(Self-Made) Module 1:

Introduction to Structural Analysis

Module 1:
INTRODUCTION TO
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
CONTENTS:
1.1: Historical Background
1.2: Role of Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering
1.3: Classification of Structures
1.4: Analytical Models

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this module, the student will be able to:
1. Know the historical background of structural analysis.
2. Define structural engineering and its step-by-step phases.
3. Classify the different types of structures.
4. Define analytical models.

OVERVIEW:
Structural analysis is the prediction of the performance of a given structure under
prescribed loads and/or other external effects, such as support movements and temperature
changes. This chapter provides a general introduction to the subject of structural analysis. We
first give a brief historical background, including names of people whose work is important in
the field. Then we discuss the role of structural analysis in structural engineering projects. We
describe the five common types of structures: tension and compression structures, trusses,
and shear and bending structures. Finally, we consider the development of the simplified
models of real structures for the purpose of analysis.

REFERENCE:
Kassimali, A. (2015). Structural Analysis (5th Ed.), Cengage Learning Inc.

Self-Made Module made by Mortera, Daryl Angelo V. Page 1 of 11

This is not meant to be a carbon copy of the instructor's modules.
This is completely free to use.
 (Self-Made) Module 1:
Introduction to Structural Analysis

1.1: Historical Background

Early Civilizations:

Since the dawn of history, structural engineering has been an essential part of human
endeavour. However, it was not until about the middle of the seventeenth century that
engineers began applying the knowledge of mechanics (mathematics and science) in
designing structures. Earlier engineering structures were designed by trial and error and by
using rules of thumb based on past experience. The fact that some of the magnificent
structures from earlier eras, such as Egyptian pyramids (about 3000 b.c.), Greek temples (500–
200 b.c.), Roman coliseums and aqueducts (200 b.c.–a.d. 200), and Gothic cathedrals (a.d.
1000–1500), still stand today is a testimonial to the ingenuity of their builders.

Structures of Early Civilizations:

The Great Pyramid of Giza

Constructed during the Egyptian Civilization as the

resting place of the Pharaoh

The Parthenon

Considered as a Holy place in Greek Civilization.

Roman Colesseum

Major events during the Great Roman Empire happens

here

Notre Dame Cathedral

An example of Gothic Structures that are mostly seen

in Europe

Self-Made Module made by Mortera, Daryl Angelo V. Page 2 of 11

This is not meant to be a carbon copy of the instructor's modules.
This is completely free to use.
 (Self-Made) Module 1:
Introduction to Structural Analysis

Galileo Galilei:

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) is generally considered to be the

originator of the theory of structures. In his book entitled Two New
Sciences, which was published in 1638, Galileo analyzed the
failure of some simple structures, including cantilever beams.
Although Galileo’s predictions of strengths of beams were only
approximate, his work laid the foundation for future developments
in the theory of structures and ushered in a new era of structural
engineering, in which the analytical principles of mechanics and
strength of materials would have a major influence on the design
of structures.

17th to 18th Century:

Robert Hooke
(1635–1703)

Developed the law of linear relationships between the force and

deformation of materials (Hooke’s law)

Sir Isaac Newton

(1642–1727)

Formulated the laws of motion and developed calculus

Johann Bernoulli
(1667–1748)

Formulated the principle of virtual work

Leonhard Euler
(1707–1783)

developed the theory of buckling of columns

Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
(1736–1806)

presented the analysis of bending of elastic beams

Self-Made Module made by Mortera, Daryl Angelo V. Page 3 of 11

This is not meant to be a carbon copy of the instructor's modules.
This is completely free to use.
 (Self-Made) Module 1:
Introduction to Structural Analysis

19th Century
Claude-Louis-Marie Navier
(1785–1836)

Published a treatise on elastic behavior of structures in 1826,

which is considered to be the first textbook on the modern theory of
strength of materials.

Bernoît Paul Émile Clapeyron

(1799–1864)

Formulated the three-moment equation for the analysis of continuous

beams

James Clerk Maxwell

(1831–1879)

Presented the method of consistent deformations and the law of

reciprocal deflections

Otto Mohr
(1835–1918)

Developed the conjugate-beam method for calculation of deflections

and Mohr’s circles of stress and strain

Alberto Castigliano
(1847–1884)

Formulated the theorem of least Work (Castigliano’s Theorem)

Heinrich Müller-Breslau
(1851–1925)

Presented a principle for constructing influence lines

Charles Ezra Greene

(1842–1903)

Developed the moment-area method

Self-Made Module made by Mortera, Daryl Angelo V. Page 4 of 11

This is not meant to be a carbon copy of the instructor's modules.
This is completely free to use.
 (Self-Made) Module 1:
Introduction to Structural Analysis

20th Century

Slope-Deflection Method:

George A. Maney (1888–1947), developed

the slope-deflection method, which is considered
to be the precursor of the matrix stiffness method.

