: Routers, switches, and bridges in MANs.

• WAN Devices: Modems, routers, and firewalls in WANs.

8- IP and MAC addresses:

• IP Addressing: Definition and structure of IPv4 addresses.

• MAC Addressing: Role and significance of MAC addresses in networking.
Characteristics of Computer Networks
1. Fault Tolerance:
o A network’s ability to remain operational despite the failure of some of its
components is critical for maintaining service continuity. Redundancy
mechanisms such as backup routers, alternative data paths, and load balancing
allow traffic to reroute in case of failure. For example, in large networks, if a
primary link goes down, traffic can be diverted to secondary links to avoid
service interruption.
o Example: In enterprise environments, if a switch fails, the Spanning Tree
Protocol (STP) in switches can reroute data to another active switch to maintain
connectivity.
2. Scalability:
o Networks must grow without suffering performance degradation. Scalability
implies that the addition of new devices, servers, or networks should not
negatively impact the overall efficiency of the system. Designing scalable
networks involves using hierarchical structures, load balancers, and modular
designs to ensure the system can handle growth.
o Example: The Internet is a highly scalable network, designed to accommodate
billions of devices across the globe without a decrease in performance.
3. Quality of Service (QoS):
o QoS refers to the prioritization of different types of data on the network. For
example, video conferencing or voice calls (VoIP) require real-time data
transmission and lower latency compared to regular web browsing or email. To
manage this, network devices classify traffic and assign higher priority to time-
sensitive data, ensuring timely delivery.
o Example: A company may prioritize video conferencing traffic over file
downloads to ensure smooth communication during meetings.
4. Security:
o A secure network protects data from unauthorized access, ensuring the
confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information. This involves the use
of encryption, firewalls, intrusion detection/prevention systems (IDS/IPS),
access control, and regular monitoring to safeguard network data and resources.
o Example: Companies use VPNs (Virtual Private Networks) to ensure secure
data transmission across the Internet by encrypting data between a user’s device
and the company’s internal network.
Data Flow Types
1. Simplex:
o In a simplex data flow, communication is one-way. This means data flows from
the sender to the receiver, but the receiver cannot send data back. This method
is used in applications where feedback is not necessary.
o Example: Television broadcasting is an example of simplex communication
where the broadcaster sends signals to the viewers, but the viewers cannot send
signals back to the broadcaster.
2. Half-Duplex:
o In half-duplex communication, data can be transmitted in both directions but
not simultaneously. At any given time, only one party can send data while the
other receives it, and then the roles reverse.
o Example: Walkie-talkies use half-duplex communication, where one person
talks while the other listens, and then they switch roles.
3. Full-Duplex:
o Full-duplex allows for simultaneous two-way communication. Both parties can
send and receive data at the same time, increasing the efficiency and speed of
communication.
o Example: A telephone conversation is full-duplex, allowing both participants
to speak and listen at the same time.

Elements of Protocols
1. Message Encoding:
o Encoding refers to the process of converting data into signals suitable for
transmission over the network. This can involve converting digital data into
electrical, optical, or wireless signals, depending on the medium of
transmission.
o Example: In an Ethernet network, data from computers is encoded into
electrical signals that travel through the copper wires of Ethernet cables.
2. Message Formatting & Encapsulation:
o Formatting and encapsulation refer to the process of adding necessary
information to the data to ensure it is properly delivered to the destination. This
includes adding source and destination IP addresses, sequence numbers, and
error-checking information to the packet.
 o Example: In the TCP/IP protocol, data from the application layer is
encapsulated with a header containing information like source/destination IP
addresses before it is sent over the network.
3. Message Timing:
o Timing is essential to control the flow of data between the sender and receiver,
ensuring that the sender doesn’t overwhelm the receiver by sending too much
data too quickly. It also coordinates when messages should be sent to avoid
collisions on the network.
o Example: Ethernet networks use Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD) to manage timing and avoid data collisions.
4. Message Size:
o Large data transmissions are often broken down into smaller packets to ensure
easier handling by the network. This segmentation helps prevent data loss and
allows the receiver to reassemble the packets in the correct order.
o Example: When sending a large file over the Internet, the file is broken into
smaller packets, each with its own header. The receiving device reassembles
these packets back into the original file.
5. Delivery Options:
o Unicast: One-to-one communication where data is sent from one sender to one
receiver.
o Multicast: One-to-many communication where data is sent to a specific group
of devices.
o Broadcast: One-to-all communication where data is sent to all devices on a
network.
o Example: Streaming live video to a selected group of people would use
multicast delivery to minimize bandwidth usage.

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network

• In a peer-to-peer network, all devices have equal roles and can act as both clients and
servers. There is no centralized authority, and devices communicate directly with one
another to share resources, such as files or processing power.
• Example: File-sharing applications like BitTorrent use P2P networks, where users
upload and download files directly from each other without a central server.

