MATHEMATICS AS A T OOL

LESSON 4.1
INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC
INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC

Logic is the study of methods of reasoning

or argumentation. It is also a science or study of
how to evaluate arguments and reasoning.
 Propositions
A proposition or statement is a declarative sentence which
is true or false, but not both.

The designation T(true) or F(false), one and only one of

which is assignable to any given statement is called the
truth value of that statement.
Example. Which of the following are propositions?
1. Manila is the capital city of the Philippines.
2. The moon is made of green cheese.
3. Where are you going?
4. If 𝑥 = −3, then 2𝑥 + 5 = 11
5. Please return my blue pen.
6. No way!
7. Millipedes can fly.
8. 15 ÷ 5 = 3
9. 10 < 7.
10. 2 is a prime number.
Propositional variables are used to represent propositions,
usually denoted by small letters, such as 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 𝑠 and 𝑡.

Example:
𝑝: Everyone should study logic.

𝑝 is the proposition “Everyone should study logic”

An open sentence contains one or more variables, that is, it
is either true or false depending on the value of the
placeholder.

Example:
1. 𝑝: She was the first Miss Philippines.
2. 𝑞: 𝑥 is less than 10
3. 𝑟: 𝑦 + 4 = 12
4. 𝑠: 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = −1
5. 𝑡: He was the father of Logic.
A closed sentence, on the other hand, is a mathematical
sentence that is known to be either true or false.

Example:
1. 9 is an odd number.
2. 4 + 4 = 8
3. 10 − 1 = 8
4. 6 − 6 = −1
5. The square root of 4 is 1.
A compound proposition is a proposition formed from
simple propositions using logical connectors or some
combinations of logical connectors. Logical connectors
involving propositions p and/or q may be expressed as:
not p if p then q
p and q p if and only if q
p or q

A proposition is simple if it cannot be broken down any

further into other component propositions.
Example. For each of the propositions, determine whether it
is a simple or compound proposition. If it is compound
proposition, identify the simple components.

1. 𝑝1 : It is not the case that

2 is a rational number.
• r: 2 is a rational number.
✓ 𝑝1 : not r

2. 𝑝2 : If you study hard, then you will get good grades.

• h : You study hard.
• g : You get good grades.
✓ 𝑝2 : If h, then g.
 QUANTIFIERS
Quantifiers are words, expressions, or phrases that
point out the number of elements that a statement
relates to. There are two types of quantifiers: universal
quantifier and existential quantifier.
UNIVERSAL QUANTIFIERS
The universal quantifier, denoted by ∀, refers to the
phrase “for all” or “for every” or “for each”. The universal
quantifier asserts that the formula for any value of 𝑦
(the value as being taken from some given universe or
the set of objects of interest).
 UNIVERSAL QUANTIFIERS
Example. Determine the truth value of the following statements.

1. ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ , 𝑥 2 ≥ 0.
2. ∀𝑥 ∈ ℕ , 𝑥 − 5 > 0.
3. ∀𝑥 ∈ ℕ , 𝑥 + 5 ≤ 5 + 𝑥.
4. ∀𝑥 ∈ ℚ , 2𝑥 + 1 is in ℝ.
5. ∀𝑥 ∈ ℤ , 2𝑥 is a positive integer.
EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIER
The existential quantifier, denoted by ∃, refers to the
phrase “there exists” or “for at least one” or “for
some”. The existential quantifier asserts that the
formula holds for at least one value of 𝑦.
 EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIER
Example. Determine the truth value of the following statements.

1. ∃ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ , 𝑥 2 − 10 ≥ 0.
2. ∃ 𝑥 ∈ ℕ ,𝑥 − 5 < 0 .
3. ∃ 𝑥 ∈ ℤ , 3𝑥 + 2 = 6.
4. ∃ 𝑥 ∈ ℕ , 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 = −10 .
5. ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∃ 𝑦 ∈ ℝ , 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0.
BASIC LOGICAL OPERATORS
In order to know the truth value of a proposition, we need
to know first the truth value of each of its variable. Thus, it
is convenient to make a truth table, listing the truth values
of a statement that result from all the possible
combinations of the truth values of its variables,
 NEGATION
Give any proposition “p”, its opposite is a p ~p
statement “not p” referred to as the
“negation” of the given proposition “p”. T F
Likewise, “p” is the negation of “not p”. F T
Definition: If p is true, then ~p is false; and if
p is false, then ~p is true.
 NEGATION
Example. Determine the truth value of the following propositions.
State its negation.

1. Visayas State University is part of the zonal agricultural

university.
2. The product of two odd integers is even.
3. The earth rotates eastward, in prograde motion.
4. Manila City is in the Philippines.
5. There’s a KPop girl group named BlackPink.
 CONJUNCTION
A compound statement formed by p q p∧𝐪
connecting two statements with the word
T T T
“and” is called a conjunction. In symbols, it
is written as “p ∧ q” which is read as “p and T F F
q”. F T F
F F F
Definition: If p and q are true, then p ∧ q is
true; otherwise p ∧ q is false.
 CONJUNCTION
Example. Determine the truth value of each proposition.