Moment Distribution Method:

Hardy Cross (1885–1959), who developed the moment-

distribution method in 1924. The moment-distribution method
provided engineers with a simple iterative procedure for analyzing
highly statically indeterminate structures. This method, which was
the most widely used by structural engineers during the period
from about 1930 to 1970, contributed significantly to their
understanding of the behavior of statically indeterminate frames.
Many structures designed during that period, such as high-rise
buildings, would not have been possible without the availability of
the moment distribution method.

Computer Applications:

The availability of computers in the

1950s revolutionized structural analysis.
Because the computer could solve large
systems of simultaneous equations,
analyses that took days and sometimes
weeks in the pre-computer era could now
be performed in seconds. The
development of the current computer-
oriented methods of structural analysis
can be attributed to, among others, J. H.
Argyris, R. W. Clough, S. Kelsey, R. K. Livesley, H. C. Martin, M. T. Turner, E. L. Wilson,
and O. C. Zienkiewicz.

SUMMARY:
1. Early Civilizations - Trial and error and design based on existing structures
2. Galilei, 17th and 18th Century - Laying out scientific principles for structural analysis
3. 19th Century - Classical Methods on Structural Analysis
4. 20th Century - Advanced Methods for Structural Analysis for High Rise Structures and
Computer Applications

Self-Made Module made by Mortera, Daryl Angelo V. Page 5 of 11

This is not meant to be a carbon copy of the instructor's modules.
This is completely free to use.
 (Self-Made) Module 1:
Introduction to Structural Analysis

1.2: Role of Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering

Structural engineering is the science and art of

planning, designing, and constructing safe and
economical structures that will serve their
intended purposes. Structural analysis is an
integral part of any structural engineering project,
its function being the prediction of the
performance of the proposed structure. A
flowchart showing the various phases of a typical
structural engineering project is presented below.
As this diagram indicates, the process is an
iterative one, and it generally consists of the
following steps:

1. Planning Phase - The planning phase usually

involves the establishment of the functional
requirements of the proposed structure, the
general layout and dimensions of the structure,
consideration of the possible types of structures
(e.g., rigid frame or truss) that may be feasible
and the types of materials to be used (e.g.,
structural steel or reinforced concrete). This
phase may also involve consideration of
nonstructural factors, such as aesthetics,
environmental impact of the structure, and so on.
The outcome of this phase is usually a structural
system that meets the functional requirements
and is expected to be the most economical. This
phase is perhaps the most crucial one of the
entire project and requires experience and
knowledge of construction practices in addition to
a thorough understanding of the behavior of
structures.
2. Preliminary Structural Design - In the
preliminary structural design phase, the sizes of
the various members of the structural system
selected in the planning phase are estimated
based on approximate analysis, past experience, and code requirements. The member sizes
thus selected are used in the next phase to estimate the weight of the structure.
3. Estimation of Loads - Estimation of loads involves determination of all the loads that can be
expected to act on the structure.

Self-Made Module made by Mortera, Daryl Angelo V. Page 6 of 11

This is not meant to be a carbon copy of the instructor's modules.
This is completely free to use.
 (Self-Made) Module 1:
Introduction to Structural Analysis

4. Structural Analysis - In structural analysis, the values of the loads are used to carry out an
analysis of the structure in order to determine the stresses or stress resultants in the members
and the deflections at various points of the structure.
5. Safety & Serviceability Checks - The results of the analysis are used to determine whether
or not the structure satisfies the safety and serviceability requirements of the design codes. If
these requirements are satisfied, then the design drawings and the construction specifications
are prepared, and the construction phase begins.
6. Revised Structural Design - If the code requirements are not satisfied, then the member
sizes are revised, and phases 3 through 5 are repeated until all the safety and serviceability
requirements are satisfied.

1.3: Classification of Structures

General Classifications of Structures:

1. Tension Structures 4. Shear Structures
2. Compression Structures 5. Bending Structures
3. Truss Structures

Tension Structures

The members of tension structures are subjected to pure tension under the action of external
loads. Because the tensile stress is distributed uniformly over the cross-sectional areas of
members, the material of such a structure is utilized in the most efficient manner. Tension
structures composed of flexible steel cables are frequently employed to support bridges
and long-span roofs. Because of their flexibility, cables have negligible bending stiffness and
can develop only tension. Thus, under external loads, a cable adopts a shape that enables it to
support the load by tensile forces alone. In other words, the shape of a cable changes as the
loads acting on it change.

