1.

Review of Functions
Everywhere around us we see relationships among quantities, or variables. For example, the consumer price index changes
in time and the temperature of the ocean varies with latitude. These relationships can often be expressed by mathematical
objects called functions. Calculus is the study of how functions change, and because we use functions to describe the world
around us, calculus is a universal language for human inquiry.

Definition: A function 𝑓 is a rule that assigns to each value 𝑥 in a set 𝐷 a unique value denoted 𝑓(𝑥). In other words,
a function is defined at values of 𝒙 if it has an output for those values. At the values of 𝒙 where the denominator of
a function (if it exists) is equal to zero, the function is said to be undefined.

The set 𝐷 is the domain of the function. The range is the set
of all values of 𝑓(𝑥) produced as 𝑥 varies over the entire domain.

The independent variable is the variable associated with the domain; the dependent variable belongs to the range.
1
 1. Review of Functions
The graph of a function 𝑓 is the set of all points (𝑥, 𝑦) in the 𝑥𝑦-plane that satisfy the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

The argument of a function is the expression on which the function works. For example, 𝑥 is the argument when
we write 𝑓(𝑥). Similarly, 2 is the argument in 𝑓(2) and 𝑥 2 + 4 is the argument in 𝑓(𝑥 2 + 4).

Example 1: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥, then find 𝑓 −1 , 𝑓 𝑥 2 , 𝑓 𝑡 , 𝑓(𝑝 − 1).

2
Solution: 𝑓 −1 = −1 − 2 −1 = 1 + 2 = 3, 𝑓 𝑥2 = 𝑥2 2
− 2 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 , 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡 2 − 2𝑡,

2
𝑓 𝑝−1 = 𝑝−1 − 2 𝑝 − 1 = 𝑝2 − 2𝑝 + 1 − 2 𝑝 − 1 = 𝑝2 − 2𝑝 + 1 − 2𝑝 + 2 = 𝑝2 − 4𝑝 + 3

Quick summary: A function is one that assigns a unique value of the dependent variable (i.e. a single value in the

range) to each value in the domain. So how do we test for this? It is the vertical line test!

2
 1. Review of Functions
Vertical Line Test: A graph represents a function if and only if it passes the vertical line test: Every vertical line intersects
the graph at most once.

A graph that fails this test does not represent a function and can be described by an equation instead.

The graph in (a) above demonstrates the case where the vertical line test is not satisfied because there are two
values of y for one value of x. Hence, the graph in (a) is not a function and can only be described by an equation.

On the other hand, the graph in (b) that satisfies the vertical line test and hence it is a function.
3
 1. Review of Functions
Example 1: Identify which of the following graphs is a function.

Solution: The vertical line test indicates that only graphs (a) and (c) represent functions.

In graphs (b) and (d), there are vertical lines that intersect the graph more than once and so they are not functions.

Equivalently, there are values of 𝑥 that correspond to more than one value of 𝑦. Therefore, graphs (b) and (d) do not
pass the vertical line test and do not represent functions.

4
 1. Review of Functions
Quick Summary: So far, we are assuming that we have a graph and determine whether it is a function or not through
the vertical line test.

The next logical step is that given a graph, determine its domain and range. Note that if the domain is not specified in a
problem, we assume that the domain is the set of all values of 𝑥 for which 𝑓 is defined. The range is the set of all values
of 𝑓(𝑥) produced as 𝑥 varies over the entire domain.

Example 2: State the domain and range of the given functions.

a 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 1

b 𝑧=𝑔 𝑡 = 4 − 𝑡2 ;

1
c 𝑤=ℎ 𝑢 =
𝑢−1
When we are given a function, we first consider the set of all values for which the function is defined and then find the
corresponding values of the function which are permissible.
5
 1. Review of Functions
Example 2(a): State the domain and range of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 1.

From the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 1, we know that when 𝑥 → ±∞, 𝑦 → ∞.

Without a specific domain and range given to us, the graph will extend
upwards indefinitely.

When we plot such a graph, we have to truncate the graph because we cannot
draw an infinitely extending graph in a finite space.

Solution: Because f is defined for all values of x (recall definition here), its domain is the set of all real numbers. We can
mathematically express the domain as (−∞, ∞) or ℝ.

Because 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 for all possible values of 𝑥 (or ℝ), it follows that 𝑥 2 + 1 ≥ 1 for all 𝑥 and the range is given as [1, ∞).
6
 1. Review of Functions
Example 2(b): State the domain and range of the function 𝑧 = 𝑔 𝑡 = 4 − 𝑡 2

The graph on the left is for 𝑔(𝑡) = 4 − 𝑡 2 . Observe that unlike in

Example 3(a), the graph does not have infinite extent. From the square
root function, we know that the quantity under the square root
function must be non-negative, or greater than or equal to zero. So,
there are restrictions to what 𝑡 can be to ensure that the function is
defined (recall definition here).

Solution: To ensure that the quantity under the square root is greater than or equal to zero, we require

4 − 𝑡 2 ≥ 0 → 𝑡 2 ≤ 4 → −2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2

Thus, the domain is −2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2 or −2,2 . By the definition of the square root, the range consists only of non-negative
numbers. When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑧 reaches its maximum value of 𝑔(0) = 4 = 2, and when 𝑡 = ± 2, 𝑧 attains its minimum
value of 𝑔(±2) = 0. Thus, the range is [0,2]. 7
 1. Review of Functions
Brief detour into the definition of sets:

1. The symbol ∪ means the set containing the union of (usually a minimum of two) sets. The set 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is the set will
contain elements that are in either 𝐴 or 𝐵 or even both. For instance if 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝐵 = {2,4,6,8}, then 𝐴 ∪ B =
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8}. If we have an additional set C={1,3,5,7,9}, then 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ C = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} and
𝐴 ∪ 𝐶 = {1,2,3,4,5,7,9}.

2. The symbol ∩ means the set containing the intersection (usually a minimum of two) sets. The set 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 is the set will
contain elements that are in both 𝐴 and 𝐵. Using the earlier set definitions, 𝐴 ∩ B = {2,4}, 𝐴 ∩ C = {1,3,5}, 𝐵 ∩ C = ∅

3. The empty set is denoted by ∅ and simply means that there is nothing in common between the sets.

4. Sets can be described in this form or as intervals, as we shall see in the next slide.

8
 1. Review of Functions
1
Example 2(c): State the domain and range of the function 𝑤 = ℎ 𝑢 = .
𝑢−1

Solution: The function ℎ is undefined at 𝑢 = 1 because it will not give us a

number. So apart from 𝑢 = 1, all other values are permissible and so the
domain is given by (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞) [all real numbers except 1]. The dashed
vertical line indicates that the graph approaches a vertical asymptote as 𝑢
approaches 1 and that 𝑤 becomes large in magnitude for 𝑢 near 1. So apart
from 𝑢 = 1, all other values are permissible and so the domain is given by
(−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).

To determine the range, we look at the function itself. Because of 1 in the

Side note: The function ℎ is undefined at 𝑢 = 1
because it will give us ±∞ which is not a number. There numerator and the expression is in its simplified form, ℎ will never be zero.
are two signs ± because it depends on the value of 𝑢
one inputs into the calculator. When we choose 𝑢 < 1,
But all other values are permissible. Thus, the range is given by (−∞, 0) ∪
𝑤 will be a negative number whereas when we choose
(0, ∞) [or all real numbers except 0]. 9
𝑢 > 1, 𝑤 will be a positive number.
 1. Review of Functions
Quick Summary: So far, we are assuming that we have a graph and determine whether it is a function or not through the
vertical line test. If the domain is not specified in a problem, we assume that the domain is the set of all values of 𝑥 for
which 𝑓 is defined. The range is the set of all values of 𝑓(𝑥) produced as 𝑥 varies over the entire domain.

When we approach a problem mathematically, the context of the problem will give us the domain and the corresponding
range.

Example 3: At time 𝑡 = 0, a stone is thrown vertically upward from the ground at a speed of 30 m/s. Its height above the
ground in meters (neglecting air resistance) is approximated by the function ℎ = 𝑓(𝑡) = 30𝑡 − 5𝑡 2 , where 𝑡 is measured in
seconds. Find the domain and range of 𝑓 in the context of this particular problem.

You will soon learn in Mechanics (if you haven’t seen it already) that the formula for the height above the ground or displacement
1
above the ground is given by the formula ℎ = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 where 𝑢 is the initial speed and 𝑎 is the constant acceleration. As the
2

stone is being thrown up, it will encounter gravitational acceleration which is 𝑔 = −9.8 or approximately −10.
10
 1. Review of Functions
Solution: Although 𝑓 is defined for all values of 𝑡, the only relevant times are between the time the stone is thrown (𝑡 = 0)
and the time it strikes the ground, i.e. when ℎ = 𝑓(𝑡) = 0.

