Chapter Two

Qualitative Approach:
 Research process
 Research design
 Methods and procedures
 Field research
 Case study
 Ethnography
 FGD
 Grounded theory
Research process
The research process entails systematically acquiring knowledge, resolving issues, or addressing
particular inquiries. It is a series of systematic procedures that a researcher must undertake to
generate valuable knowledge relevant to the project and focused on the relevant subject matter.
The process is iterative, with each subsequent step influenced by the preceding one. The
successful execution of this task necessitates meticulous strategic planning, meticulous attention
to intricate particulars, and an unwavering dedication to acquiring knowledge and
comprehension.
5 Steps in the Research Process Overview
The following steps outline a simple and effective process for conducting both basic and
practical research. The five (5) steps in the research process are: [1]

 Step 1: Locating and Defining Issues or Problems – Understanding the questions

that need to be answered or studied
 Step 2: Designing the Research Project – Creating a research plan
  Step 3: Collecting Data – Obtaining the information needed to solve the identified
issue or problem
 Step 4: Interpreting Research Data – examining the research data and coming up
with a conclusion that solves the problem
 Step 5: Report Research Findings – Presenting the information

Step 1 – Locating and Defining Issues or Problems

This step focuses on uncovering the nature and boundaries of a situation or question that needs to
be answered or studied. In defining the issues or problems, the researcher should consider the
study’s purpose, the relevant background information, what information is needed, and how it
will be used in decision-making. A well-defined problem will help the researcher through all
research process steps, from setting goals to choosing a method. There are a number of ways to
learn more about a subject and get a better grasp on it in Step 2.

Step 2 – Designing the Research Project

This step focuses on creating a research plan or overall approach to how you will solve the issue
or problem identified. A research plan or approach is a framework or blueprint for conducting a
research project. It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the required information, and
its purpose is to design a study that will test the hypotheses of interest, determine possible
answers to the research questions, and provide the information needed for decision-making.

The research design involves the following steps:

 Step 1: Conduct secondary data analysis

 Step 2: Do qualitative research
 Step 3: Determine methods of collecting quantitative data (survey, observation, and
experimentation)
 Step 4: Determine the definition of the information needed
 Step 5: Determine measurement and scaling procedures
 Step 6: Design a questionnaire
 Step 7: Sampling process and sample size
 Step 8: Plan of data analysis
Step 3 – Collecting Data

This step revolved around obtaining the information needed to solve the identified issue or
problem. Data collection can involve experiments, observations, personal interviewing (in-
home, mall intercept, or computer-assisted personal interviewing), from an office by telephone
(telephone or computer-assisted telephone interviewing), or through the mail (traditional mail
and mail panel surveys with recruited households). The two groups of researchers must provide
data.
Data collection techniques can include:

 Interviews: Asking people questions about their known information

 Observations: collecting data without asking questions.
 Questionnaires: Ask questions among a group of people
 Focus Groups: Interviewing and observing a group of people
 Documents and Records: Old-fashioned research
 Literature review: Old-fashioned research
 Library Sources: Old reports and articles/books
Step 4 – Interpreting Research Data

This step is focused on interpreting and examining the research data and coming up with a
conclusion that solves the problem. Based on the data collected, make sure the conclusion is easy
to understand and well thought out.

Analysis Steps

 Step A: Review your research plan

 Step B: Organize your findings and the information you have collected from Step 3.
 Step C: Create a rough draft of your findings, recommendations, and conclusion. This
will help you organize your thoughts.
 Step D: Polish the rough draft into your final research finding. You will most likely
revise the draft many times before the final product is ready for Step 5.
Step 5 – Report Research Findings

The final step is to report the research findings to those who need the data to make decisions.
The findings should be presented in an understandable format so that they can be readily used in
the decision-making process. In addition, an oral presentation should be made to management
using tables, figures, and graphs to enhance clarity and impact.

Research Reporting Formats:


 Formal Paper
 Published Article
 PowerPoint Presentation
 Audio or Video
 Spreadsheet