Parts of a Suspension Bridge

Self-Made Module made by Mortera, Daryl Angelo V. Page 7 of 11

This is not meant to be a carbon copy of the instructor's modules.
This is completely free to use.
 (Self-Made) Module 1:
Introduction to Structural Analysis

Tacoma Narrows Bridge Oscillating before Its Collapse in The Golden Gate Bridge in California, USA, is a long
1940. The bridge's lightness, combined with an span bridge supported by a long flexible cable and
accumulation of wind pressure on the 8-foot solid plate hangers. These cables controls the deflection of
girder and deck, caused the bridge to fail. bridge due to its long span.

Compression Structures

Compression structures develop mainly

compressive stresses under the action of
external loads. Two common examples of
such structures are columns and arches.
Columns are straight members subjected to
axially compressive loads. When a straight
member is subjected to lateral loads and/or
moments in addition to axial loads, it is called Columns and Arches of the Segovia (Roman)
a beam-column. Aqueduct Bridge in Spain

An arch is a curved structure, with a shape similar to that of an inverted cable. Such structures
are frequently used to support bridges and long-span roofs. Arches develop mainly
compressive stresses when subjected to loads and are usually designed so that they will
develop only compression under a major design loading. However, because arches are rigid
and cannot change their shapes as can cables, other
loading conditions usually produce secondary
bending and shear stresses in these structures, which,
if significant, should be considered in their designs.

Because compression structures are susceptible to

buckling or instability, the possibility of such a failure
should be considered in their designs; if necessary,
adequate bracing must be provided to avoid such failures.
Buckling

Self-Made Module made by Mortera, Daryl Angelo V. Page 8 of 11

This is not meant to be a carbon copy of the instructor's modules.
This is completely free to use.
 (Self-Made) Module 1:
Introduction to Structural Analysis

Truss Structures

Trusses are composed of straight members connected at their ends by hinged connections
to form a stable configuration. When the loads are applied to a truss only at the joints, its
members either elongate or shorten. Thus, the members of an ideal truss are always either
in uniform tension or in uniform compression. Real trusses are usually constructed by
connecting members to gusset plates by bolted or welded connections. Although the rigid
joints thus formed cause some bending in the members of a truss when it is loaded, in most
cases such secondary bending stresses are small, and the assumption of hinged joints yields
satisfactory designs.

Roof frames are made of truss because of its The members of the truss are connected to the gusset
lightweight properties plates by group of bolts

Shear Structures

Shear structures, such as reinforced concrete shear walls, are used in multistory buildings
to reduce lateral movements due to wind loads and earthquake excitations. Shear structures
develop mainly in plane shear, with relatively small bending stresses under the action of
external loads.

Shear wall in the building Actual photo of the reinforcement of shear wall before
concrete pouring

Self-Made Module made by Mortera, Daryl Angelo V. Page 9 of 11

This is not meant to be a carbon copy of the instructor's modules.
This is completely free to use.
 (Self-Made) Module 1:
Introduction to Structural Analysis

Bending Structures

Bending structures develop mainly bending stresses under the action of external loads. In
some structures, the shear stresses associated with the changes in bending moments may also
be significant and should be considered in their designs.

Different Types of Bending Structures:

Beams
- usually horizontal, carries load lateral to its axis

Rigid Frames
- composed of straight members connected together
either by rigid (moment-resisting) connections or by
hinged connections to form stable configuration

Slab
- horizontal thick member connected to the beam that
carries the floor loads

Domes

Self-Made Module made by Mortera, Daryl Angelo V. Page 10 of 11

This is not meant to be a carbon copy of the instructor's modules.
This is completely free to use.
 (Self-Made) Module 1:
Introduction to Structural Analysis

1.4: Analytical Models

An analytical model is a simplified representation of a real

structure for the purpose of analysis. Development of the
model generally involves:
(1) determination of whether or not the structure can
be treated as a plane structure
(2) construction of the line diagram of the structure
(3) idealization of connections
(4) idealization of the supports

Analytical Model for Truss

Analytical Model for Frame

NOTE: This is based on the PowerPoint presentation provided, however additional references are
provided to help you comprehend the contents better. Inform the module's creator if there is a
lack of content or if there are spelling and/or grammar errors.

THANK YOU!

Self-Made Module made by Mortera, Daryl Angelo V. Page 11 of 11

This is not meant to be a carbon copy of the instructor's modules.
This is completely free to use.