Solving the equation ℎ = 30𝑡 − 5𝑡 2 = 0, we find that

Therefore, the stone leaves the ground at 𝑡 = 0 and returns to the ground at 𝑡 = 6. So, an appropriate domain that fits the
context of this problem is 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 6.

To find the range of ℎ, we have to first determine the graph of ℎ, given the domain of this problem. Later, we shall employ a
more sophisticated technique (using Calculus) to determine the maximum (since we know that ℎ = 0 must be the
minimum; the stone does not go deeper into the ground ℎ < 0). But for now, let us plot the graph of the height function.
11
 1. Review of Functions
The graph of the height function ℎ = 𝑓(𝑡) = 30𝑡 − 5𝑡 2 is given below.

From the graph, the largest value of ℎ occurs when the stone reaches its highest point at 𝑡 = 3 (halfway through its flight)
and the corresponding height is ℎ = 𝑓(3) = 45. Therefore, the range is [0, 45].

Note that this graph is not the trajectory of the stone; the stone moves vertically. To determine the trajectory, we need to
consider the function 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) where the exact coordinates of the stone is given by the point 𝑥, 𝑦 , with 𝑥 and 𝑦 as the
horizontal and vertical displacements as functions of time.
12
 1. Review of Functions
Functions may be combined using sums (𝑓 + 𝑔), differences (𝑓 − 𝑔), products (𝑓𝑔) , or quotients (𝑓/𝑔). The process
called composition also produces new functions.

Definition: Given two functions f and g, the composite function 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is defined by (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑔 𝑥 ). In the
composition 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑔 𝑥 ), 𝑓 is the
outer function and 𝑔 is the inner
function.

(a) It is evaluated in two steps:

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢), where 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥).

(b) The domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 consists of

all 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑔 such that
𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) is in the domain of 𝑓.

13
 1. Review of Functions
1
Example 4: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = .
𝑥

1
Simplify the following expressions: 𝑓 5𝑝 + 1 , 𝑔 , 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 , 𝑔(𝑓 𝑥 ).
𝑥

Solution: In each case, the functions work on their arguments (recall the definition of argument of a function here).

2
• The argument of 𝑓 is 5𝑝 + 1 and so 𝑓(5𝑝 + 1) = 3 5𝑝 + 1 − (5𝑝 + 1) = 75𝑝2 + 25𝑝 + 2.

1 1 1
• 𝑔 =𝑔 𝑔 𝑥 =𝑔 = 1 =𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥

2 1 2 1 3 1 3−𝑥
• The argument of 𝑓 is 𝑔(𝑥), so 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 =3𝑔 𝑥 −𝑔 𝑥 =3 − = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 =
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥2

1
• The argument of 𝑔 is f(𝑥), so 𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔(3𝑥 2 − 𝑥) = 3𝑥 2−𝑥

14
 1. Review of Functions
Example 5: Identify possible choices for the inner and outer functions in the ℎ 𝑥 = 9𝑥 − 𝑥 2 . Give the domain of the
composite function.

Solution: An obvious outer function is 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 and the inner function is 𝑔 𝑥 = 9𝑥 − 𝑥 2 .

Thus, ℎ can be expressed as ℎ = 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔.
The domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 consist of all values of x such that 9𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 (recall the definition of square roots here).

To solve the inequality, we have 9𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 → 𝑥 9 − 𝑥 ≥ 0. This yields two scenarios:

• 𝑥 9 − 𝑥 = 0 implies that 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 9.
• 𝑥 9 − 𝑥 > 0 implies that we need both factors 𝑥 and (9 − 𝑥) to have the same sign. The only combination that works
is when 𝑥 > 0, 9 − 𝑥 > 0 → 0 < 𝑥 < 9. We can also see this if one plots the function 𝑥(9 − 𝑥).

Putting the two scenarios together, the domain of ℎ(𝑥) is given by 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 9.

15
 1. Review of Functions
Example 6: Given 𝑓 𝑥 = 3
𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 . Give the domain of the composite functions 𝑔 ∘ 𝑔 and 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓.

Solution:
• 𝑔∘𝑔 =𝑔 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 2 − 𝑔 𝑥 − 6 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6 2 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6 − 6
= 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6 − 6 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6 − 1 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6 − 6 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 7 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6 − 6
= 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 − 𝑥 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 − 7 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 − 6 = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 −1 − 1 + 𝑥 2 −6 + 1 − 7 + 𝑥 6 + 7 + 1(42 − 6)
= 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 13𝑥 + 36
Because the composite function is defined for all values of 𝑥, the domain of 𝑔 ∘ 𝑔 is given by (−∞, ∞) or ℝ.

1 2 1 2 1
2
• 𝑔∘𝑓 =𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥 −6= 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 3 − 6 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 6.
3 3

Because the composite function is defined for all values of x [note that it is not an even root and so the quantity under the
3rd root can be both negative and positive], the domain of 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 is (−∞, ∞) or ℝ [set of all real numbers] as well.

16
 1. Review of Functions
As you will see shortly, slopes of lines and curves play a fundamental role in calculus. The figure below shows two points
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)) and 𝑄(𝑥 + ℎ, 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ)) on the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) in the case that ℎ > 0.

A line through any two points on a curve is called a secant line (given
by green line); its importance in the study of calculus is explained in
Chapters 2 and 3.

For now, we focus on the slope of the secant line through the points
𝑃 and 𝑄, which is denoted 𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 and is given by the slope formula below

𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 =
ℎ
The above slope formula is known as a difference quotient and is often
interpreted as the average rate of change of 𝑓 over the interval [𝑥, 𝑥 + ℎ].
17
 1. Review of Functions
𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓(𝑥)
Example 7: Simplify the difference quotient given by where 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥.
ℎ

Solution: Note that 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) is like the composition 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)), where 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 + ℎ. It may help to establish a pattern in
your mind before evaluating 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ).

18
 1. Review of Functions
Example 8: Sound intensity 𝐼, measured in watts per square meter (W/m2 ), at a point 𝑟 meters from a sound source with
𝑃
acoustic power 𝑃 is given by 𝐼(𝑟) = 4𝜋r2.

a) Find the sound intensity at two points 𝑟1 = 10m and 𝑟2 = 15m from a sound source with power 𝑃 = 100W. Then find
the slope of the secant line through the points (10, 𝐼(10)) and (15, 𝐼(15)) and interpret the result.

b) Find the slope of the secant line through any two points (𝑟1 , 𝐼(𝑟1 )) and (𝑟2 , 𝐼(𝑟2 )) on the graph of the intensity function
with acoustic power 𝑃.

19
 1. Review of Functions
Example 8(a): Sound intensity 𝐼, measured in watts per square meter (W/m2 ), at a point 𝑟 meters from a sound source with
𝑃
acoustic power 𝑃 is given by 𝐼(𝑟) = 4𝜋r2. Find the sound intensity at two points 𝑟1 = 10m and 𝑟2 = 15m from a sound

source with power 𝑃 = 100W. Then find the slope of the secant line through the points (10, 𝐼(10)) and (15, 𝐼(15)) and
interpret the result.

Solution: To find the slope of the secant line, we compute the change in intensity divided by the change in distance.

100 1 100 1
𝐼 10 = = , 𝐼 15 = =
4𝜋(102 ) 4𝜋 4𝜋 15 2 9𝜋

1 1
𝐼 15 − 𝐼(10) − 1 W/m2
9𝜋 4𝜋
→ 𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 = = =−
15 − 10 5 36𝜋 m

The units provide a clue to the physical meaning of the slope: It measures the average rate at which the intensity changes as
one moves from 10 m to 15 m away from the sound source. In this case, because the slope of the secant line is negative, the
1
intensity 𝐼 decreases (slowly) at an average rate of − 36𝜋 watts per cubic meter. 20
 1. Review of Functions
Example 8(b): Sound intensity 𝐼, measured in watts per square meter (W/m2 ), at a point 𝑟 meters from a sound source with
𝑃
acoustic power 𝑃 is given by 𝐼(𝑟) = 4𝜋r2. Find the slope of the secant line through any two points (𝑟1 , 𝐼(𝑟1 )) and (𝑟2 , 𝐼(𝑟2 ))

on the graph of the intensity function with acoustic power 𝑃 and interpret the result.

