Real Numbers – MTH 101

Session 2

MTH 101
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

● Solve linear equations and inequalities using the properties of real numbers

● Solve absolute value equations and inequalities and write their solutions in
interval form.

● Perform basic arithmetic operations on polynomials, rational expressions, and

radical expressions.

● Solve equations involving exponentials and logarithms that can be transformed

into linear equations.
Sets of Numbers
❑ The set of natural numbers: ℕ = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … }

❑ The set of integers: ℤ = {… , −𝟐, −𝟏, 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, … }

❑ The set of rational numbers:

𝒑
ℚ= : 𝒑, 𝒒 ∈ ℤ, 𝒒 ≠ 𝟎
𝒒

❑ The set of irrational numbers: ℚ′ = 𝒙 ∈ ℝ 𝒙 ∉ ℚ}

❑ The set of real numbers comprises of rational

numbers and irrational numbers. It is denoted ℝ.
Field Properties of Real Numbers

The following properties are satisfied:

i. Closure: 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ ℝ and 𝑎𝑏 ∈ ℝ for any real numbers 𝑎, 𝑏.

ii. Commutativity: 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 and 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 for any real numbers 𝑎, 𝑏.

iii. Associativity: For any real numbers 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑎+ 𝑏+𝑐 = 𝑎+𝑏 +𝑐

𝑎 𝑏𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑐

iv. Identities: There is a unique number 0 such that 𝑎 + 0 = 𝑎 for any 𝑎 ∈ ℝ.

There is a unique number 1 such that 𝑎 ⋅ 1 = 𝑎 for any 𝑎 ∈ ℝ.

v. Inverse properties: For any 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, there is a real number −𝑎 such that 𝑎 + −𝑎 = 0.

1
For any non-zero real number 𝑎, there is a real number denoted 𝑎−1 or
𝑎
such that: 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎−1 = 1.

vi. Distributivity: 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 for any real numbers 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐.

Some Other Operations

We can define the following operations for real

numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏:

Subtraction: 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑎 + −𝑏

𝒂 𝟏
Division: = 𝒂 ⋅ , 𝒃 ≠ 𝟎.
𝒃 𝒃

Exponents: 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂 ⋅ 𝒂 ⋅ … ⋅ 𝒂 ,where 𝑛 ∈ ℕ
𝒏 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔
Operations with Fractions

A fraction is a quotient of any two numbers.

Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, and 𝑑 be real numbers such that 𝑏, 𝑑 ≠ 0.

𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑+𝑏𝑐
Addition: + =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑

𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑 −𝑏𝑐
Subtraction: − =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑

𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑+𝑏𝑐
Multiplication: ⋅ =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑

𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑
Division: ÷ =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑐

𝑎
Note: is also denoted 𝑎 ÷ 𝑏.
𝑏
Mathematical Expressions
A mathematical expression is a combination of numbers
and operations.
2
Example: 18 − 3 × 5 ÷ 6 + (1 − 42 )
5

An algebraic expression is a collection of constants and

variables joined together by algebraic operations.

𝑥−2𝑧
Examples: 2𝑥 + 1, 𝜋𝑟 2 , 𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑧 2 +
4

Operations in mathematical expressions must be evaluated

in a systematic order, using the acronym PEMDAS
Parentheses
Exponents
Multiplication and Division
Addition and Subtraction

Example.
2 2
18 − 3 × 5 ÷ 6 + 1 − 42 = 18 − 3 × 5 ÷ 6 + (−15)
5 5
5 𝟏𝟗
= 18 − 3 × 5 ÷ 6 − 6 = 18 − − 6 = .
2 𝟐
Linear Equations
An equation is a mathematical statement indicating that two
expressions are equal.

The values that make the equation true are called the solutions of the
equation.

A linear equation in one variable can be written in the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0

where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ with 𝑎 ≠ 0.