Typical Formal Research Report Format

A formal research report typically consists of several sections organized in a specific order to
present the research findings clearly and structured. Here is a notional format of a research
report, including the typical sections:
1. Title Page:
– Title of the Research Report
– Name(s) of the Author(s)
– Affiliation(s) of the Author(s)
– Date of Submission
2. Abstract:
– A brief summary of the research objectives, methods, key findings, and conclusions.
– Usually limited to a specific word count or length.
3. Table of Contents:
– A list of the main sections, subsections, and page numbers in the report.
– Helps readers navigate through the report easily.
4. Introduction:
– Provides an overview of the research topic, including background information, context,
and significance.
– States the research problem, objectives, and research questions.
– Outlines the scope and limitations of the study.
5. Literature Review:
– Reviews relevant literature and previous studies related to the research topic.
– Summarizes existing knowledge, theories, and methodologies.
– Identifies gaps, controversies, or unresolved issues that the current research aims to
address.
6. Methodology:
– Describes the research design, methods, and procedures used to collect and analyze
data.
– Includes information on the sample size, data sources, data collection tools, and data
analysis techniques.
– Provides sufficient details for replication and validation of the study.
7. Results:
– Presents the findings of the research in a clear and organized manner.
– Utilizes tables, figures, charts, or graphs to present data.
– Includes descriptive statistics, qualitative analysis, or any other relevant analysis
outputs.
8. Discussion:
– Interprets and discusses the research findings in relation to the research objectives.
– Compares the results with existing literature and theories.
– Analyzes patterns, trends, correlations, or discrepancies in the data.
– Provides explanations, justifications, or hypotheses to support the findings.
9. Conclusion:
– Summarizes the main findings of the research.
– Restate the research objectives and address the research questions.
– Highlights the contributions and implications of the study.
– Suggests recommendations for future research or practical applications.
10. References:
– Lists all the sources cited within the research report.
– Follows a specific referencing style (e.g., APA, MLA, IEEE) as per the guidelines.
 11. Appendices:
– Includes supplementary information or additional data that supports the research
findings but is not necessary for the main body of the report.
– May include survey questionnaires, interview transcripts, data tables, software code, or
any other relevant materials.
It’s important to note that the structure and specific section names may vary depending on the
discipline, research field, or journal requirements.
 Research design

Types of Research Design Perspective and Methodological Approaches

How do you go about conducting research? According to Saunders, et al. (2012), the definition
of research design is a plan aimed at answering a specific research question. This research design
definition concerns proper research data management and brings together several components,
strategies, and methods to collect data and analyze it. However, Bliesmer (1970) has said that
designing research may fail to account for flexibility and the duration of the research.

Types of Research Design Table of Contents

1. Overview of Research Design

2. Characteristics of Good Research Design

3. Basic Research Design Methods

4. Research Design Types

5. Research Design Approaches

6. Ethical Considerations in Research Design

1. Overview of Research Design

What is research design in a research paper? A research design also called a research strategy is a
plan to answer a set of questions (McCombes, 2019). It is a framework that includes the methods
and procedures to collect, analyze, and interpret data. In other words, the research design
describes how the researcher will investigate the central problem of the research and is, thus part
of the research proposal.

The characteristics of research design influence the type of data to be gathered and,
consequently, its results. Depending on the type, which we will explain below, research design
also defines all other constituent parts of a study, such as variables, hypotheses, experiments,
methodology, and statistical analysis (Creswell et al., 2018).

However, what is research design in research methodology? Many people confuse research
design and methodology. The difference is that while the former is an outline of how to approach
the problem, the latter states how to implement the design. Both are crucial in building a thesis
statement. And, if you need help with this part of your study, you can check out our guide
on how to write a thesis statement for a research paper.
 Goals

Excellent research design has one purpose: to make the data address the research problem as
clearly, as accurately, and as unbiased as possible. Arriving at the results means successfully
specifying the type of results to test a theory or evaluate or describe a phenomenon. Without
doing this beforehand, interpreting data will appear weak and flimsy and will likely not address
the problem the researcher has set out to answer.

In any research work, design is rudimentary since everything eventually emanates from the
selected design, and since this selection is the most closely related to the scholar’s theories and
research questions (Vogt et al., 2012). With the right choice, research design has fulfilled its
purpose when the conclusion is seen to have a minimum bias. A research design that produces
the least margin of error is one of its goals.

To do so, sound research design follows these main tenets:

 Identify the problem.

 Justify why it is a problem.

 Review literature surrounding the problem.

 Specify hypotheses regarding the problem.

 Describe the data to test the hypotheses and how it will be collected.

 Define how this data will be interpreted and analyzed to find out if the hypotheses are
true or false.

2. Characteristics of Good Research Design

De Vaus (2001) uses construction as an analogy for research design. Before constructing any
building, knowing whether a builder needs a high-rise, a factory, a school, or any type of
building is essential. Therefore, knowing the type and the characteristics of the research goes
first naturally, before even beginning to pose the hypotheses and the methods used to collect data
that, in turn, can support or abrogate the hypotheses. This approach is also very useful when
writing your university dissertation.

