UNIT – I

NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS
 OVERVIEW
• Introduction to Networks

• Categories of Networks

• Communication Model

• Data Transmission Concepts and Terminology

• Protocol Architecture

• Protocols

• OSI

• TCP/IP
• LAN Topology
• Transmission Media
 Introduction to Networks
• A Network: A group of devices that can
communicate with each other over links.
• Each device is called a host. Each host has a
unique address.
• Network is a connection between two or
more devices.
• Which is connected by a communication
links.
• A node can be computer, printer or any
other devices which is capable of sending
and receiving information at each other.
Example:
 INTERNET
• An internet:

each host has an

address of the form n/h where n is the
network number and h is the number of the
host on network n.
 Uses of Network

• It is Used for

i) Business Application
ii) Home Application
iii) Mobile Users
iv) E-Mail
 Categories or Types of Network
• There are Three Types:
1. LAN - Local Area Network
2. MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
3. WAN – Wide Area Network
1. LAN - Local Area Network
A LAN is Designed by Local Area Connections such as:
i) within Building
ii) within office
iii) within Campus
iv) within Specific Place
Advantages :
1) Sharing of Files.
2) Sharing of Programs.
3) Communication Exchange.

Disadvantages :
1) Reliability.
2) Capacity.
3) High Cost.
2. MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a
network that interconnects users with
computer resources in a geographic area or
region larger than that covered by even a
large local area network (LAN) but smaller
than the area covered by a wide area
network (WAN).
• MAN supports up to 150 Kilometers Distance.
• Example:
 Telephone Network
 Cable TV
Advantages :
1) High Bandwidth.
2) It support Large number of Clients.
3) Reduce the Errors.

Disadvantages :
1) Large Space Requirements.
2) Slower Data Access.
3) High Cost.
3. WAN – Wide Area Network
• WAN Provide a Long Distance Transmission of Data.
• By Using WAN Exchange the Information from one
country to another country.
 Components of Network
- Which gives the Request.
- Which gives the Response.
- It Indicates Modulator / Demodulator.
- Which identifies the Path between Client
& Server.
- Which overcomes the Traffic
problems.
 Communication Model
• Data communications are exchange of
data between two devices via some
transmission medium.
• It should be done in two ways
i) Local - It takes LAN Connection.
ii) Remote - It takes Long distance like
MAN & WAN.
• Data should be Transferred in the form of
0’s and 1’s
 Transmission
Source
Medium Destination

1) Delivery - The System must deliver the data to

the correct Destination.
2) Accuracy - The System must deliver the data at
Accurate way.
3) Timeline - The System must deliver the data at Exact
Time.

4) Jitter - It refers to the variable in the

i) Sender iv) Message

ii) Receiver v) Protocol
iii) Medium
5. Protocol 5. Protocol
Step : 1 4. Message
Step : 1
Step : 2 Step : 2

1. Sender 3. Medium 2. Receiver

 : It is a device , that Sends the
information to the Receiver.
: It is a device , that Receives the
information from the Sender.
: It is the physical path between
Sender to Receiver.
: This is the passing Informations.
: It is a set of rules and regulations
that “ Governed “ from data communication.
• Data Transmission occurs between sender and
receiver over some Transmission Medium or
Transmission Media.
• Transmission Media may be classified into Two
Types :
i) Guided Media [Wired Technology]
ii) Unguided Media [Wireless Technology]
i) Guided Media (Wired Network)
• In Guided Media Signals are Passed in a “ same
physical path”
• Example:
i) Twisted pair Cable
ii) Coaxial Cable
iii) Fiber Optic Cable
ii) Unguided Media (Wireless Network)
• In Unguided Media Signals are Passed in the
form of “ Electromagnetic Waves”
• Example :
i) Mobile phones
ii) Satellite microwave
iii) Infrared
 It Provides
a dedicated links between two devices.
• For example, a wired system that connects two
computers together can be thought of a point-
to-point link.
 It is a link between
two or more devices. It is also known as Multi-
Point configuration. The networks having
multipoint configuration are called
 Transmission Mode
 It refers to the direction of information flow
between two devices.
 Data flow is the flow of data between 2
points.
 The direction of the data flow can be
described as
 Simplex Mode
 Half-Duplex Mode
 Full-Duplex Mode
 Simplex: Data flows in only one direction on
the data communication line (medium).
Examples are Radio and Television broadcasts.
 Half-Duplex: Data flows in both directions
but only one direction at a time on the data
communication line.
Ex. Conversation on walkie-talkies.
 Full-Duplex: Data flows in both directions
simultaneously. Modems are configured to flow
data in both directions.
Ex. Phone Conversation
 Data Flow

Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

 Protocol Architecture
• It is a layered structure of H/W and S/W that
supports exchange of data b/w systems
• It supports distributed applications(E-Mail,
File Transfer)
• Each layer of protocol architecture provides
some set of rules
• There are 2 widely used protocol
architecture
TCP/IP Architecture
OSI Model
 Protocol
• Protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communication
• It represents what is communicated, when it
is communicated and how it is
communicated.
• There are 3 key elements
Syntax
Semantics
Timing
 Syntax
• It represents structure, Format of data the
order in which it is presented
Data may contain:
• First 8 bit -> Sender Address
• Second 8 bit -> Receiver Address
• Remaining bits-> message stream
 SEMANTICS

• It refers the meaning of each section of bit

TIMING

• It refers when data sent and how fast it is sent

(Says Characteristics)
• Ex:100Mbps
• It provides model for the development of
product regardless of individual manufacturer
• It falls in 2 categories
 De Facto standard

• Not officially adopted but used widespread

• It has 2 categories
• Proprietary->Wholly owned by company
• Non-Proprietary->Group or communiy
developed for public
 De Jure Standard
• A Standard Legislated by an officially
recognized body

Standard Organizations:
• International Standard Organization
• ANSI
• IEEE
 The OSI Model
• An ISO (International standard Organization) that
covers all aspects of network communications is the
Open System Interconnection (OSI) model.
• An open system is a model that allows any two
different systems to communicate regardless of their
underlying architecture (hardware or software).
• The OSI model is not a protocol; it is model for
understanding and designing a network architecture
that is flexible, robust and interoperable.
• The OSI model is a layered framework for the
design of network systems that allows for
communication across all types of computer
systems.
• The OSI model is built of seven ordered layers:
1. (Layer 1) Physical layer
2. (Layer 2) Data link layer
3. (Layer 3) Network layer
4. (Layer 4) Transport layer
5. (Layer 5) Session layer
6. (Layer 6) Presentation layer
7. (Layer 7) Application layer
 Peer-to-Peer Process
• Within a single machine, each layer calls upon services of
the layer just below it.
• Layer 3, for example, uses the services provided by layer
2 and provides services for layer 4.
• Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates
with layer x on another machine, by using a protocol (this
is Peer-to-Peer Process).
• Communication between machines is therefore a peer-to-
peer process using protocols appropriate to a given layer.
 Interfaces between Layers
• There is an interface between each pair of
adjacent layers. This interface defines what
information and services a layer must provide
for the layer above it.
 Functions of Layers
1. Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for transmitting
individual bits from one node to the next.
 Physical layer
The physical layer is concerned with the following:
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and
media: It define the type of transmission media
• Representation of the bits: the physical layer
data consist of a stream of bits(0,1). The
transmitted bits must be encoded into signals –
electrical or optical. The physical layer defines
the type of encoding.
• Data rate: The physical layer defines the
transmission rate, the number of bits sent each
second.
 Physical Layer
• Line configuration: the physical layer is
concerned with the connection of devices
to the medium.
• Physical topology – Ring, star
• Transmission Mode - Simplex, Half
duplex Full Duplex
 2. Data Link Layer
• It is responsible for node-to-node delivery of data.
Functions of the Data Link Layer:
• Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits
received from the network layer into data units called
frames.

• Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to

different systems on the network, the data link layer
adds a header to the frame to define the physical
address of the sender (source address) and/or receiver
(destination address) of the frame.

• If the frame is intended for a system outside the

sender’s network, the receiver address is the address of
the device that connects one network to the next.
• Flow Control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by
the receiver is less than the rate produced in the sender, the
data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to
prevent overwhelming the receiver.
• Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the
physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and
retransmit damaged or lost frames. Error control is
normally achieved through a trailer to the end of the frame.

• Access Control. When two or more devices are connected

to the same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to
determine which device has control over the link at any
time.
 3. Network Layer
•The Network layer is responsible for the source-to-
destination
delivery of a packet possible across multiple
networks.
•It converts Frames into packets.

•If two systems are connected to the same link,

there is usually no need for a network layer.
However, if the two systems are attached to different
networks, there is often a need for the network layer
to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.
 Network Layer
Functions:
•Logical addressing-Physical addressing (May change) handle
addressing problem locally
•If packet pass the network boundary, we need another addressing
called logical addressing (Never change)
•Routing - Route the packet to final destination

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from the original
source to the final destination.
 4. Transport Layer

• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process

or end-end delivery of the entire message.
• The network layer oversees host-to-destination delivery of
individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship
between those packets.
• The transport layer ensures that the whole message arrives
intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow
control at the process-to-process level.
 Transport layer

The transport layer is responsible for delivery of a message from

one process to another.
 Functions of the Transport layer

Service point addressing:

Computer often run several processes (running programs)
at the same time. Process-to-process delivery means
delivery from a specific process on one computer to a
specific process on the other.
• The transport layer header include a type of address
called port address.
• The network layer gets each packet to the correct
computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the
correct process on that computer.
 Cont..
,
• Segmentation and reassembly: a message is divided
into transmittable segments, each having a sequence
number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arrival at the
destination.
• Connection control: The transport layer can be either
connectionless or connection-oriented.
• A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an
independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at
the destination machine.
• A connection-oriented transport layer makes a connection
with the transport layer at the destination machine first
before delivering the packets. After all the data are
transferred, the connection is terminated.
 Functions of the transport layer
• Flow control: the transport layer performs a flow control
end to end. The data link layer performs flow control
across a single link.
• Error control: the transport layer performs error control
end to end. The data link layer performs control across a
single link.
• Congestion control concerns controlling traffic entry into
a telecommunication networks so as to avoid congestive
collapse by attempting to avoid oversubscription of any of
the processing or link capabilities of the intermediate
nodes and networks and taking resource reducing steps,
such as reducing the rate of sending packets. It should not
be confused with flow control, which prevents the sender
from overwhelming the receiver.
 5. Session Layer
• The session layer is responsible for dialog control
and synchronization.
 Functions of Session Layer

• Decision Control:- Half duplex, Full

Duplex
• Synchronization: Adding checkpoints to
stream data.
• Ex: System sending 2000 pages.
• Add check point after each 100th page.
• So in case of failure no need to sent whole
page.
 6. Presentation Layer
• It is concerned with the syntax and semantics
of the information exchanged b/w 2 devices.
 Functions of Presentation Layer
• Translation: Interoperability b/w different
encoding formats.
• Encryption: Converting plain to cipher text
and vice versa.
• Compression: Reducing number of bits in
multimedia data when transmitting.
 7. Application layer
The application layer is responsible for providing
services to the user.
 Functions of Application Layer

• It provides user access to network.