Here are some steps to solve an equation include:

• 1. Add, subtract, multiply or divide by a number or an expression

as long as the same is done to both sides of the equal sign.

• 2. Apply distributivity if needs be.

• 3. Isolate the variable on one side.

Examples

1. Solve: 2𝑥 + 5 = −7.

2𝑥 + 5 = −7
2𝑥 + 5 + −5 = −7 + (−5) (adding −5 on both sides)
2𝑥 + 0 = −12 (since 5 + −5 = 0)
1 1 1
⋅ 2𝑥 = (−12) (multiplying by on both sides)
2 2 2
1
𝒙 = −𝟔 (since ⋅ 2 = 1)
2

2. Solve: 4 𝑥 − 3 + 12 = 15 − 5(𝑥 + 6).

4 𝑥 − 3 + 12 = 15 − 5(𝑥 + 6)
4𝑥 − 12 + 12 = 15 − 5𝑥 − 30 (by distributivity)
4𝑥 = −15 − 5𝑥 (since −12 + 12 = 0)
4𝑥 + 5𝑥 = −15 − 5𝑥 + 5𝑥 (adding 5𝑥 on both sides)
9𝑥 = −15
1 1 1
⋅ 9𝑥 = (−15) (multiplying by on both sides)
9 9 9
𝟓
𝒙=−
𝟑
Example - Solving Rational Equations
2 3 7
Question: Solve the equation − = .
𝑥 2 3𝑥

Hint: Here we can use the equality of two fractions:

𝑎 𝑐
= if and only if 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐.
𝑏 𝑑

Answer:

2 3 7 1 3
− = − =
𝑥 2 3𝑥 3𝑥 2

2 3 3 7 7 3 7
− + − = + − −1 ⋅ 2 = 3 ⋅ 3𝑥
𝑥 2 2 3𝑥 3𝑥 2 3𝑥

2 7 3
− = −2 = 9𝑥
𝑥 3𝑥 2

6 7 3 𝟐
− = 𝒙=− .
3𝑥 3𝑥 2 𝟗
The Real Line

Real numbers can be divided into three subsets: negative

real numbers, zero, and positive real numbers.

Real numbers can be visualized on a horizontal number line

called the real line, with an arbitrary point chosen as 0, with
negative numbers to the left of 0 and positive numbers to the
right.

A fixed unit distance is then used to mark off each integer or

other basic value.

Let 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐 be real numbers.

❑ We write: 𝑎 < 𝑏 if 𝑏 − 𝑎 is positive.

𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 if 𝑎 < 𝑏 or 𝑎 = 𝑏.

❑ Transitivity: If 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑏 ≤ 𝑐 then 𝑎 ≤ 𝑐.

Intervals
Absolute value & Equations

𝑎 if 𝑎 ≥ 0
1. The absolute value of a real number 𝑎 is the number: 𝑎 =ቐ
−𝑎 if 𝑎 < 0

Note: Given 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 = | − 𝑎| ≥ 0.

2. The distance between any two points 𝑎 and 𝑏 on the real number line is 𝑎 − 𝑏 (or |𝑏 − 𝑎|).

3. Given algebraic expression 𝑋 and a real number 𝑘,

If 𝑘 > 0, 𝑋 = 𝑘 is equivalent to 𝑋 = −𝑘 or 𝑋 = 𝑘.

If 𝑘 = 0, 𝑋 = 0 is equivalent to 𝑋 = 0.

If 𝑘 < 0, 𝑋 = 𝑘 is not possible.

Examples

Solve the following: (i) 2𝑥 − 5 = 3; (ii) 1 − 4𝑥 = 0; (iii) |−3𝑥 − 5| = −2.

(i) 2𝑥 − 5 = 3 (ii) 1 − 4𝑥 = 0 (iii) |−3𝑥 − 5| = −2

2𝑥 − 5 = 3 or 2𝑥 − 5 = −3 1 − 4𝑥 = 0 There is no solution since the

absolute value of any real
2𝑥 = 8 or 2𝑥 = 2 4𝑥 = 1 number cannot be negative.