1. 2 + 6 = 9 and man is a mammal.

2. Many Pacquiao is a boxing champion and Gloria
Macapagal Arroyo is the first female Philippine President.
3. Abraham Lincoln is a former US President and the
Philippine Senate is composed of 24 senators.
 CONJUNCTION
4. Consider the following propositions:
𝑝: The Covid – 19 vaccine Sputnik V is from Russia.
𝑞: H2 O is water
Write, as a sentence, the following conjunctions
a. 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞
b. ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞
c. ~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞
d. 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞
 DISJUNCTION
A compound statement formed by p q p∨𝐪
connecting two statements with the word T T T
“or” is called disjunction. Symbolically, “p
∨ q” which is read as “p or q”. T F T
F T T
Definition. If p and q are false, then p ∨ q F F F
is false; otherwise p ∨ q is true.
 DISJUNCTION
Example. Determine the truth value of each proposition.

1. 2 + 6 = 9 or Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion.

2. Philippine Senate is composed of 24 senators or
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the first female Philippine
President.
3. Abraham Lincoln is a former US President or man is a
mammal.
 DISJUNCTION
4. Consider the following propositions:
𝑝: Johnny is eating sugar.
𝑞: Covid – 19 is from abroad
𝑟: The Miami Heat is 2020 NBA champion.
Write, as a sentence, the following disjunction.
a. 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
b. ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟
c. 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑟
 Conditional Statement
A compound statement formed by connecting two
statements with the words “if…then” is called a conditional.
Symbolically, “p → q” which is read as “If p, then q” or “p
implies q”.
The statement 𝑝 is called antecedent and 𝑞 is the
consequent.
 Conditional Statement
p q p→𝐪
Definition. The conditional proposition is T T T
false if the 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false:
otherwise, the conditional proposition is T F F
true. F T T
F F T
 Conditional Statement
Example. Determine the truth value of the given propositions.
1. If vinegar is sweet, then sugar is sour.
2. February 2016 had 29 days if 2020 is a leap year.
3. If 4 is a natural number, then ½ is an integer.
4. If there are seven colors in the rainbow, then the sun sets
in the south.
 Biconditional
p q p↔𝐪
A compound statement formed by
connecting two statements with the T T T
words “if and only if” is called a
biconditional. Symbolically, “ 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 ” T F F
which read as “𝑝 if and only if 𝑞”.
F T F
Definition. The biconditional 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 of 𝑝 F F T
and 𝑞 is true if both 𝑝 and 𝑞 have the
same truth value; otherwise, it is false.
 Biconditional
Example. Determine the truth value of the given propositions

1. 2 + 8 = 10 if only if 6 − 3 = 3.
2. Manila is the capital of the Philippines is equivalent to
fish live in the moon.
3. 8 − 2 = 5 is necessary and sufficient for 4 + 2 = 7.
4. there are seven colors in rainbow if and only if the sun
sets in the south.
 Exclusive OR
A compound statement formed by p q p ⨁𝐪
connecting two statements with the word
“or” is called exclusive or. Symbolically, “p T T F
⨁ q” which is read as “p exclusive or q”. T F T
F T T
Definition: Proposition is true when exactly
one of its proposition is true and the other F F F
one is false.
 Exclusive OR
Example. Determine the truth value of the given propositions.
1. Sofia will have her lunch today in Batangas or in
Singapore.
2. The circuit is either on or off.
3. Your grade remarks is either passed or fail.
4. ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℤ except 0, 𝑥 is either negative or positive.
Constructing Truth Tables
Example 1. Construct the truth table of the proposition
~p ∨ q
Example 2. Construct the truth table of the proposition
~p ∨ ~q
Example 3. Construct the truth table of the proposition
𝑝→𝑞 ∧ 𝑞→𝑝

Example 4. Construct the truth table of the proposition

p ∧ 𝑞 ∧ (~r)
EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS
Example 1. Determine if the following arguments is
equivalent or not.
~ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 and ~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞

Example 2. Determine if the following arguments are

equivalent or not.
𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 and 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)
CLASSES OF COMPOUND STATEMENTS
The three important classes of compound statements

Tautology
contradiction
contingency
 Tautology
A compound statement is a tautology if its truth value is
always T, regardless of the truth values of the statements
of which it is composed.

Example. The statement 𝑝 → (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) is a tautology.

 contradiction
A compound statement is a contradiction if is truth value is
always F, regardless of the truth values of its variables.
Example. The statement 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞 ∧ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) is a contradiction.
 contingency
A compound statement is a contingency if it is neither
tautology nor contradiction.

Example. The statement 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑞 → 𝑝 is a contingency.

 Symbolic Arguments
An argument is an assertion that a given series of
𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑚 is called premises, yields (has a consequence)
another statement 𝑄, called the conclusion.