𝑃 𝑃
Solution: First, we have 𝐼 𝑟1 = 4𝜋(𝑟 2) , 𝐼 𝑟2 = 4𝜋(𝑟 2 ) . Then, we compute the slope of the secant line 𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 .
1 2

𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 1 1 𝑃 𝑟12 − 𝑟22
− −
𝐼 𝑟2 − 𝐼(𝑟1 ) 4𝜋(𝑟22 ) 4𝜋(𝑟12 ) 4𝜋 𝑟22 𝑟12 4𝜋 𝑟22 𝑟12
𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 = = = =
𝑟2 − 𝑟1 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 𝑟2 − 𝑟1

𝑃 (𝑟1 − 𝑟2 )(𝑟1 + 𝑟2 ) This result is the average rate at which the sound intensity changes
4𝜋 𝑟22 𝑟12 𝑃 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 over an interval [𝑟1 , 𝑟2 ]. Because 𝑟1 > 0 and 𝑟2 > 0, we see
= =−
𝑟2 − 𝑟1 4𝜋 𝑟22 𝑟12
that 𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 is always negative. Therefore, the sound intensity 𝐼(𝑟)
decreases as 𝑟 increases, for 𝑟 > 0.
21
 1. Review of Functions
Below are definitions of symmetries of graphs and the relations they represent:
a) A graph is symmetric with respect to the 𝑦-axis if whenever the point (𝑥, 𝑦) is on the graph, the point (−𝑥, 𝑦) is also on the
graph. This property means that the graph is unchanged when reflected across the 𝑦-axis.

b) A graph is symmetric with respect to the 𝑥-axis if whenever the point (𝑥, 𝑦) is on the graph, the point (𝑥, −𝑦) is also on the
graph. This property means that the graph is unchanged when reflected across the 𝑥-axis.

c) A graph is symmetric with respect to the origin if whenever the point (𝑥, 𝑦) is on the graph, the point (−𝑥, −𝑦) is also on the
graph. Symmetry about both the 𝑥- and 𝑦-axes implies symmetry about the origin, but not vice versa.

22
 1. Review of Functions
• An even function f has the property that 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥), for all 𝑥 in the domain. The graph of an even function is
symmetric about the 𝑦-axis.

• An odd function f has the property that 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥), for all 𝑥 in the domain. The graph of an odd function is
symmetric about the origin.
Example 9: Identify the symmetry, if any, in the following functions:

Solution:
a. We observe that 𝑓 −𝑥 = −𝑥 4 − 2 −𝑥 2 − 20 = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 − 20 = 𝑓 𝑥 . Thus, the function is even.

3
b. We observe that 𝑔 −𝑥 = −𝑥 − 3 −𝑥 + 1 = −𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 + 1 ≠ ±𝑔(𝑥). Thus, the function is neither even nor odd.

1 1 1
c. We observe that ℎ −𝑥 = = −𝑥 3 +𝑥 = − 𝑥 3 −𝑥 = −ℎ(𝑥). Thus, the function is odd.
−𝑥 3 −(−𝑥) 23
 1. Review of Functions
Before we conclude this section, we aim to summarize what we have learned so far through the example below.

Example 10: Explain why the graph of a non-zero function is never symmetric with respect to the 𝑥-axis.

Solution:
• Recall the definition of a function: A function 𝑓 is a rule that assigns to each value 𝑥 in a set 𝐷 a unique value denoted
𝑓(𝑥). In other words, for every independent variable x, there is only ONE dependent variable 𝑦. Recall the vertical
line test (see here).

• So if the graph is symmetric about the 𝒙-axis, this means that there is more than one value of the dependent
variable 𝒚 that correspond to at least one value of the independent variable 𝒙.

• Thus, a graph that is symmetric about the 𝑥-axis is not a function to begin with! The only exception to this is the
graph of 𝑦 = 0. But the latter is not a non-zero function.
24
 2. Representing Functions
In the previous section, we have been looking at functions in terms of their definition and properties: vertical line test,
symmetry (if any), even and odd (if any). You may have observed from the example 4 and example 10, how functions
were used to describe a physical phenomena.

As Richard Feynmann points out, “Everything we know is only some kind of approximation, because we know that we do
not know all the laws yet. Therefore, things must be learned only to be unlearned again or, more likely, to be corrected.”

In fact, the chief goal of mathematical modelling is to come up with appropriate functions that reasonably approximate
the observed reality – beginning first with basic functions. As you get more experienced with the basic modelling
process, more complicated functions and combinations of basic functions would be warranted.

In this section, we will describe the common mathematical functions deployed so far and how we can perform basic
manipulations on it (through transformations).

25
 2. Representing Functions
1. Polynomials are functions of the form 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 , where the coefficients
𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , ⋯ , 𝑎𝑛 are real numbers with 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 and the nonnegative integer 𝑛 is the degree of the polynomial. The domain of
any polynomial is the set of all real numbers. An 𝑛-th degree polynomial can have as many as 𝑛 real zeros or roots (values
of 𝑥 at which 𝑝(𝑥) = 0); the zeros are points at which the graph of 𝑝 intersects the 𝑥-axis. The most common polynomials
seen are linear (𝑛 = 1; 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 ) and quadratic (𝑛 = 2; 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 ).

2. Rational functions are ratios of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑝(𝑥)/𝑞(𝑥), where 𝑝(𝑥) and 𝑞(𝑥) are polynomials. Because division by
zero is prohibited, the domain of a rational function is the set of all real numbers except those for which the denominator
is zero.

3. Algebraic functions are constructed using the operations of algebra: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and
1
roots. Examples of algebraic functions are 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 4 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 (𝑥 3 + 2). In general, if an even root (square
4

root, fourth root, and so forth) appears, then the domain does not contain points at which the quantity under the root is
negative (and perhaps other points). 26
 2. Representing Functions
4. Exponential functions have the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 , where the base 𝑏 ≠ 1 is a positive real number. Closely associated
with exponential functions are logarithmic functions of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑏 (𝑥), where 𝑏 > 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 1. Exponential
functions have a domain consisting of all real numbers. Logarithmic functions are defined for positive real numbers. The
natural exponential function is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 , with base 𝑏 = 𝑒, where 𝑒 ≈ 2.71828 ⋯ is one of the fundamental constants of
mathematics. Associated with the natural exponential function is the natural logarithm function 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑒 𝑥 = ln(𝑥)
which has a base 𝑏 = 𝑒.

sin 𝑥 1
5. The trigonometric functions are sin 𝑥 , sine 𝑥 cos 𝑥 , cosine 𝑥 tan 𝑥 = cos tangent 𝑥 , cot 𝑥 = tan 𝑥
𝑥

1 1
[cotangent 𝑥], sec 𝑥 = cos [secant 𝑥], and csc 𝑥 = sin(𝑥) [cosecant 𝑥]. The functions sin(x) and cos(x) have a domain
𝑥

consisting of all real numbers. For the other functions, the domain will be all real numbers except where the denominator
expression is zero. For instance, the domain of tan(𝑥) will be all real numbers except where cos(𝑥) = 0. More details will be
given later in this Chapter.

27
 2. Representing Functions
6. A function may have different definitions on different parts of its domain. For example, income tax is levied in tax
brackets that have different tax rates. Functions that have different definitions on different parts of their domain are
called piecewise functions. If all the pieces are linear, the function is piecewise linear. Here are some examples.

Example 11: The graph of a piecewise linear function 𝑔 is given below. Find a formula for this function 𝑔. Note that the
open circles mean that the line goes close to that point but not including that point. The black circle means that the
function is defined at that point. In this example, the piecewise linear function at 𝑥 = 2 has a value of 3.

28
 2. Representing Functions
Example 11: The graph of a piecewise linear function 𝑔 is given below. Find a formula for this function 𝑔.

Solution: For 𝑥 < 2, we have a straight line and so we have a linear polynomial so we have to find 𝑎1
and 𝑎0 . Recall how to find the slope of a line here (slope of a secant line); you should have a slope of 1.
So, 𝑎1 = 1. The 𝑦-intercept (where the graph cuts the 𝑦-axis) is at point (0,0). So, 𝑎0 = 0.
Thus for 𝑥 < 2 is given by 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 (𝑎1 = 1; 𝑎0 = 0).

At 𝑥 = 2, 𝑔(𝑥) = 3.