𝟏
𝒙 = 𝟒 or 𝒙 = 𝟏 𝒙=
𝟒

Summary

If 𝑐 < 0, |𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏| = 𝑐 has no solution.

If 𝑐 = 0, |𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏| = 𝑐 has one solution.

If 𝑐 > 0, |𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏| = 𝑐 has two solutions.

Properties of Inequalities

• Addition property:

If 𝑎 < 𝑏, then 𝑎 + 𝑐 < 𝑏 + 𝑐

• Multiplication Property:

𝑎𝑐 < 𝑏𝑐 if 𝑐 > 0
If 𝑎 < 𝑏, then ቐ
𝑎𝑐 > 𝑏𝑐 if 𝑐 < 0

Similar properties apply to ≤, >, and ≥.

Application: Solving Linear Inequalities

3 5
Example. Solve: −3𝑥 − 5 > 12, −2𝑥 + 1 ≤ − 5𝑥, −2 ≤ − 3𝑥 < 5.
2 3

3 5
(i) −3𝑥 − 5 > 12 (ii) −2𝑥 + 1 ≤ − 5𝑥 (iii) −2 ≤ − 3𝑥 < 5
2 3

3 5 5
−3𝑥 > 12 + 5 −2𝑥 + 5𝑥 ≤ − 1 −2 − ≤ −3𝑥 < 5 −
2 3 3

1 11 10
−3𝑥 > 17 3𝑥 ≤ − ≤ −3𝑥 <
2 3 3

𝟏𝟕 𝟏 11 1 1 10 1
𝒙<− 𝒙≤ − ⋅ − ≥ −3𝑥 − > −
𝟑 𝟔 3 3 3 3 3

𝟏𝟕 𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟎
𝒙 ∈ −∞, − 𝒙 ∈ −∞, ≥𝒙>−
𝟑 𝟔 𝟗 𝟗

𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟏
− <𝒙≤
𝟗 𝟗

𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟏
𝒙∈ − ,
𝟗 𝟗
Inequalities with Absolute Values
For an algebraic expression 𝑋 and a real number 𝑘 > 0,

𝑋 < 𝑘 is equivalent to −𝑘 < 𝑋 < 𝑘

𝑋 > 𝑘 is equivalent to 𝑋 < −𝑘 or 𝑋 > 𝑘

Similar properties apply to 𝑋 ≤ 𝑘 and 𝑋 ≥ 𝑘.

7𝑥
Example: Solve: |5 − 2𝑥| < 1, 3− ≥ 1.
2
Answer:

7𝑥 7𝑥
(i) −1 < 5 − 2𝑥 < 1 (ii) 3 − ≤ −1 or 3 − ≥1
2 2
7𝑥 7𝑥
−1 − 5 < −2𝑥 < 1 − 5 4 ≤ or 2 ≥
2 2
−6 < −2𝑥 < −4 8 ≤ 7𝑥 or 4 ≥ 7𝑥
1 1 𝟖 𝟒
−6 ⋅ − > 𝑥 > −4 ⋅ − ≤ 𝒙 or ≥ 𝒙
2 2 𝟕 𝟕
𝟖 𝟒
𝟑>𝒙>𝟐 𝒙 ≥ or 𝒙 ≤
𝟕 𝟕
𝟖 𝟒
𝟐<𝒙<𝟑 𝒙∈ , ∞ or 𝒙 ∈ −∞,
𝟕 𝟕
𝟒 𝟖
𝒙 ∈ (𝟐, 𝟑) 𝒙 ∈ −∞, ∪ ,∞
𝟕 𝟕
Radicals

The principal square root of a real number 𝑎, denoted 𝑎, is the

nonnegative real number that, when multiplied by itself, equals 𝑎.