• X.500-Directory service.
• X.400-Message handling service.
• FTAM- File Transfer Access and
management.
• Network Virtual Terminal.
• Transmission Control Protocol /
Internetworking Protocol is used in the
internet and is developed prior to the OSI
model.
• It would not match exactly with OSI model
• It is divided into layers.
TCP/IP protocol
• It contains relatively independent protocols
that can mixed and matched with depend
on needs of the system.
• It defines the Physical (or) Logical
arrangement of Links in a Network.
• Topology refers to the layout of connected
devices in a network.
• The Topology of the Network is Geometric
Representation of the relationship
between all Communication links.
 Types of Topology

i) Mesh Topology
ii) Star Topology
iii) Tree Topology
iv) Bus Topology
v) Ring Topology
vi) Hybrid Topology
 Types of Topology

• Here every device has a direct point to point

link between every other device.
• A fully connected mesh can have n(n-1)/2
physical channels to link n devices.
if n=5 (Number of Nodes)
5(5-1)/2 = 10 ( Communication Links)
• 5 Nodes are Connected by using 10
Communication Links
Mesh Topology
 Mesh Topology
Advantages:
• It eliminate the traffic problem.
• It is robustness.
• It has privacy and security.
• Fault can be easily found.
 Mesh Topology
Disadvantages:
• More number of cables to be used.
• Every devices must be connected to some
other devices. So installation process is very
difficult.
 Types of Topology

• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link

between only a central controller or “HUB”.
• The devices are not directly linked to some
other devices.
• If one device wants to send data to another
device, it sends to the central controller and
the Central controller send to other device.
 Star Topology
Star Topology Diagram:

A B

Central controller
(or)
HUB

C D
 Star Topology
Advantages :
• Less expensive than Mess topology.
• Less number of cables to be used.
• It is robustness.
 Star Topology
Disadvantages:
• Each device must connected to central
controller.
• It require more installation process.
• If central controller failure means all the
devices should be failed.
 Types of Topology

• Tree topology has some variation from star

topology.
• The nodes in the tree are linked to the central
controller.
• The primary HUB in the tree is represented by
“Active Hub”.
• The secondary HUB in the tree is represented by
“Passive Hub”.
Tree Topology
 Tree Topology
Advantages:
• It allows more devices to be attached in a
single central controller.
• It allows the network to prioritize the
communication.
 Tree Topology
Disadvantages:
• Each device must be linked to central
controller.
• It require more installation processes.
• If central controller failure means entire
system should fail down.
 Types of Topology

• A Bus topology describes the multipoint

configuration.
• One long cable act as a backbone to link all the
devices in a network.
• Devices are connected in a bus topology with
the help of “Drop lines” and “Tapes”.
 Bus Topology
Bus Topology Diagram:

A B C D

Back bone Drop line Drop line Tape Back

bone
 Bus Topology
Advantages:
• Installation process is very easy.
• Redundancy can be eliminated.
• Less number of cables to be used.
 Bus Topology
Disadvantages:
• Reconfiguration is very difficult.
• Very difficult to adding (or) deleting of a
devices
 Types of Topology

• In Ring Topology each device has dedicated

point-to-point link between other devices.
• The signals are passed along the “ring” in only
one direction from device to device.
• Each devices in a ring should have a
“Repeater”.
 Ring Topology
Ring Topology Diagram:

D B
Ring

C
 Ring Topology
Advantages:
• Easy to install and reconfigure.
• Fault can be easily identified.
 Ring Topology
Disadvantages:
• It is unidirectional traffic.
• In rings if one device gets failure then the
entire system should be failed.
VI. Hybrid Topology

 Combination of all topology is called

hybrid topology.
The physical path between transmitter and
receiver.
• Repeaters or amplifiers may be used to
extend the length of the medium.
• Communication of electromagnetic waves
is guided or unguided.
Twisted-pair cable
UTP and STP
Coaxial Cable
 BNC connectors
•To connect coaxial cable to devices, it is necessary to use coaxial
connectors. The most common type of connector is the Bayone-Neill-
Concelman, or BNC, connectors.

Applications include cable TV networks, and some traditional

Ethernet LANs like 10Base-2, or 10-Base5.
Optical fibers
Propagation Modes (Types of Optical Fiber )
Propagation Modes