For 𝑥 > 2, we again have a straight line and a linear polynomial. The slope is −1/2 (calculate this by taking any 2 points on the graph and
finding the slope). The 𝑦-intercept is needed but because the line does not cut the 𝑦-axis, we have to employ a different way. If the slope is
1
− 1/2 (check this on your own), then 𝑎1 = −1/2. Using the point (4,3), we have 𝑔 4 = 𝑝 4 = 3 = − 4 + 𝑎0 → 𝑎0 = 5.
2

𝑥 𝑥<2
3 𝑥=2
∴ 𝑔 𝑥 = 1
− 𝑥+5 𝑥>2
2
29
 2. Representing Functions
In the previous example, we sought to determine the function from the graph. This is an important skill to master because
a very common activity in mathematical modelling is to determine a suitable function(s) from the graphical output. Being
able to recognize patterns and translate these patterns into an equation is a very useful skill.

In the next example, we seek to determine the graph from the function. In the age of computers, it might seem like a
redundant activity. However, knowing how to visualize the graph from a common function is helpful (saves time) when we
try to construct a suitable function(s) in order to develop a mathematical model of the problem of interest.

Example 12: Determine the graph of the following piecewise functions.

For part a, we observe that we have a rational function for all real values of 𝑥 except at 𝑥 = 2. For part b, it looks like we
30
have a single function. Or is it?
 2. Representing Functions
Example 12: Determine the graph of the following piecewise functions.

Solution: For part a, we always aim to simplify a rational function first and observe that

(𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6) 𝑥−3 𝑥−2
𝑓 𝑥 = = = (𝑥 − 3)
(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥−2
So, we can expect that 𝑓(𝑥) will behave like a straight line. But because we cannot change
the representation of the function, the line will have an open circle at 𝑥 = 2. However, we
note that the piecewise function specifies a function at 𝑥 = 2. Since 𝑓 2 = 1 ≠ 2 − 3
= −1, we can expect to see a line with an open circle at 𝑥 = 2 and a full circle at the point
(2,1). Note that we need to verify that 𝑓 2 ≠ −1 because if 𝑓 2 = −1, then the open circle will be filled and we will
end up with a perfect straight line (without “holes”).
31
 2. Representing Functions
Example 12: Determine the graph of the following piecewise functions.

Solution: For part b, we observe that the absolute value function comprises of two different graphs in different domains
and hence, is called a piecewise function.

By definition, the absolute value of the function seeks to make any number (x here)
positive, regardless of its sign. For instance, | − 2| = 2 and |2| = 2. Thus, the absolute
value function will have a piecewise definition as follows:

The result is two lines one with a negative slope for 𝑥 < 0 and the other a positive slope for 𝑥 > 0. At 𝑥 = 0, the function
32
is zero and we see that both lines can connect at 𝑥 = 0 without any open circles.
 2. Representing Functions
7. Power functions are a special case of polynomials; they have the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , where 𝑛 > 0.

When 𝑛 is an even integer, the function values are nonnegative and the graph passes through the origin, opening upward.

For odd integers, the power function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 has values that are positive when 𝑥 > 0 and negative when 𝑥 < 0.

33
 2. Representing Functions
1
𝑛
8. Root functions are a special case of algebraic functions; they have the form 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 = 𝑛 𝑥 , where 𝑛 > 0.

Notice that when 𝑛 is even (square roots, fourth roots, and so forth), the domain and range consist of nonnegative
numbers (that is, 𝑥 ≥ 0). Their graphs begin steeply at the origin and flatten out as 𝑥 increases.

By contrast, the odd root functions (cube roots, fifth roots, and so forth) are defined for all real values of 𝑥 and their range
is all real numbers. Their graphs pass through the origin, open upward for 𝑥 < 0 and downward for 𝑥 > 0 and flatten out
as 𝑥 increases in magnitude.

34
 2. Representing Functions
Having covered the most common mathematical functions, we want to discuss how to transform the graph of a function
to produce graphs of new functions. Four transformations are common: shifts in the 𝑥- and 𝑦-directions and scalings in
the 𝑥- and 𝑦-directions.

The figures on the left

demonstrate when we
shift a graph (black curve)
vertically [ref. (a)] and
horizontally [ref. (b)].

(a) (b) 35
 2. Representing Functions
The figures below demonstrate when we scale a graph (black curve) in the 𝑦-direction by a positive number [ref. (c)] and a negative
number [ref. (d)]

(c) (d)
36
 2. Representing Functions
The figures below demonstrate when we scale a graph (black curve) in the 𝑥-direction by a positive number [ref. (e)] and a negative
number [ref. (f)]

(e)
(f)

37
 2. Representing Functions
Having showed how a function is shifted in the 𝑥- and 𝑦-directions and scalings in the 𝑥-direction and 𝑦-direction.

A summary of what we have done is given below.

38
 2. Representing Functions
Now is a good time to refresh our motivation for why we are learning what we are learning. What we have learned so
far might seem basic but they provide the intellectual foundation for modelling more complex problems. The two-fold
essence of mathematical modelling is to recognize patterns in our observations and translate these patterns
mathematically to better understand them.

In Section 1, we have been looking at functions in terms of their definition and properties: vertical line test, symmetry (if
any), even and odd (if any). You may have observed from the example 3 and example 8, how functions were used to
describe a physical phenomena.

In this section, we described the most common functions in terms of how it can represented through their formulae,
graphs, specific properties.

We also showed how functions can be manipulated through transformations in the form of shifts and scaling in the 𝑥-
and 𝑦-directions. We will end this section with an example to further cement our understanding.
39
 2. Representing Functions
Example 13: The graphs A, B, and C in the figure on the right
are obtained from the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 (black graph) using
shifts and scalings. Find the function that describes graphs A,
B and C.

Solution:
Graph A is denoted by the purple graph and observe that it
resembles the original black graph with one exception: it has
shifted to the right by 2 units.

We can readily see that it is 2 units because the base of the graph has moved from the origin to the point (2,0). The
point (2,0) is also known as the 𝑥-intercept because this is where the graph cuts the 𝑥-axis.

Thus, the function for graph A is 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 − 2 = 𝑥 − 2 2 .

40
 2. Representing Functions
Example 13: The graphs A, B, and C in the figure on the right
are obtained from the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 (black graph) using
shifts and scalings. Find the function that describes graphs A,
B and C.

Solution:
Graph B looks “bigger” than the original graph but just in case
you think it has been scaled. The method we shall present
is a systematic way to evaluate the problem.
First, determine the 𝑥- and 𝑦-intercepts and then recall the formula
from the summary: 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑓 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑏 + 𝑑.
The 𝑥-intercepts are (−2,0) and (2,0) and the 𝑦-intercept is (0, −4). Given that the original (black) graph is given by
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 , we know that graph B can be represented by 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑓 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑏 +𝑑 =𝑐 𝑎 𝑥−𝑏 2
+ 𝑑 = 𝑐𝑎2 (𝑥 2 −
2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑏2 ) + 𝑑.
41
 2. Representing Functions
Example 13: The graphs A, B, and C in the figure on the right
are obtained from the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 (black graph) using
shifts and scalings. Find the function that describes graphs A,
B and C.

Solution:
First, we substitute the two 𝑥-intercepts into the equation:
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑎2 𝑥 2 − 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑏2 + 𝑑
Substituting −2,0 → 0 = 𝑐𝑎2 4 + 4𝑏 + 𝑏2 + 𝑑
Substituting 2,0 → 0 = 𝑐𝑎2 4 − 4𝑏 + 𝑏2 + 𝑑
Since the left hand side of the above 2 equations (in blue) are the same, we can combine them to yield
𝑐𝑎2 4 + 4𝑏 + 𝑏2 + 𝑑 = 𝑐𝑎2 4 − 4𝑏 + 𝑏2 + 𝑑 = 0 → 4𝑏 = −4𝑏 → 𝑏=0
So, 𝑏 = 0 means that the function has not been shifted horizontally in any way. Observe that graph B is also symmetric
about the 𝑦-axis. Further, 4𝑐𝑎2 = −𝑑. So far, we know that graph B has the form: 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑎2 𝑥 2 − 4𝑐𝑎2 .
42
 2. Representing Functions
Example 13: The graphs A, B, and C in the figure on the right
are obtained from the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 (black graph) using
shifts and scalings. Find the function that describes graphs A,
B and C.

Solution:
Next, we substitute the 𝑦-intercept into the equation:
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑎2 𝑥 2 − 4𝑐𝑎2
Substituting 0, −4 → −4 = 𝑐𝑎2 02 − 4𝑐𝑎2
The equation in blue above implies that 𝑐𝑎2 = 1.
Hence, the function for graph B is 𝑦 = 1 𝑥 2 − 4 1 = 𝑥 2 − 4 = 𝑓 𝑥 − 4. This means that the original black graph has
been shifted downwards by 4 units.