𝑥≥0
𝑥 = 𝑎 if ቊ 2
𝑥 =𝑎

Note: 𝑎 exists as a real number if 𝑎 ≥ 0.

2
Given 𝑎 ≥ 0, 𝑎 = 𝑎
For any real number 𝑎, 𝑎2 = |𝑎|.

Example: Compute 25, 25 + 144, 81.

𝟐𝟓 = 𝟓 since 52 = 25.
25 + 144 = 169 = 𝟏𝟑 since 132 = 169.
81 = 9 = 𝟑 since 92 = 81 and 32 = 9.
Simplifying Square Roots Using Properties

𝑎 𝑎
Properties: Given 𝑎, 𝑏 ≥ 0, 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑏 = ,𝑏 ≠ 0
𝑏 𝑏

How to simplify a radical expression:

1. Factor any perfect squares from the radicand.
2. Write radical expression as a product/quotient of radical expressions.
3. Simplify.

234𝑥 11 𝑦
Examples: If 𝑥, 𝑦 > 0, simplify: 81𝑥 4 𝑦 4 ⋅ 2𝑥 , .
26𝑥 7 𝑦

81𝑥 4 𝑦 4 ⋅ 2𝑥 = 𝟗𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝟐𝒙

234𝑥 11 𝑦 234𝑥 11 𝑦
= = 9𝑥 4 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐
26𝑥 7 𝑦 26𝑥 7 𝑦
𝒏-th Roots
Let 𝑛 ∈ ℕ be such that 𝑛 ≥ 2.

The principal 𝒏-th root of a real number 𝑎, written as 𝑛 𝑎, is the number with
the same sign as 𝑎 that, when raised to the 𝑛-th power, equals 𝑎.

𝑛 𝑥 is of the same sign as 𝑎

𝑥= 𝑎 if ቊ
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑎
𝑛 is called the index.

5 5 4
Examples: −32 = −2 (since −2 = −32) and 81 = 3 (since 34 = 81).

The 𝑛-th principal root only exists as a real number:

✓ for any 𝑛 ≥ 2, if 𝑥 ≥ 0.
✓ for any 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, if 𝑛 is odd.
Properties

𝑛 𝑛
If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers,

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑎⋅ 𝑏= 𝑎𝑏
𝑛
𝑎 𝑛 𝑎
𝑛 = , if 𝑏 ≠ 0
𝑏 𝑏

𝑚 𝑛 𝑚𝑛
𝑎= 𝑎, if 𝑎 ≥ 0

𝑛 𝑛 𝑚
𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎

𝑚 1
𝑛
The last expression is also denoted 𝑎 𝑛 . Thus, 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑛 .
Solving Radical Equations
A radical equation is an expression in which variables
appear in one or more radicands.
3
Solve 2𝑥 − 4 − 2 = 0.
3
2𝑥 − 4 = 2
2𝑥 − 4 = 23
2𝑥 − 4 = 8
2𝑥 = 12
𝒙=𝟔
What is a Polynomial?
A polynomial is an expression that can be written in the form
𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯ 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 .

𝑎𝑖 = coefficients.

𝑎𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 = terms.

If 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0,
𝑛 = degree of the polynomial.

𝑎𝑛 = leading coefficient.

𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 = leading term.

Example: Specify the degree, leading coefficient, and leading

term of the two following polynomials:
8𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2, −𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 .
Adding and Subtracting Polynomials

Steps: 1. Combine like terms

2. Simplify and write in standard form.

Example:

▪ 8𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2 + −𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥

= −𝑥 4 + 8𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 + −4𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 2 (Combine like terms)

= −𝒙𝟒 + 𝟖𝒙𝟑 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 + 𝟐. (Simplify)

▪ 8𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2 − −𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥

= 8𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2 + 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 (Distribute negative terms)

= 𝑥 4 + 8𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 2 (Combine like terms)

= 𝒙𝟒 + 𝟖𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟗𝒙 + 𝟐. (Simplify)
Multiplying Polynomials

Steps:

1. Multiply each term of the first polynomial by each term of the second using
distributivity.

2. Combine like terms.

3. Simplify

Example: Find the product 2𝑥 2 − 4 −𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 .