Client-Server Network
 • In a client-server network, there is a centralized server that provides services or
resources to multiple clients. The server processes client requests and delivers the
required data or resources. This model is more scalable and manageable than P2P but
can suffer from bottlenecks if the server becomes overloaded.
• Example: Websites operate on a client-server model. Your browser (the client) sends
requests to a web server to retrieve the web pages.

Three Main Components of a Computer Network

1. Nodes:
o End nodes include devices like computers, smartphones, printers, etc., which
use the network to send or receive data.
o Intermediary nodes include network devices like routers, switches, and
firewalls, which facilitate the transmission of data between end nodes.
o Example: In a home network, your computer (end node) communicates with
your router (intermediary node) to access the Internet.
2. Media:
o Refers to the physical medium through which data is transmitted. This can be
wired, such as Ethernet cables or fiber optics, or wireless, such as Wi-Fi or
Bluetooth.
o Example: Fiber optic cables transmit data as light waves, providing high-speed
Internet access.
3. Services:
o Networks offer a variety of services, such as email, messaging, VoIP (Voice over
IP), file sharing, and web browsing.
o Example: Using WhatsApp to send a message or make a voice call is a service
offered by the network.

Devices in Networks
1. LAN Devices:
o Switches: Direct data to specific devices on the network.
o Routers: Connect different networks and route data between them.
o Hubs: Broadcast data to all devices on the network.
o Example: A router in your home network directs traffic between your devices
and the Internet.
 2. MAN Devices:
o Routers, switches, bridges: Devices used to manage data transmission over
larger areas like cities.
o Example: A city’s public Wi-Fi system might use switches and routers to
provide seamless connectivity to users across different locations.
3. WAN Devices:
o Modems, routers, firewalls: Used in wide-area networks (WANs) to connect
geographically distant networks and ensure secure data transmission.
o Example: An ISP (Internet Service Provider) uses modems and routers to
provide Internet access to customers over large areas.

IP and MAC Addressing

1. IP Addressing:
o IP addresses are logical addresses assigned to devices to identify them on a
network and route data between different networks. IP addresses can be
dynamic (changing) or static (fixed).
o Example: Your home router has a public IP address assigned by your ISP, and
all your devices within the network have private IP addresses.
2. MAC Addressing:
o MAC (Media Access Control) addresses are physical hardware addresses
embedded in network interfaces, ensuring device-level communication within a
local network. MAC addresses are unique to each device.
o Example: Your smartphone has a MAC address, which allows it to
communicate with the home router within the local network.
Multiple-Choice Questions:
1. What is the primary function of fault tolerance in networks?
a) Speed up data transmission
b) Maintain service continuity despite failures
c) Provide secure data access
d) Prioritize video traffic
Answer: b) Maintain service continuity despite failures
2. What characteristic allows a network to grow without suffering performance
degradation?
a) Fault Tolerance
b) Scalability
c) Security
d) QoS
Answer: b) Scalability
3. What does QoS prioritize?
a) Ensures no packet loss
b) Encrypts data for security
c) Prioritizes specific types of data
d) Splits large files into smaller packets
Answer: c) Prioritizes specific types of data
4. Which of the following is an example of QoS in use?
a) Slowing down all traffic equally
b) Prioritizing video conferencing over email
c) Encrypting data for transmission
d) Rerouting traffic in case of failure
Answer: b) Prioritizing video conferencing over email
5. What is the main function of security in computer networks?
a) Speed up network performance
b) Ensure data transmission without delay
c) Protect data from unauthorized access
d) Broadcast data to all devices
Answer: c) Protect data from unauthorized access
6. In which data flow type does communication occur in only one direction?
a) Simplex
b) Half-Duplex
c) Full-Duplex
d) Multicast
Answer: a) Simplex
7. What is an example of a half-duplex communication system?
a) Television
 b) Telephone
c) Walkie-talkie
d) Video conferencing
Answer: c) Walkie-talkie
8. Which communication system allows simultaneous two-way communication?
a) Simplex
b) Half-Duplex
c) Full-Duplex
d) Unicast
Answer: c) Full-Duplex
9. What is message encoding?
a) Adding source and destination addresses to a message
b) Converting data into signals suitable for transmission
c) Ensuring messages are delivered to the right port
d) Dividing large data into smaller packets
Answer: b) Converting data into signals suitable for transmission
10. Which delivery method sends data to all devices in a network?
a) Unicast
b) Multicast
c) Broadcast
d) Full-duplex
Answer: c) Broadcast
11. What is message formatting and encapsulation?
a) Adding necessary information for data delivery
b) Reducing the size of data
c) Ensuring data is transmitted securely
d) Encrypting messages for security
Answer: a) Adding necessary information for data delivery
12. In which type of network do all devices act as both clients and servers?
a) Client-server
b) Peer-to-peer
c) MAN
d) WAN
Answer: b) Peer-to-peer
13. What kind of network uses a central server to provide services to multiple
clients?
a) Client-server
b) Peer-to-peer
c) Unicast
d) Broadcast
Answer: a) Client-server
 14. Which network component includes devices like computers and smartphones?
a) Intermediary nodes
b) End nodes
c) Routers
d) Switches
Answer: b) End nodes
15. What type of media transmits data as light waves?
a) Ethernet cables
b) Coaxial cables
c) Fiber optic cables
d) Radio waves
Answer: c) Fiber optic cables
16. Which LAN device broadcasts data to all devices on the network?
a) Router
b) Hub
c) Switch
d) Firewall
Answer: b) Hub
17. Which device connects different networks and routes data between them?
a) Switch
b) Router
c) Hub
d) Firewall
Answer: b) Router
18. What is the purpose of a MAC address?
a) It identifies devices in a local network
b) It routes data between different networks
c) It secures data transmission
d) It assigns a public address to devices
Answer: a) It identifies devices in a local network
19. What kind of address does your home router use to communicate with the
internet?
a) Private IP address
b) MAC address
c) Public IP address
d) Broadcast address
Answer: c) Public IP address