Let us apply what we have learned so far in the two examples to our final graph C.
43
 2. Representing Functions
Example 13: The graphs A, B, and C in the figure on the right
are obtained from the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 (black graph) using
shifts and scalings. Find the function that describes graphs A,
B and C.

Solution:
Comparing graph C with graph B, we observe a similarity: same 𝑥-intercepts.
However, the difference lies in the 𝑦-intercepts. So, graph C is not just a
downward shift. Because of the similarity with graph B, we can use the
equation: 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑎2 𝑥 2 − 4𝑐𝑎2 and substitute the 𝑦-intercept (0, −1) into this equation to give us
1
−1 = 𝑐𝑎2 02 − 4𝑐𝑎2 → 𝑐𝑎2 = 1/4. Hence, the function for graph C is 𝑦 = 4 𝑥 2 − 1. This means that the original

1 2 1 2
black graph vertically scaled by a factor of 1/4 and shifted downwards by 1 unit. Observe that 𝑦 = 𝑥 −1= 𝑥 −1
4 2

as well. The implication is different because the latter is the result of a horizontal scaling by a factor of 1/2.
44
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Extending what was covered in the previous section, the following are properties of the exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 :
1. Because 𝑏 𝑥 is defined for all real numbers, the domain of the function 𝑓 is all the real numbers. Because 𝑏 𝑥 > 0 for
all values of 𝑥, the range of the function 𝑓 is the set of non-negative real numbers, that is {𝑦: 0 ≤ 𝑦 < ∞}.
2. For all 𝑏 > 0, 𝑏0 = 1, and therefore 𝑓(0) = 1.
3. If 𝑏 > 1, then f is an
increasing function of 𝑥
(when 𝑥 increases, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
increases too).
[see figure on the left]
4. If 0 < 𝑏 < 1, then 𝑓 is a
decreasing function of 𝑥
(when 𝑥 increases, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
decreases).
[see figure on the right]
45
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Consider the linear function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥, which takes any value of 𝑥 and doubles it.

The function that reverses this process by taking any value of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 and mapping it back to 𝑥 is called the inverse
function of 𝑓, denoted 𝑓 −1 . In this case, the inverse function is 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑥/2.

The effect of applying these two functions in succession looks like this:

Definition: Given a function 𝑓, its inverse (if it exists) is a

function 𝑓 −1 such that whenever 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦).

46
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Because the inverse function “undoes” the original function, if we start with a value of 𝑥, apply the function 𝑓 to it, and
then apply 𝑓 −1 to the result, we recover the original value of 𝑥; that is,

Similarly, if we apply 𝑓 −1 to a value of 𝑦 and then apply the function 𝑓 to the result, we recover the original value of 𝑦;
that is,

We have defined the inverse of a function 𝑓 but said nothing yet about when it exists. This is where the horizontal line
test comes in.
47
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
To ensure that 𝑓 has an inverse on a domain, 𝑓 must be one-to-one on that domain. This property means that every
output of the function 𝑓 must correspond to exactly one input. The one-to-one property is checked graphically by using
both the horizontal line and vertical line tests.

Definition: A function 𝑓 is one-to-one

on a domain 𝐷 if each value of 𝑓(𝑥)
corresponds to exactly one value of
𝑥 in 𝐷. More precisely, 𝑓 is
one-to-one on 𝐷 if 𝑓 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑓(𝑥2 )
whenever 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 , for any 𝑥1 and
𝑥2 in 𝐷. The horizontal line test says
that every horizontal line intersects
the graph of a one-to-one function at
most once.
48
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
In the graphs below, some horizontal lines intersect the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 twice. Therefore, 𝑓 does not
have an inverse function on the interval (−∞, ∞). However, if the domain of the function 𝑓 is restricted to one of the
intervals (−∞, 0] or [0, ∞), then the graph of 𝑓 passes both the horizontal line and vertical line tests on these intervals.

49
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Example 14: Determine the (largest possible) intervals on which the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 4 is one-to-one.

Solution:
A plot of the function is given on the right and we see that there are peaks
at x=-1 and x=1. We can see that in order for the function to satisfy the
horizontal test, we have to consider the following intervals along the x-axis:
−∞, −1 , −1,0 , 0,1 , [1, ∞).

The function is thus one-to-one on any ONE of the 4 sub-intervals above.

To be clear: If we are given a domain that comprises of any 2 or more

of the 4 sub-intervals, then the horizontal line test fails and we will not have
an inverse function on this domain.

50
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
So an inevitable question arises: when does an inverse function exist? The graphs below illustrate the actions of a one-
to-one function 𝑓 and its inverse 𝑓 −1. We observe two characteristics:

• We see that 𝑓 maps a value of 𝑥 to a unique value of 𝑦 [this is the definition of a function; use vertical line test]
• In turn, 𝑓 −1 maps that value of 𝑦 back to the original value of 𝑥 (see left figure below) [horizontal line test]. This
procedure cannot be carried out if 𝑓 is not one-to-one because we cannot be sure which one to use (see right figure
below).

51
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Let’s see this in terms of an example. For the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 1, we see that the function 𝑓 is not one-to-one on the domain
(−∞, ∞). However if we considered either (−∞, 0] or [0, ∞) as the domain of 𝑓, then
the function would be one-to-one.

To find the inverse for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 1, we know that 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 1. Then, we

proceed to make 𝑥 the subject. That is, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 1 → 𝑥 = ± 𝑦 + 1. Then the

inverse function is obtained by replacing the 𝑦 with 𝑥.

Because we must consider both signs when taking the square root, we see the
the importance of specifying the domain of 𝑓 in order to determine the existence of the inverse function of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1.

If our domain of 𝑓 was −∞, 0 , then we would choose 𝑥 = − 𝑦 + 1 because the domain for 𝑓 was all non-positive numbers. The

inverse of 𝑓 here would be 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = − 𝑥 + 1. If our domain of 𝑓 was 0, ∞ then we would choose 𝑥 = 𝑦 + 1 because the domain

for 𝑓 are all non-negative numbers. The corresponding inverse of 𝑓 would then be 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1. We clearly see that we have two
different functions! Let us look at an example to cement our understanding.
52
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Example 15: Sketch 𝑓 and 𝑓 −1 on the same coordinate axes for (a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 6, (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1

Solution:
a) For 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 6, we first solve for 𝑥 to find the inverse function:
1 1
𝑥 = 2 (𝑦 − 6). Then, we replace y with x to yield 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 2 (𝑥 − 6).

1 1
Sketching 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 6 (red line) and 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = 2 𝑥 − 6 = 2 𝑥 − 3 (blue line),

we obtain the lines, as shown on the right.

We further observe that the two lines are symmetric about the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.

53
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Example 15: Sketch 𝑓 and 𝑓 −1 on the same coordinate axes for (a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 6, (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1

Solution:
b) For 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1, we first solve for 𝑥 to find the inverse function:
𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 1. Then, we replace y with x to yield 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 1.

Sketching 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1 (red line) and 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 1 (blue line),

we obtain the lines, as shown on the right.

54
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
The graphs of members of the family of exponential functions 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥 are shown below for various values of the base 𝑏.

Notice that all of these graphs pass through the same

point (0,1) because 𝑏0 = 1 for 𝑏 ≠ 0.

Notice also that as the base 𝑏 gets larger, the exponential

function grows more rapidly for 𝑥 > 0.

It has a domain ℝ of and a range of (0, ∞).

55
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Now, everything we learned about inverse functions can now applied to the exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 . For any
𝑏 > 0, with 𝑏 ≠ 1, this function is one-to-one on the interval (−∞, ∞). Therefore, the exponential function has an
inverse and this inverse function is the logarithmic function.

Definition: For any base 𝑏 > 0, with 𝑏 ≠ 1, the logarithmic function base 𝑏, denoted 𝑦 = log 𝑏 (𝑥), is the inverse of the
exponential function 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥 .

Further, the following relations hold for base 𝑏 > 0, with 𝑏 ≠ 1 :

• For 𝑥 > 0, 𝑏 log𝑏(𝑥) = 𝑥
• For all real values of 𝑥, log 𝑏 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑥 → log 𝑏 𝑏 = 1
𝑥
• For 𝑥 > 0, 𝑦 > 0, 𝑧 > 0, log 𝑏 (𝑥𝑦) = log 𝑏 (𝑥) + log 𝑏 (𝑦) → log 𝑏 = log 𝑏 𝑥𝑦 −1 = log 𝑏 𝑥 − log 𝑏 (𝑦)
𝑦

• For 𝑥 > 0, log 𝑏 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 / ln(𝑏), where the inverse of the natural exponential function with base 𝑏 = 𝑒 is the
natural logarithm function, denoted 𝑦 = ln(𝑥).
56
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
The graph of the logarithmic function is generated using the symmetry of the graphs of a function and its inverse. We observe
how the graphs of the exponential and logarithmic functions are symmetric about the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 [see figure on the left].

Because the range of 𝑏 𝑥 is (0, ∞),

the domain of log 𝑏 (𝑥) is (0, ∞).

The domain of 𝑏 𝑥 is (−∞, ∞), which

implies that the range of log 𝑏 (𝑥) is
(−∞, ∞).

Because 𝑏0 = 1, it follows that

log 𝑏 (1) = 0.

If 𝑏 > 1, then log 𝑏 (𝑥) is an increasing function of 𝑥. For example if 𝑏 = 𝑒, then ln(𝑥) > ln(𝑦) whenever 𝑥 > 𝑦
(see figure on the right). 57
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Example 16: One thousand grams of a particular radioactive substance decays according to the function
𝑡
−
𝑚(𝑡) = 1000𝑒 850 , where 𝑡 ≥ 0 measures time in years. When does the mass of the substance reach the safe level
deemed to be 1 g?

Solution:
The question wants us to find the time it takes for the mass to be 1 g (1 gram). First, we set up the equation 𝑚(𝑡) = 1 and
then solve for 𝑡.
𝑡
−850
𝑚 𝑡 = 1000𝑒 −𝑡/850 = 1 → log 𝑒 (1000𝑒 −𝑡/850 ) = log 𝑒 1 → log 𝑒 1000𝑒 − log 𝑒 1 = 0

𝑡
−850
1000𝑒 𝑡
−850 𝑡
→ log 𝑒 = log 𝑒 1000𝑒 = 0 → log 𝑒 1000 + − log 𝑒 (𝑒) = 0
1 850
𝑡
→ 6.91 − 1 = 0 → 𝑡 ≈ 5,872
850
Thus, it takes approximately (because 6.91 is the approximation used for log 𝑒 (1000)) 5,872 years to reach 1 g.
58
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
We have seen that the exponential function 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥 (𝑏 > 1) increases so rapidly that it’s sometimes difficult to represent
data points conveniently on a single plot.

On the other hand, we have just seen that their inverse functions, the logarithmic functions, increase very slowly.

For that reason, logarithmic scales are often used when real-world quantities involve a huge disparity in size: the pH scale
for the acidity of a solution, the decibel scale for loudness, the Richter scale for the magnitude of an earthquake.

In such cases, the equidistant marks on a logarithmic scale represent consecutive powers of 10.

59
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
In biology, for instance, it’s common to use a semi-log plot to see whether data points are appropriately modelled by an
exponential function.

This means that instead of plotting the points (𝑥, 𝑦), we plot the points (𝑥, log(𝑦)). (Logarithms to the base 10 are always
used, so we substitute log = log10 ).

In other words, we use a logarithmic scale on the vertical axis. If we start with an exponential function of the form
𝑦 = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 𝑥 and take logarithms of both sides, we get log 𝑦 = log 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 𝑥 = log 𝑎 + log 𝑏 𝑥 = log 𝑎 + 𝑥 ⋅ log(𝑏)

If we have 𝑌 = log 𝑦 , 𝑀 = log 𝑏 , 𝐶 = log(𝑎), then log 𝑦 = log 𝑎 + 𝑥 ⋅ log 𝑏 → 𝑌 = 𝐶 + 𝑀𝑥, which is the
equation of a line with slope 𝑀 and 𝑌-intercept 𝐵.

So if we obtain experimental data that we suspect might possibly be exponential, then we could graph a semi-log scatter
plot and see if it is approximately linear. If so, we could then obtain an exponential model for our original data.
60
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Example 17: In 1995 a paper appeared detailing the effect of the protease inhibitor ABT-538 on the human immunodeficiency
virus. The table below shows values of the plasma viral load 𝑉(𝑡) of patient 303, measured in RNA copies per mL, t days after ABT-
538 treatment was begun. The corresponding scatter plot is shown in Figure A below.

Figure A Figure B

The rather dramatic decline of the viral load that we see in the figure above reminds us of the graphs of the exponential function
𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥 for the case where the base 𝑏 < 1. So let us model the function 𝑉(𝑡) by an exponential function. Using a graphing
calculator or computer to fit the data in the table above with an exponential function of the form 𝑦 = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 𝑡 , we obtain the
model 𝑦 = 96.39785 0.818656 𝑡 (red graph in Figure B). The model represents the viral load reasonably well for the first month
of treatment.
61
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
In the table below we calculate log(𝑉 𝑡 ) and we show the corresponding semi-log plot with the original data in the figure on the
right.

Plot

We see that the first five data points in the figure lie very nearly on a straight line and, using linear regression, we get the
equation: log 𝑉 𝑡 = 2.006 − 0.088𝑡, 1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 15. Linear regression will be formally taught in a probability module . We will
explore how this can be implemented using software. That will be done later so we will assume that the above is correct.

Then, applying the exponential function with base 10 to both sides of this equation, we obtain an equation for the viral load:
𝑉 𝑡 = 101 0.817 𝑡 . This is quite close to the exponential model we got in the previous slide using 6 data points.

62
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Side note: you might be wondering which approach should we use. A lot depends on whether you can detect a pattern
with the minimum number of data points. This is largely what data science is about.

If we use logarithmic scales on both the horizontal and vertical axes showing the values of the original variables 𝑥 and 𝑦
respectively, then the resulting graph is called a log-log plot. It is used when we suspect that a power function might be a
good model for our data.

If we start with a power function 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 𝑝 and take logarithms of both sides, we get
log 𝑦 = log 𝐶𝑥 𝑝 = log 𝐶 + 𝑝 ⋅ log(𝑥)

If we have 𝑌 = log 𝑦 , 𝑋 = log 𝑥 , 𝐵 = log(𝐶) then

log 𝑦 = log 𝐶 + 𝑝 ⋅ log 𝑥 → 𝑌 = 𝐵 + 𝑝𝑋

We recognize that 𝑌 is a linear function of 𝑋, so the points log 𝑥 , log 𝑦 lie on a straight line.
63
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Example 18: The table below the areas of several caves in central Mexico and the number of bat species that live in each
cave.
(a) Make a scatter plot and a log-log plot of the data.
(b) Is a power model appropriate? If so, find an expression for it.
(c) The cave called El Sapo near Puebla, Mexico, has a surface area of 𝐴 = 205m2 . Use the model to estimate the number
of bat species you would expect to find in that cave.

64
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Solution:
(a)

Plot

Take log for both variables

Plot

65
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
(b) It appears that log(𝑆) is approximately a linear function of log(𝐴). With a graphing calculator or computer, we get the
linear model: log 𝑆 = 0.64 log 𝐴 − 0.86.

Then, we apply the exponential to both sides of the equation to obtain

log 𝑆 = 0.64 log 𝐴 − 0.86 → S = 100.64 log A −0.86 = 10log A0.64 ⋅ 10−0.86 = A0.64 ⋅ (0.14)

0.64
(c) Using the model from part (b) with 𝐴 = 205, we get 𝑆 = 0.14 205 ≈ 4.22.
So we would expect to find about four bat species in the El Sapo cave.

66
 3. Inverse, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Mathematical Modelling is not a precise science; it is more an art because there are many factors that have to be considered before we
choose which function and approach to take. Striking a balance between the given data, computational time, sufficiently good
approximations are what mathematical modellers think about all the time!

In the era of machine learning, mathematical modelling can appear redundant. However, it should be stressed that machine learning will
never tell you why something is occurring whereas mathematical modelling does give us robust approximations. So, as the problems we
face get increasingly complex, the winning formula is to marry both machine learning and mathematical modelling to ensure that the
results of our models are robust (i.e. consistently accurate). 67
 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
This section is a review of what you need to know in order to study the calculus of trigonometric functions.
• Working with a circle of radius 𝑟, the radian measure of an angle 𝜃 is the length of the arc 𝑠 divided by the radius of the
circle 𝑟.
• Working on a unit circle 𝑟 = 1, the radian measure of an angle is simply the length of the arc 𝑠 associated with 𝜃.

68
 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
For acute angles (less than 90 degrees), the trigonometric functions are defined as ratios of the lengths of the sides of a
right triangle (see figure on the left below). To extend these definitions to include all angles, we work in an 𝑥𝑦-coordinate
system (Cartesian coordinates) with a circle of radius 𝑟 centered at the origin. Suppose that (𝑥, 𝑦) is a point on the circle.
An angle 𝜃 is in standard position if its initial side is on the positive 𝑥-axis and its terminal side is the line segment OP
between the origin and P (see figure on the right below).