2𝑥 2 − 4 −𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 −𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 4 −𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥
= −2𝑥 6 + 2𝑥 4 + 10𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 2 − 20𝑥
= −2𝑥 6 + 2𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 4 + 10𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 20𝑥
= −𝟐𝒙𝟔 + 𝟔𝒙𝟒 + 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟑 − 𝟒𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝟎𝒙.

Exercise: Find the product (3𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1).

Using FOIL to multiply Binomials

FOIL: Multiply the: First terms,

Outer terms,
Inner terms,
Last terms of each binomial.

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = 𝑎𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏𝑐𝑥 + 𝑏𝑑

= 𝑎𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑑

Examples:

▪ 𝑥 + 2 2𝑥 − 7 = 2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 14 = 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟏𝟒

▪ 3𝑥 − 1 −𝑥 + 6 = −3𝑥 2 + 18𝑥 + 𝑥 − 6 = −𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟗𝒙 − 𝟔

Special Products (1)
o When a binomial is squared, the result is called a perfect
square trinomial:

2
𝑎+𝑏 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2

2
𝑎−𝑏 = 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2

o Difference of squares:

𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2

Examples. Expand the following:

2
▪ 𝑥+2 = 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑥 2 + 22 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟒.

2 2
▪ 3𝑥 − 5 = 3𝑥 − 2 3𝑥 5 + 52 = 𝟗𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝟎𝒙 + 𝟐𝟓

2
▪ 2𝑥 + 9 2𝑥 − 9 = 2𝑥 − 92 = 𝟒𝒙𝟐 − 𝟖𝟏

▪ 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 1 = 𝑥 2 − 12 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏.
Factoring using Special Products
1. To factor perfect square polynomials, confirm that:

✓ First and last terms are perfect squares 𝑎2 , 𝑏 2 .

✓ The middle term is ±2𝑎𝑏, then write 𝑎 ± 𝑏 2.

2. To factor a difference of squares, confirm that:

✓ First and last terms are perfect squares with opposite signs 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2

✓ There’s no middle term, then write (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏).

Example. Factorize the following (using special products):

9𝑥 2 + 30𝑥 + 25 = 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓 𝟐

25𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 4 = 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟐 𝟐

𝑥 2 − 1 = (𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙 + 𝟏)

4𝑥 2 − 9 = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑 .
Special Products (2)
o Sum of cubes:
𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )

o Difference of cubes:

𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )

Remember SOAP – Same Opposite Always Positive

Example. Factor the following:

𝑥 3 + 64 = 𝑥 3 + 43 = 𝑥 + 4 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 42 = (𝒙 + 𝟒)(𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟏𝟔)

8𝑥 3 − 27 = 2𝑥 3
− 33 = 2𝑥 − 3 2𝑥 2
+ 2𝑥 3 + 32 = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑 𝟒𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟗 .
Factoring a Trinomial with leading Coefficient 1

A trinomial 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 can be written as (𝑥 + 𝑝)(𝑥 + 𝑞)

where 𝑝𝑞 = 𝑐 and 𝑝 + 𝑞 = 𝑏:

1. List factors of 𝑐.

2. Find 𝑝, 𝑞 a pair of factors of 𝑐 such

that 𝑝 + 𝑞 = 𝑏.

3. Write (𝑥 + 𝑝)(𝑥 + 𝑞)

Example.

▪ 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 = (𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙 + 𝟐)

▪ 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5 = (𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙 + 𝟓)
Factoring by Grouping

To factor 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 by grouping,

1. List factors of 𝑎𝑐.

2. Find 𝑝, 𝑞 a pair of factors of a𝑐 such that 𝑝 + 𝑞 = 𝑏.

3. Rewrite original expression as 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑐

4. Pull out the GCD of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 and 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑐 then factor.