The premises are intended to demonstrate or at least

provide some evidence for the conclusion.
 Symbolic Arguments
A proof is an argument from hypotheses to conclusion.
Each step of the argument follows the laws of logic and rule
of inference.

Logic proofs begin with

premises-statements that are allowed to be assumed, while
conclusion is the statement that needs to be proven.
 Symbolic Arguments
An argument is said to be valid when all the premises are
true it forces the conclusion to be true. An argument which
is not valid is called an invalid argument or fallacy.
 List of Some Valid Arguments

Law of Detachment
Law of Contraposition
Law of Syllogism
 Law of Detachment
Law of Detachment (also called Modus Ponens)
Symbolically, the argument is written as
Premise 1: 𝑝 → 𝑞
Premise 2: 𝑝
∴𝑞

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 ∧𝒑 𝒑→𝒒 ∧𝒑 →𝒒

T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T
 Law of Detachment
Example. Consider the following arguments. Verify if its valid or
invalid.

1. If Mark finishes his homework, then he can watch a movie.

Mark finishes his homework. Therefore, Mark can watch a
movie.

2. If Mark finishes his homework, then he can watch a movie.

Mark watches a movie. Therefore, Mark finishes his
homework.
 Law of Contraposition
Law of Contraposition (also called Modus Tollens)
Symbolically, the argument is written:
Premise 1: 𝑝→𝑞
Premise 2: ~𝑞
∴ ~𝑝

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 ∼𝒒 𝒑 → 𝒒 ∧∼ 𝒒 ∼ 𝒑 𝒑 → 𝒒 ∧∼ 𝒒 →∼ 𝒑
T T T F F F T
T F F T F F T
F T T F F T T
F F T T T T T
 Law of Contraposition
Example. Consider the following arguments. Verify if its
valid or invalid.

1. If Nathaniel will graduate in college, then his mother

will buy him a car. Nathaniel don’t have a car.
Therefore, Nathaniel didn’t graduate in college.

2. If you passed Chemistry 1 in 1st semester, then you

will take Chemistry 2 in next semester. You did not
enroll Chemistry 2 for 2nd semester. Therefore, you fail
in Chemistry 1 in 1st sem.
 Law of Syllogism
Law of Syllogism
Symbolically, the argument is written:
Premise 1: 𝑝 → 𝑞
Premise 2: 𝑞 → 𝑟
∴𝑝→𝑟
 Law of Syllogism
𝒑 𝒒 𝒓 𝒑→𝒒 𝒒→𝒓 𝒑→𝒒 ∧ 𝒒→𝒓 𝒑→𝒓 𝒑→𝒒 ∧ 𝒒→𝒓 → 𝒑→𝒓
T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F T
T F T F T F T T
T F F F T F F T
F T T T T T T T
F T F T F F T T
F F T T T T T T
F F F T T T T T
 Law of Syllogism
Example. Consider the following arguments. Verify if its
valid or invalid.

1. If tomorrow is Monday, Wednesday or Friday, then

Jamaica will have a class for MMW. If Jamaica have a
class for MMW, then she will walk from Sampaguita
dorm to EB 105 at 12:45 in the afternoon. Therefore, If
tomorrow is Monday, Wednesday or Friday, then Jamaica
will walk from Sampaguita dorm to EB 105 at 12:45 in the
afternoon.
 Arguments and Euler Diagrams
An Euler diagram is used to analyze or test the validity
of an argument.
Example. Create an Euler diagram to test the validity of
the argument.

1. All Math teachers love numbers.

Jhesi is a Math teacher.
Therefore, Jhesi loves numbers.
 Arguments and Euler Diagrams

2. If it rained, then the ground is wet.

The ground is wet.
Therefore, it rained

3. No snakes are mammals.

All dogs are mammals.
Therefore, no snakes are dogs
4. All X’s are Y’s
Some Y’s are Z’s
Therefore, some X’s are Z’s

5. All gymnasts are athletic

Riana is athletic.
Therefore, Riana is a gymnast.
Establish the validity of the arguments by completing the
formal proof by providing explanations for each step.
𝑝 → 𝑟 ∧ ~𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑞 → 𝑠 → (~𝑟 → 𝑠)
 EXERCISES
1. Given the following propositions,
𝑝: Dyroth is a prince
𝑞: Odette is beautiful
𝑟: Cyclops has one eye
i. Express the following propositions symbolically.
a) Cyclops has one eye and Odette is beautiful.
b) Ether Odette is beautiful or Dyroth is a prince.
c) Either Odette is beautiful or Cyclops has one eye, but not
both.
ii. Express the following proposition in words
a) 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞
b) ~𝑞 → ~𝑝
2. Establish the validity of the following arguments using the
truth table.
Roger is either a human or a werewolf.
Roger is not human.
Therefore, he is a werewolf.

3. Establish the validity of the arguments by using the list of

valid arguments.
𝑝 → ~𝑞 ∧ ~𝑞 → ~𝑟 ∧ 𝑝 → ~𝑟