The determination you make during the framing of the research design process will significantly
dictate the value of the conclusions you can derive from your study outcomes (Bordens &
Abbott, 2018). As such, ensure that your selected research design is highly appropriate because
with the right choice comes the relevant results.
While the length and complexity of the research design vary, the research design itself consists
of several parts. Note that the research problem will dictate the research design, including its
type and its elements. These parts are:

1. Purpose statement (the central research problem)

2. Data collection and analysis

3. Statistical method to analyze data

4. Settings for the study

5. Timeline

6. Probable objections

7. Validating the data

The statistical methods to analyze such data can take on different forms and depend on the
research’s central question and are Mean, Correlation, Regression ,z-and/ort test, Median,
Standard deviation,

What Makes a Good Research Design?

There are several ways to see that the study is designed well at a glance. Here are four main
characteristics that make for good research design:

 It is neutral. Naturally, setting up a study comes with a measure of assumptions, which

is why there is a hypothesis. However, good research design comes into play when the
results obtained are as neutral and as objective as possible. It should allow the researcher
to analyze and interpret the data that is free of any bias.
 It is valid. The design of the research also indicates the tools and techniques by which to
measure results. If the design is sound, these tools will be correct and appropriate for the
job, which will be defined as those that can help a researcher in measuring the results.
 It is reliable. Research design, when done well, can afford research that generates similar
results every time it is performed. This means that a good research design creates an
opportunity to form standards to collect and analyze results.
  It can be generalized. Generalized design means the design can apply not just to one
part of a study, population, or setting. It should be able to cover any part with the same
measure of accuracy.
These four elements, including how the research is designed, influence how the research will be
conducted and the methods used to acquire the results.

3. Basic Research Design Methods

Research methods are used to answer different questions, and examples of research questions can
help guide the selection of appropriate methods. These methods are highly dependent upon the
type of research design used to “frame" the entire study. Because they are so closely related,
research methods are somewhat conflated with research design, but the subtle nuance is there.
Yin (2014) has a succinct way of differentiating the two: design is logical, while method is
logistical. In other words, the design is the plan, the method is how to realize that plan.
There are important factors at play when creating a methodology in research. These include
ethics, the validity of data, and reliability. Accounting for the time spent on collecting and
analyzing data is also a prudent move. The type of research method will also factor into the time;
for example, interviews or observation may yield rich data sets, but they take much more time
than, say, a survey. Therefore, balancing these needs with the time and resources available and
the advantages and disadvantages of each method will be paramount to designing a research
method.

Types of Research Methods

Alzheimer Europe (2009) outlines eight types of research design in research methodology
methods, but other disciplines may demand more specialized ones. That said, the biggest
contributor to the type of method will depend on the goals of the study. In the social sciences, for
example, this may depend on the subject/s or the central problem, such as what makes people
buy expensive designer clothing more than their more affordable counterparts.
The following methods, however, can be used in any field or body of knowledge:

 Experiments
 Surveys
 Interviews
 Questionnaires
 Case studies
  Observational trials (using longitudinal and retrospective approaches)
 Delphi method in which panelists share, through several rounds, assessments of salient
issues in order to forecast a hypothesis, especially in areas where knowledge is uncertain
and imperfect (Aichholzer, 2009).
Note that the research does not have to be pigeonholed into one particular type of method.
Depending on the resources and the research design, the research team can combine several
types of methods to find the data they need. In addition, the data generated from one method will
be markedly different from that of another, both in quality and quantity.

4. Research Design Types

The type of research design is one of the biggest contributors to the quality, relevance, and
accuracy of a result. Therefore, before setting out to outline a proposal, it is always a good idea
to distinguish the type of research by including it in the research design.
There are a few ways to approach a research design type, but literature has not always been
clear-cut on these types (Abutabenjeh, 2018). In fact, existing publications have made it even
impossible to distinguish between types, methods, and approaches, with some older references
talking about fixed and flexible designs (Bouma, 1994).
To make designing research as simple as possible, we have broken down the types of research
design into four major ones, as explained below.

Descriptive Research
In studies where the researcher is interested in describing a case, situation, or phenomenon, they
are acting under a descriptive research design. As a theory-based design, it is interested in
answering the how, what, when, and where questions, instead of the why. Descriptive research
directs the researcher to understand the research problem before investigating why it even
happens in the first place.
Descriptive design furnishes the researcher with an opportunity to gain insight into the problem
itself. It also helps the research team to see the need for the research. If it is not as clear or as
necessary, exploratory research (which, according to Blaikie (2000), is considered as the first
phase of research) may be needed. