Calculate the logarithm of a number

Find x such that …

10 + x = 1000 x =A
1000=− 101000
= 990 -
10

1000
10  x = 1000 x = a = 100
10 =
¥0
10 x = 1000 x= log 1000 =3

in words: which exponent do 3 is the (common) logarithm (or

you need to obtain 1000 when logarithm base 10) of 1000
the base of the power is 10?
Calculate the logarithm of a number
(common) logarithm
in words: log x is the exponent needed to make a
(logarithm base 10) of x:
power with base 10 equal to x
log x = y iff 10y = x

Exercise: Calculate the following logarithms (without calculator)

!
log 100 10 ?2= 100 2
10 =100 log 100 = 2
log 1 000 000 6 log 1 000 000 = 6
log 0.001 -3 log 0.001 = −3
log 10 log 10 = 1
log 1
: log 1 = 0
log (− 100 ) ∅ undefined

log 0 ∅ undefined
Calculate the logarithm of a number
logarithm base 2 of x: In words: log2 x is the exponent needed to make
log2 x = y iff 2y = x a power with base 2 equal to x

Exercise: Calculate the following logarithms (without calculator)

!
log 2 8 2 =8
?
3 2 =8
3
log 2 8 = 3
log 2 0.25 -2
log 2 0.25 = −2
log 2 1 0
log 2 1 = 0
Calculate the logarithm of a number +
notation
The logarithm with base b of a number x,
logbx, is the exponent needed to make a
power with base b equal to x
In formulas: logb x = y iff by = x

Natural logarithm ln: base e

Common logarithm log: base 10

GC: Press the button MATH and select A:logBASE

If you do not have this option: change of base rule (later)
Properties for logarithms
Rules:
logb(bx) = x logb1 = 0
:
b(logbx) = x logbb = 1

logb(mn)=logbm+logbn
logb(m/n)=logbm-logbn → logb(1/n)=-logbn
logbmr=r logb m
change of base: logbm=logam/logab

GC: log3(2)=ln(2)/ln(3) or log(2)/log(3)

Logarithmic function: equation

Logarithmic function with base b is the

function with equation f(x)=logb x

Note: later on in topic 2, we will call the logarithmic

function with base b the inverse function of the
exponential function with base b
Logarithmic function: graph
- Only for stricly positive x
- Crosses the x-axis in point (1, 0)
- Y-axis is vertical asymptote
b>1 b<1
log2x

log3x

log0.25x

log0.5x
Logarithmic function: graph
The graph of the function y=logb(x) is the
Mirror image of graph of y=bx on the line y=x

b > 1 Example 3 p187 b<1 Example 4 p188

2x 0.5x

log2x

log0.5x
Exponential and logarithmic equations
An exponential equation is an equation in which the
unknown appears at least once in an exponent.
A logarithmic equation is an equation in which the unknown
appears in the base or as an argument of a logarithm.
Exercise: growing capital
An amount of 1000 EUR is invested in a savings account yielding 3% of
compound interest each year. Express the amount A in the savings account
in terms of the time t (in years, starting from the time of the investment).
When will the amount in the savings account be equal to 1500 EUR?

When

f
't

A- 1000 1,03 A = equation:

exponential 1500
unknown
A=10001.03t t? such that A=1500
.

=
*
is in the1,03
exponent
= 1,5
1000  1.03t = 1500 (divide by 1000)
1.03t = 1.5 F) it __
log ,ojh5=
,
Exponential and logarithmic equations
You can solve exponential and logarithmic equations
- Using properties of exponential/logarithmic functions
Also remember that logbm=logbn iff m=n
bm=bn iff m=n
Exercise: growing capital
1.03t = 1.5
1.03t )= log1.03 (1.5 )
log1.03 ( (take logarithm of both sides)

t = log1.03 1.5 = 13,7...

- Applying logarithms in an appropriate way can help to

solve exponential equations of the form
𝑎 ∙ 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑥 𝑥
𝑎1 ∙ 𝑏1 = 𝑎2 ∙ 𝑏2
(where ai, bi and c are positive numbers)
Exponential equations
Exercise: growing capital: An amount of 1000 EUR is invested in a
savings account yielding 3% of compound interest each year. Express the
amount A in the savings account in terms of the time t (in years, starting from
the time of the investment).
When will the amount in the savings account be equal to 1500 EUR?

A=10001.03t t? such that A=1500

exponential equation: unknown
is in the exponent
1000  1.03t = 1500 (divide by 1000)
1.03t = 1.5
t (take logarithm of both sides)
log( 1.03 ) = log( 1.5 )
(apply log 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑟 log 𝑎 )
t  log 1.03 = log 1.5
log 1.5 Answer: After about 13.7… years,
t= = 13.7... the amount is equal to 1500 EUR.
log 1.03
Exponential equations
• To solve an exponential equation of the form 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑐
(where a, b and c are positive numbers)
𝑐
o divide both sides by a: 𝑏 𝑥 =
𝑎
𝑐
o take the logarithm of both sides: log 𝑏 𝑥 = log
𝑎
𝑐
o apply rule for logarithm of a power: 𝑥 ∙ log 𝑏 = log
𝑎

o divide both sides by

Exponential equations
Exercise: two growing capitals
Ann invests an amount of 1000 EUR in a savings account yielding 3% of
compound interest each year. John invests 900 EUR in a savings account
yielding 3.5% of compound interest each year.
When will they have the same amount in their savings account?
t
A=10001.03t J=9001.035ᵗt 
(
1.03 
) (900
)
ᵗ
1000 1103 log  1,035
900 = log
.

= ,

t? such that A=J

 1.035  1000
t
1000  1.03 = 900  1.035%÷tᵗ t =
◦

t  log
is
1.03
= log
900
1.03t 900 1.035 1000
= 900
t
1.035 1000 1- =
log . 0.9
;÷ log 1000
 1.03 
t
900 t=
,
t = 21.7...
 = 1.03
_t=2h76
 log
 1.035  1000 1.035
Answer: It takes nearly 22 years before the two amounts are equal.
 Exponential equations
• To solve an exponential equation of the form
𝑥 𝑥
𝑎1 ∙ 𝑏1 = 𝑎2 ∙ 𝑏2
(where 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑏1 and 𝑏2 are positive numbers)

𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥
o divide both sides by 𝑎1 : 𝑏1 = ∙ 𝑏2
𝑎1

o divide both sides by :

𝑏1 𝑥 𝑎2
o apply rule for quotient of powers: =
𝑏2 𝑎1
o finally, apply the procedure for simple exponential
equations
 Exponential equations
• To solve an exponential equation of the form
𝑥 𝑥
𝑎1 ∙ 𝑏1 = 𝑎2 ∙ 𝑏2
(where 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑏1 and 𝑏2 are positive numbers)

𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥
o divide both sides by 𝑎1 : 𝑏1 = ∙ 𝑏2
𝑎1

o divide both sides by :

𝑏1 𝑥 𝑎2
o apply rule for quotient of powers: =
𝑏2 𝑎1
o finally, apply the procedure for simple exponential
equations
 Exponential inequalities
• Be careful when solving inequalities
Case 1:

2𝑥 ≥ 4
In order to get the exponent x down,
we can apply log2 on both sides.

log2 2 𝑥 log2 4

𝑥 2
What happens with the inequality sign
when we apply log2?
Exponential inequalities

y = log2(x)
log2(b)

log2(a)

a b

We see: if a ≤ b then log2(a) ≤ log2(b)

as the function log 2 is increasing.
The direction of the inequality is preserved.
Exponential inequalities
Case 1: 2𝑥 ≥ 4
The function log 2 is increasing.
Alternative 1: The direction of the inequality is preserved.

log2 2 𝑥 ≥ log2 4
𝑥≥2

Alternative 2: apply ln or log on both sides of the inequality

2𝑥 ≥ 4
The function log is increasing.
The direction of the inequality is preserved.
log 2 𝑥 ≥ log 4
𝑥 log 2 ≥ log 4 inequality sign is preserved when
dividing by a positive number (log 2 >0)

𝑥 ≥ log 4 / log 2 = 2
Exponential inequalities

Case 2:
𝑥
1
≥4
2 In order to get the exponent x down,
we can apply log1/2 on both sides.

𝑥
1
log1
2 2 log1 4
2

What happens with the inequality sign

𝑥 −2 when we apply log1/2?
Exponential inequalities

y = log 1 𝑥
2

a b

log 1 𝑎
2

log 1 𝑏
2

We see: if a ≤ b then log 1 𝑎 ≥ log1 𝑏

as the function log
2
1 𝑥 is decreasing.
2

The direction of the inequality is reversed.

Exponential inequalities
𝑥
1
Case 2: ≥4
2 The function log 1/2 is decreasing.
Alternative 1: The direction of the inequality is reversed.
𝑥
1
log 1 ≤ log1 4
2 2 2
𝑥 ≤ −2
Alternative 2: apply ln or log on both sides of the inequality
𝑥
1
≥4
2 The function log is increasing.
The direction of the inequality is preserved.
𝑥
1
log ≥ log 4
2
1
𝑥 log ≥ log 4 inequality sign is reversed when dividing
2
by a negative number (log 0.5 >0)
𝑥 ≤ log 4 / log 0.5 = −2
logarithmic scale in a graph
Example GDP: The following table shows the GDP (Gross Domestic
Product) per capita of a number of countries in the year 1996:

Country GDP per capita (in $) Country GDP per capita (in $)
Switzerland 44350 Egypt 1080
Belgium 26440 China 750
Italy 19880 Zimbabwe 610
Spain 14350 India 380
Brazil 4400 Nigeria 240
Poland 3230 Rwanda 190
Russia 2410 Mozambique 80
Romania 1600
logarithmic scale in a graph
Example GDP: The figure below shows a graphical representation
of the previous data

Graph
Large difference doesn’t
between Switzerland Difference between show!
and Mozambique India and Rwanda?
logarithmic scale in a graph
Example GDP:

• W e can take a different unit on the vertical axis (e.g steps of 200)
- bar of GDP per capita in Mozambique will appear,
- but bar of GDP per capita in Switzerland will be too large to
show!
• Impossible to make a graph that shows the large value of GDP
per capita in Switzerland AND the small value of GDP per capita
in Mozambique.

A logarithmic scale is a nonlinear scale used when there is

a large range of quantities.
logarithmic scale in a graph
• Instead of plotting GDP per capita, we plot the
logarithm (base 10) of the GDP per capita
Example GDP:
Country GDP per Log10(GDP
capita per capita)
(in $)
Switzerland 44350 4,6469
Belgium 26440 4,4223
Italy 19880 4,2984
…
Mozambique 80 1,9031

• The difference in size is a lot smaller:

Applying the logarithmic funtion with base
10 on large numbers has the effect that
the difference in size is to be reduced:
logarithmic scale in a graph
• But on the axes, numbers are indicated at a place that is
assigned by their logarithm with base 10.
o 1 is written on the axis where we would expect to see 0, since log10 1 = 0
o 10 is written on the axis where we would expect to see 1, since log10 10 = 1
o 1000 is written on the axis where we would expect to see 3, since log10 1000 = 3

Example
GDP:

Not evenly
spaced; bigger
numbers closer to
each other
Equidistant =
multiply by fixed
amount
logarithmic scale in a graph
• In a semi log- graph, the logarithmic scale is used on one of
the axis (x- or y-axis)
• Log-log graphs are using a log scale on both axis
logarithmic scale in a graph
• Linear function: 𝑦 = 𝑏 + 𝑚 ∙ 𝑡 Slope
• Exponential function: 𝑦 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑔𝑡 Base
Exponential funtion using logarithmic scale(s) ?
o expression for log 𝑦 in terms of 𝑡?

log y = log(b  g t ) = log b + log( g t ) = log b + t  log g

= log b + (log g )  t

o Using log-scale on vertical axis: linear function

with intercept log(𝑏) (→ 𝑏 on original scale) and
slope log 𝑔 (→ times g on original scale)
• Power relation : 𝑦 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑡 𝑏
o What does look like, using log-log scale ?
log 𝑦 = log 𝑎 + 𝑏 log(𝑡)