An angle is positive if it is
obtained by a
The opposite side
counterclockwise
is defined by the
side of the triangle rotation from the
opposite to the
angle 𝜃. The positive 𝑥-axis.
adjacent (“next
to”) side is the side
of the right
triangle is next to
the angle 𝜃.
69
 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses

For circular motion in Physics, it is helpful to consider

expressing the location of a point in terms of 𝑟 and 𝜃. This
new coordinate system is called polar coordinate system.

The Cartesian and polar coordinate systems are related

according to the formulae: 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos(𝜃) and 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin(𝜃).

To find the trigonometric functions of the standard angles (multiples

of 30° and 45°), it is helpful to know the radian measure of those
angles and the coordinates of the associated points on the unit circle.
But there is no need to memorize these numbers! 70
 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
Trigonometric functions are examples of periodic functions:
Their values repeat over every interval of some fixed length.
We see this when we look at angles greater than 360° or 2𝜋
radians. A function 𝑓 is said to be periodic if 𝑓(𝜃 + 𝑃) = 𝑓(𝜃),
for all 𝜃 in the domain, where the period 𝑃 is the smallest
positive real number that has this property.

71
 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
Trigonometric identities are useful in helping us to better understand the relationship between the various trigonometric
functions. However, you are not required to memorize them but remembering the basics will help speed up handwritten
calculations. Apart from the reciprocal identities (which stem from the definitions discussed here), the rest can be derived.

sin 𝜃 + 𝛽 = sin 𝜃 cos 𝛽 + sin 𝛽 cos(𝜃)

cos 𝜃 + 𝛽 = cos 𝛽 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝛽 sin(𝜃)

72
 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
Let us briefly demonstrate how these relations came about. Note that the essence of this module is not to do proofs but
doing basic proofs help us to think more logically and systematically.

Recall from definition that the tangent of an angle 𝜃 is the length of the opposite side divided by
the adjacent side, i.e. tan 𝜃 = 𝑂/𝐴.

• If sin 𝜃 = 𝑂/𝐻 and cos 𝜃 = 𝐴/𝐻 by definition, then

𝑂
tan 𝜃 = = (𝑂/𝐻)Τ(𝐴/𝐻) → 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝜽) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 /𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽)
𝐴

• In the polar coordinate system, the point (𝑥, 𝑦) lies on the circle and must satisfy the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 . As shown here, 𝑂 = 𝑦,
𝐴 = 𝑥, 𝐻 = 𝑟 and 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 . Substituting these expressions of 𝑥 and 𝑦 into the equation of the circle, we obtain
𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2
2 2
→ 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃 = 𝑟2
→ 𝑟 2 cos 2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 = 𝑟2 factorize the 𝑟 2 term out
→ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 (𝜽) + 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽 = 𝟏
73
 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
• Assuming that cos 𝜃 ≠ 0 ,
cos2 (𝜃) + sin2 𝜃 = 1
divide equation by cos2 (𝜃);
2
sin2 𝜃 1 1 because we cannot divide by
→ 1+ = = = sec 2 𝜃
cos2 𝜃 cos2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 zero, hence we have to
assume that cos 𝜃 ≠ 0

→ 𝟏 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝜽 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 (𝜽)

• Assuming that sin 𝜃 ≠ 0 ,

cos2 (𝜃) + sin2 𝜃 = 1

2 divide equation by sin2 (𝜃);

cos 2 𝜃 1 1 because we cannot divide by
→ + 1 = = = csc 2 𝜃
sin2 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 sin 𝜃 zero, hence we have to
assume that sin 𝜃 ≠ 0

→ 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 𝜽 + 𝟏 = 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 (𝜽)

74
 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
• Starting with sin 𝜃 + 𝛽 = sin 𝜃 cos 𝛽 + sin 𝛽 cos(𝜃) and cos 𝜃 + 𝛽 = cos 𝛽 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝛽 sin(𝜃), we see that

If 𝜃 = 𝛽, then

sin 2𝜃 = sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos(𝜃)

cos 2𝜃 = cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 = cos2 𝜃 − sin2 (𝜃)

Then using cos2 (𝜃) + sin2 (𝜃) = 1, we observe that

cos 2𝜃 = cos2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 = 1 − sin2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 = 1 − 2 sin2 (𝜃)

cos 2𝜃 = cos2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 = cos2 𝜃 − 1 − cos2 𝜃 = 2cos2 𝜃 − 1

The two above equations yield

1 − cos 2𝜃
1 − 2 sin2 𝜃 = cos 2𝜃 → sin2 𝜃 =
2

1 + cos(2𝜃)
2 cos2 𝜃 − 1 = cos 2𝜃 → cos2 𝜃 =
2 75
 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
Example 19: Solve the following equations: (a) 2 sin 𝑥 + 1 = 0 and (b) cos 2𝑥 = sin(2𝑥).

Solution:
1 2
a) First, we solve for sin(𝑥) since it contains the unknown variable x. So, sin 𝑥 = − → sin 𝑥 = − .
2 2

Because of the periodicity of trigonometric functions (sine function period of the sine function is 2𝜋), the solution is
5𝜋 7𝜋
𝑥= + 2𝑛𝜋 and 𝑥 = + 2𝑛𝜋 where 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ⋯.
4 4

The reason for the inclusion of the term 2𝑛𝜋 is due to the period of the sine function being 2𝜋.

b) Divide both sides by cos(2𝑥) and we obtain tan(2𝑥) = sin(2𝑥)/cos(2𝑥) = 1.

𝜋 5𝜋 9𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 9𝜋
This equation is satisfied by 2𝑥 = 4 , , ,⋯ Thus, 𝑥 = 8 , , ,⋯
4 4 8 8
𝜋
Alternatively, we can write 2𝑥 = 4 + 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ⋯ This is because the period of tangent function is 𝜋.
𝜋 𝑛𝜋
Thus, 𝑥 = 8 + , 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ⋯
2

76
 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
While you will not be required to sketch the graphs, it is nonetheless important to know how they look like so that you know
how to recognize them.

The graph of 𝑦 = sin(𝜃) is shown in Figure (a) above. Because csc(𝜃) = 1/sin(𝜃), these two functions have the same sign,
but 𝑦 = csc(𝜃) is undefined with vertical asymptotes at 𝜃 = 0, ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, ⋯. The functions cos(𝜃) and sec(𝜃) have a
similar relationship (see Figure (b) above). Note that the reciprocal of the function is not always the same as the inverse!
77
 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses

The graphs of tan(𝜃) and cot(𝜃) are shown in the two figures above. Each function has points, separated by 𝜋 units, at
which it is undefined.
78
 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
Many physical phenomena, such as the motion of waves or the rising and setting of the sun, can be modeled using
trigonometric functions; the sine and cosine functions are especially useful.

Using the transformation methods discussed in Section 2, we can show

that the functions 𝑦 = Asin 𝐵 𝜃 − 𝐶 + 𝐷, 𝑦 = Acos B 𝜃 − 𝐶 + D,
when compared to the graphs of 𝑦 = sin(𝜃) and 𝑦 = cos(𝜃), have the
following characteristics:
• vertical stretch (or amplitude) of 𝐴,
• period of 2𝜋/|𝐵|,
• horizontal shift (or phase shift) of 𝐶,
• vertical shift of 𝐷

Often times in modelling periodic phenomena, we will attempt to find

the appropriate constants 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐷 to produce an appropriate model.
79
 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
Example 20: At latitude 40° north (Beijing, Madrid, Philadelphia), there are 12 hours of daylight on the equinoxes (approximately
March 21 and September 21), with a maximum of 14.8 hours of daylight on the summer solstice (approximately June 21) and a
minimum of 9.2 hours of daylight on the winter solstice (approximately December 21). Obtain the daylight function in terms of 𝑡 in
days.

Solution: Using this information, it can be shown that the function

2𝜋
𝐷 𝑡 = 2.8 sin 𝑡 − 79 + 12
365
models the number of daylight hours t days after January 1. Comparing the
graph of this function to 𝑦 = sin(𝑡), we obtain the following information:
• horizontal scaling by a factor of 2𝜋/365 (annual cycle comprises 365 days)
• vertical shift of 12 (mean level of 12; for sin(𝑡), the mean level is 0)
• horizontal shift of number of days after 1 Jan = 30 + 28 + 21 = 79
(79 days will daylight be at the mean level of 12; for sin(𝑡) = 0 at 𝑡 = 0)
• vertical scaling by a factor of 2.8 (the fraction between maximum amplitude and mean level) 80
 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
Recall what we learned about how to find the inverse function, we must ensure that we have a domain in which the function must
be one-to-one on that domain.