True/False Questions:
1. Fault tolerance ensures a network can reroute data if a link fails.
True
2. Scalability allows a network to grow without performance degradation.
True
3. QoS ensures that all types of data are treated equally.
False
4. Security ensures that data cannot be accessed by unauthorized users.
True
5. Simplex communication allows for two-way communication at the same time.
False
6. Walkie-talkies use full-duplex communication.
False
7. Full-duplex communication allows for simultaneous two-way communication.
True
8. Message encoding converts data into a format suitable for transmission.
True
9. Ethernet networks use Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) to avoid data collisions.
True
10. Peer-to-peer networks rely on a central server for communication.
False
11. A client-server network has a centralized server that provides services to multiple
clients.
True
12. End nodes include intermediary devices like routers and switches.
False
13. Fiber optic cables transmit data in the form of light waves.
True
14. Routers broadcast data to all devices on a local network.
False
15. MAC addresses are unique to each device and ensure device-level communication in
a local network.
True
16. Public IP addresses are used within private home networks.
False
 17. A router directs traffic between different networks.
True
18. Firewalls are used to encrypt data.
False
19. Message encapsulation adds necessary information like IP addresses for data delivery.
True
20. Switches direct data to specific devices in a local network.
True

Explaining Questions with Answers:

1. What is fault tolerance in computer networks, and why is it important?
o Answer: Fault tolerance ensures that the network remains operational despite
failures in some of its components. It is important because it prevents service
interruptions and ensures data continues to flow even if some parts of the
network fail.
2. How does scalability affect a network's growth and performance?
o Answer: Scalability allows a network to grow by adding more devices without
affecting its overall performance. Proper network design, such as hierarchical
structures and load balancing, ensures that growth does not result in bottlenecks
or slowdowns.
3. What does Quality of Service (QoS) achieve in a network, and why is it useful?
o Answer: QoS prioritizes certain types of data, like voice or video, to ensure
they receive the necessary bandwidth for smooth performance. This is useful
for ensuring time-sensitive data is transmitted with minimal delay, improving
the quality of services like VoIP and video conferencing.
4. What is the difference between simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex
communication?
o Answer: Simplex allows one-way communication (e.g., TV broadcast), half-
duplex allows communication in both directions but not simultaneously (e.g.,
walkie-talkies), and full-duplex allows simultaneous two-way communication
(e.g., telephone).
5. What is message encoding, and why is it necessary?
o Answer: Message encoding converts data into a signal format suitable for
transmission across a network. It ensures that data can be sent over different
media, such as copper wires or optical fibers, and is essential for communication
between devices.
6. What is encapsulation in networking?
o Answer: Encapsulation is the process of wrapping data with additional
information, such as headers and footers, to ensure it reaches its destination. It
involves adding source and destination addresses, sequence numbers, and error-
checking information.
7. How does a peer-to-peer (P2P) network differ from a client-server network?
o Answer: In a peer-to-peer network, all devices can act as both clients and
servers, sharing resources directly with one another. In a client-server network,
there is a centralized server that provides resources or services to multiple
clients. In a P2P network, no centralized authority manages communication,
whereas in a client-server model, the server handles all client requests and
manages resources.
8. What is the role of IP addressing in a computer network?
o Answer: IP addressing assigns a unique logical address to each device on a
network, which allows for identification and communication between devices.
IP addresses enable the routing of data between different networks and are
essential for internet connectivity.
9. Explain how MAC addresses differ from IP addresses.
o Answer: MAC addresses are physical hardware-based addresses embedded in
a device's network interface card (NIC) and remain constant. They are used for
communication within a local network (LAN). IP addresses, on the other hand,
are logical addresses that can change depending on the network location and are
used for routing data across different networks (e.g., the internet).
10. Why is it important to understand delivery options (Unicast, Multicast, and
Broadcast) in networking?
• Answer: Understanding delivery options is crucial for efficient network
communication. Unicast is one-to-one communication, multicast is one-to-many (but
to a specific group), and broadcast is one-to-all communication. These options affect
how data is transmitted, bandwidth usage, and the overall performance of the network.
For example, broadcasting unnecessary data can overload a network, whereas multicast
can target specific devices, optimizing resource usage.