Example.

▪ 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 8 = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 8 = 3𝑥 𝑥 − 2 + 4 𝑥 − 2 = (𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒)(𝒙 − 𝟐).

▪ 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 + 1 = 2𝑥 𝑥 − 1 − 𝑥 − 1 = (𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙 − 𝟏).

Polynomials of Several Variables

A polynomial may contain several variables.

The degree of a polynomial of several variables is the highest

sum of the exponents of the variables in a term.

2𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑥 + 5𝑦 is an example of a polynomial of 2 variables. The

degree is 3.

The same rules apply when working with polynomials of several

variables as with polynomials with one variable.

Exercise. Expand (2𝑥𝑦 − 1)(2𝑥 + 𝑦), and factor 27𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 .

Rational Expressions

A rational expression is the quotient of two polynomial

expressions.

𝑥 3 +1 𝑥 3 −3𝑥+1
Examples: 2 ,
3𝑥 2𝑥+5

To simplify rational expressions, factor the numerator and

denominator, then cancel common factors.

To add, subtract, multiply, or divide two rational expressions,

apply the same rules of operations on fractions.

9𝑥 2 +6𝑥 −3
Example. Simplify
9𝑥 2 −9

9𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 3 3(3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1) (3𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟏

= = =
9𝑥 2 − 9 9(𝑥 2 − 1) 3(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) 𝟑(𝒙 − 𝟏)
Examples: Write in Simplest Form

𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟒 𝒙+𝟒 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 𝑥+4 2(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) (𝑥 + 4)(2𝑥 − 1)

+ = + = +
𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟏 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟐 (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1) 2(𝑥 − 1) 2(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1) 2(𝑥 − 1)(2𝑥 − 1)

2 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + (𝑥 + 4)(2𝑥 − 1) 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 8 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 8𝑥 − 4
= =
2(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1) 2(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1)

𝟒𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 + 𝟒
=
𝟐(𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙 − 𝟏)

𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟓 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 5 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 5 2𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 1)(2𝑥 − 1)
⋅ = ⋅ = =
𝟑𝒙 + 𝟏𝟖 𝒙+𝟓 3 𝑥+6 𝑥+5 3 𝑥+6 𝑥+5 3(𝑥 + 6)

9𝑥 2 − 4 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 8 9𝑥 2 − 4 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 14 3𝑥 − 2 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥−2 𝑥+7
÷ = ⋅ = ⋅
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 14 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 8 𝑥−2 𝑥−1 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 4
(𝟑𝒙 − 𝟐)(𝒙 + 𝟕)
=
(𝟑𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙 − 𝟒)
Rationalizing Denominators

The process of removing radicals from the denominator

of fractions is called rationalizing the denominator.

For a denominator with a single term, multiply by the

denominator itself:
𝑋 𝑋 𝑐
= ⋅
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐 √𝑐

For a denominator as sum or difference of a rational

and an irrational term, multiply by its conjugate:
𝑋 𝑋 𝑎−𝑏 𝑐
= ⋅
𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 − 𝑏√𝑐

2 2 3
Example. Write in simplest form: , and .
3+ 5 3 10

2 2 3− 5 6−2 5 𝟔−𝟐 𝟓
= = = .
3+ 5 3+ 5 3− 5 9−5 𝟒
Exponents
It turns out that there is a real number of the form 𝑎 𝑥 , where 𝑎 ≠ 0 and 𝑥 ∈ ℝ (not just when 𝑥 ∈ ℚ),
which is always positive.

Exponent Laws.
Suppose: 𝑎 ≠ 0 when 𝑥 ≤ 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 0 when 𝑦 ≤ 0.

𝑎0 = 1 if 𝑎 ≠ 0 (zero exponent rule)

1
𝑎−𝑥 = if 𝑎 ≠ 0 (negative exponent rule)
𝑎𝑥

𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥+𝑦 (product rule)

𝑎𝑥
= 𝑎 𝑥−𝑦 (quotient rule)
𝑎𝑦

𝑎𝑥 𝑦
= 𝑎 𝑥𝑦 (power rule)

𝑥
𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑥𝑏𝑥 (power of a product rule)

𝑎 𝑥 𝑎𝑥
= if 𝑏 ≠ 0 (power of a quotient rule)
𝑏 𝑏𝑥
Logarithms
Let 𝑥 > 0 and 𝑏 > 0 such that 𝑏 ≠ 1.

The logarithm base 𝑏 of 𝑥 is the exponent to which 𝑏 must be raised to get 𝑥.

𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 is equivalent to 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑥

Examples. Laws of Logarithms. If 𝑏, 𝑥, 𝑦 > 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 1, then:

1
𝟏
log 5 5 = since 52 = 5. log 𝑏 1 = 0 and log 𝑏 𝑏 = 1
𝟐

log 𝑏 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑥 and 𝑏 log𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑥

log 2 8 = 𝟑 since 23 = 8.

1 1 1 log 𝑏 𝑥𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 + log 𝑏 𝑦

log 6 = −𝟐 since 6−2 = = .
36 62 36
𝑥
8 2 3 8
log 𝑏 = log 𝑏 𝑥 − log 𝑏 𝑦
𝑦
log 2 = 𝟑 since = .
3 27 3 27
1
log 𝑏 = − log 𝑏 𝑥
𝑥

log 𝑏 𝑥 𝑟 = 𝑟 log 𝑏 𝑥 , 𝑟 ∈ ℝ.
Natural and Common Logarithms
1 𝑛
The number 𝑒 is the irrational number 1 + as 𝑛 increases without bound.
𝑛
𝑒 ≈ 2.71828

The number 𝑒 is used as a base for many real-world exponential models and is
called Euler’s number.

Given 𝑥 > 0, ln(𝑥) : = log𝑒 𝑥 (the natural logarithm of 𝑥).

log 𝑥 : = log10 𝑥 (the common logarithm of 𝑥).

From the previous properties for 𝑥 > 0: 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 is equivalent to 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥.

𝑦 = log(𝑥) is equivalent to 10𝑦 = 𝑥

This means that: ln 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥 for any 𝑥 ∈ ℝ while 𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥 for 𝑥 > 0.

log 10𝑥 = 𝑥 for any 𝑥 ∈ ℝ while 10log 𝑥 = 𝑥 for 𝑥 > 0.
Application 1 – Solving Exponential Equations (1)
To solve such equations, proceed as follows:

1. Use rules of exponents and the one-to-one property of exponential functions:

given 𝑏 > 0 with 𝑏 ≠ 1,

𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦 if and only if 𝑥 = 𝑦.

34𝑥
Example. Solve: (i) 32𝑥−7 = (ii) 8𝑥+2 = 16𝑥+1 (iii) 𝑒 𝑥−2 = −1.
3

(i) 32𝑥−7 ⋅ 3 = 34𝑥 ⇒ 32𝑥−7+1 = 34𝑥 ⇒ 2𝑥 − 6 = 4𝑥 ⇒ 2𝑥 = −6 ⇒ 𝒙 = −𝟑.

𝑥+2 𝑥+1
(ii) 23 = 24 ⇒ 23(𝑥+2) = 24(𝑥+1) ⇒ 3𝑥 + 6 = 4𝑥 + 4 ⇒ 𝒙 = 𝟐.

(iii) 𝒆𝒙−𝟐 = −𝟏 has no solution since the exponential of a real number is always
positive.
Application 1 – Solving Exponential Equations (2)

2. When a common base cannot be found, apply the logarithm on both sides, then
use the rules of logarithms to solve for the unknown.

Example. Solve: (i) 2𝑥−2 = 3𝑥 (ii) 4 ⋅ 𝑒 2𝑥+1 − 1 = 9.

2 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝐥𝐧 𝟒 𝟐 𝐥𝐧 𝟐
(i) 2𝑥 ⋅ 2−2 = 3𝑥 ⇒ = 4 ⇒ ln = ln 4 ⇒ 𝑥 ln = ln 4 ⇒ 𝒙 = 𝟐 =
3 3 3 𝐥𝐧 𝐥𝐧 𝟐−𝐥𝐧 𝟑
𝟑
We chose to express the solution in terms of natural logarithms but we could
have also written 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝟒.
𝟑

𝟓
5 5 5 𝐥𝐧 −𝟏
2𝑥+1 2𝑥+1 𝟐
(ii) 4𝑒 = 10 ⇒ 𝑒 = ⇒ 2𝑥 + 1 = ln ⇒ 2𝑥 = ln −1⇒𝒙= .
2 2 2 𝟐
Application 2 – Expanding Or Condensing
Logarithmic Expressions

𝑥4𝑦
1. Rewrite ln as a sum or difference, where 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 > 0.
𝑧5

𝑥 4𝑦
ln = ln(𝑥 4 𝑦) − ln 𝑧 5 = ln 𝑥 4 + ln 𝑦 − 5 ln 𝑧 = 𝟒 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 + 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 − 𝟓 𝐥𝐧 𝒛
𝑧5

1
2. Rewrite log 3 𝑥 2 + log3 (2𝑥 − 1) − 5 log3 𝑥 + 1 2
as a single logarithm,
2
where 𝑥 > 1.

2 10
𝒙𝟐 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏
log 3 𝑥 + log 3 2𝑥 − 1 − log 3 𝑥 + 1 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝟑
𝒙 + 𝟏 𝟏𝟎
Application 3 – Solving Logarithmic Equations (1)

1. Using Laws of Logarithms.

Example. Solve: (i) 2 ln 𝑥 − 1 + 3 = 5; (ii) log 3 5 + log 3(2𝑥 − 1) = 2.

(i) 2 ln 𝑥 − 1 = 2 (ii) log3 5 2𝑥 − 1 = 2

ln(𝑥 − 1) = 1 32 = 5(2𝑥 − 1)
𝑥−1=𝑒 10𝑥 − 5 = 9
𝒙=𝒆+𝟏 10𝑥 = 14
𝟏𝟒 𝟕
𝒙= =
𝟏𝟎 𝟓
Application 3 – Solving Logarithmic Equations (2)
2. Using the one-to-one property of logarithms: if 𝑏, 𝑥, 𝑦 > 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 1, then

log 𝑏 𝑥 = log 𝑏 𝑦 is equivalent to 𝑥 = 𝑦,

Example. Solve the equation log 𝑥 + 1 − log 5 = log 2𝑥 + 3 .

𝑥+1
log = log(2𝑥 + 3)
5
𝑥+1
= 2𝑥 + 3
5
𝑥 + 1 = 5(2𝑥 + 3)
9𝑥 = −14
14
𝑥=−
9
𝟏𝟒
If one plugs 𝒙 = − in the equation, one obtains logarithms of negative
𝟗
𝟏𝟒
numbers. Thus, 𝒙 = − is an extraneous solution. The equation above
𝟗
has therefore no solution.

As a rule, when solving logarithmic equations, check if the solution(s) you

obtained algebraically is/are extraneous or not.
Change of Base Formula

If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑥 > 0 where 𝑎 ≠ 1 and 𝑏 ≠ 1,

log𝑎 (𝑥)
log 𝑏 (𝑥) =
log 𝑎 (𝑏)

In particular:

ln(𝑥) log(𝑥)
log 𝑏 𝑥 = =
ln(𝑏) log 𝑏

ln(5) ln(3)
Examples: log 5 (2) = , log 3 = log10(3) = .
ln(2) ln(10)
Thank
You