81
 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
When we plot the inverse of the sine and cosine functions, we again see that they are symmetric to the sine and cosine functions
about the line 𝑦 = 𝑥. In essence, the inverse function is a reflection of the original function about the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.

Note: the domain of the

inverse is the same as
the range of the original
function and the one-to-
one requirement of the
function.
82
 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
For other trigonometric functions, their definitions are given below. Again, we must ensure that we have a domain in which
the function is one-to-one.

We refer to the plots of tan(𝑥), cot(𝑥) in this slide and the plots of sec(𝑥) and csc(𝑥) in this slide.

In general, the inverse of a function can be found by reflecting it about the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 in a domain that ensures the one-to-
one characteristic is preserved.
83
4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses

Note: the domain of the

inverse is the same as the range
of the original function and the
one-to-one requirement of the
function.

84
4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses

Note: the domain of the inverse is

the same as the range of the original
function and the one-to-one
requirement of the function.
85
 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
We are going to test our understanding of the one-to-one requirement for a function in order to possess an inverse.
Example 21: Evaluate the following expressions: (a) sin−1( 3/2), (b) cos −1( 3/2), (c) cos−1[cos(3𝜋)], (d) sin−1[sin(3𝜋/4)]

Solution:
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
a) We first evaluate sin−1( 3/2) = 3 . Because this result lies within the restricted domain of interval [− 2 , 2 ] for the
𝜋
inverse sine function, the value of 3 can be accepted.
𝜋
b) We first evaluate cos−1( 3/2) = 6 . Because this result lies within the restricted domain of interval [0, 𝜋] for the
𝜋
inverse cosine function , the value of can be accepted.
6

c) We first recall that for the inverse cosine, the restricted domain is the interval [0, 𝜋]. Since 3𝜋 lies outside this interval,
we must first evaluate cos 3𝜋 = −1 and so cos −1 cos 3𝜋 = cos−1 −1 = 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
d) We first recall that for the inverse sine, the restricted domain is the interval [− , ]. Since lies outside this interval,
2 2 4

3𝜋 2 2 𝜋
we must first evaluate sin 4
= 2
and so sin−1 2
= 4.

86
 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
As we wrap up this section, we are going to exploit the relationship between a right-angled triangle and trigonometric functions.
2 𝑥
Example 22: (a) Suppose 𝜃 = sin−1 5
. Find cos(𝜃) and tan(𝜃). (b) Find an alternative form for cot cos−1 4
in terms of 𝑥.

Solution:
a) We recognize that sin (𝜃) = 2/5 and we can view this in terms of a right-angled
triangle. We can utilize Pythagoras’ theorem: the square of the hypotenuse = sum of
the squares of the opposite and adjacent sides. This yields the two sides as shown,
where the hypotenuse has length 5, opposite side has length 2 and the adjacent side
21
has length 21. Thus, cos 𝜃 = 5
, tan 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 /cos(𝜃) = 2/ 21.

𝑥
b) We begin with 𝜃 = cos−1 . Then as we did in (a), we can determine the
4

lengths of the hypotenuse, opposite and adjacent sides in terms of 𝑥. So, we have
1 cos 𝜃 𝑥/4 𝑥
cot 𝜃 = = = = . The relationship holds for 𝑥 < 4
tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃 ( 16−𝑥 2 )/4 16−𝑥 2

because the expression inside the square root must be positive.

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 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
Example 23: An auditorium with a flat floor has a large flat panel television on one wall. The lower edge of the television is 3 ft above the
floor, and the upper edge is 10 ft above the lower edge. Obtain the viewing angle as a function of the distance from the wall.
upper edge of TV

Solution: We first try to visualize the problem. As shown in the figure on the right, we can lower edge of TV
10
fill in the details from the problem are able to define the variables we need.

The distance from the wall is 𝑥 and represents the independent variable. 𝜃 is the required 3 𝜃
𝜃1
viewing angle and represents dependent variable. Our goal is to express 𝜃 as a function of 𝑥. 𝑥

Next, we recall what we have learned so far. We are given the sides of a right triangle and the formula for the tangent should come to
mind: tangent = opposite/adjacent. We know that opposite and adjacent sides are with respect to an angle. However, the viewing angle
does not fully represent the larger right triangle. So as an intermediate step, let us define 𝜃1 to be the viewing angle to the bottom of the
television.

13 13 3 13 13 3
tan 𝜃 + 𝜃1 = → 𝜃 + 𝜃1 = tan−1 → 𝜃 + tan−1 = tan−1 → 𝜃 = tan−1 − tan−1
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

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 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
Example 24: Use the figure below to prove that law of cosines: 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos(𝜃)

Solution: There are multiple ways to prove this. We will present one way here.
However, the point is to present the argument in a systematic and logical manner.

𝛼
First, we draw a red line from the point 𝑏 cos 𝜃 , 𝑏 sin 𝜃 to the x-axis that is 𝑏 cos(𝛼)
perpendicular to the x-axis. Define an angle 𝛼 = 𝜋 − 𝜃. Then we see that by
Pythagoras’ theorem for the large right triangle,
2 2
𝑎 + 𝑏 cos 𝛼 + 𝑏 sin 𝛼 = 𝑐2
→ 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝛼 + 𝑏 2 cos 2(𝛼) + 𝑏 2 sin2 𝛼 = 𝑐 2
→ 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 cos2 𝛼 + sin2 𝛼 + 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝛼 = 𝑐 2
→ 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 [1] + 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝜋 − 𝜃 = 𝑐 2
→ 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝜋 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜋 sin 𝜃 = 𝑐2
→ 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 2𝑎𝑏 −1 cos 𝜃 + 0 sin(𝜃)] = 𝑐 2
→ 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝜃 = 𝑐 2
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 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
As we come to the end of this Chapter, it is important to refresh our motivation.

One reason why we study Maths is to sharpen our thinking and one of the best ways to do this is to learn the art of systematically
presenting a logical argument – to go beyond “it feels or looks right”. The importance cannot be understated in Computing,
Engineering, Humanities and the Sciences!

While this cannot be achieved through a single module (let alone part of a lesson), it is hoped that this will be the beginning of a
meaningful journey for you. If this is the first time you are doing this, then watch out for the pattern in the way the solution is
presented in the examples in this Chapter and throughout this module. Over time, you may provide variations that are perhaps
quicker or more streamlined.

In our next and final example for this Chapter, we will do Maths but using more words than equations. Such questions play a vital
part of Mathematics and while the emphasis of this module is more on the application of Mathematics, they serve a pivotal role in
sharpening your presentation and thinking skills – helping you to be more articulate (at least in writing) and systematic.

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 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
Example 25: Determine whether the following statements are true and give an explanation or counterexample.
(a) sin 𝑎 + 𝑏 = sin 𝑎 + sin(𝑏), for any real value of 𝑎 and 𝑏.

Solution:
(a) To determine whether this statement is true, we begin with the left-hand side and attempt to show that it is equal to the right-
hand side of the equation.

We do this since the expression on the left-hand side should look familiar (see here). We always begin with what looks familiar and
can give us a way forward.
sin 𝑎 + 𝑏 = sin 𝑎 cos(𝑏) + sin 𝑏 cos(𝑎)

So for sin 𝑎 cos(𝑏) + sin 𝑏 cos 𝑎 = sin 𝑎 + sin 𝑏 , we require that cos 𝑏 = cos 𝑎 = 1. Next, recall when will the cosine
function give us 1? It is when 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 2𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ⋯.

However, the question is considering for any real value of 𝑎 and 𝑏 and not just these values. Therefore, the statement is false.
91
 4. Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses
Example 25: Determine whether the following statements are true and give an explanation or counterexample.
1
(b) The equation sin 𝜃 = 2 has exactly one solution.

(c) The equation cos 𝜃 = 2 has multiple solutions.

Solution:
(b) We begin by recalling that in general, sin 𝜃 is not a one-to-one function. We need to check the domain (see here).

Since the domain is not given to us, we shall assume that the choice of 𝜃 only depends on the function. As the sine function is
defined for all real numbers, 𝜃 can be any real number.

Because of the periodicity of trigonometric functions, we know that sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 2𝑛𝜋 , 𝑛 = ±1, ±2, ±3, ⋯ and since the
right-hand side of the equation is 1/2 and within the range for sine function: between and including −1 and 1. Thus, the equation
will yield many (infinitely) solutions and so the statement is false.

(c) We begin by recalling that −1 ≤ cos 𝜃 ≤ 1, so cos 𝜃 = 2 will not yield any solution. Thus, the statement is false. 92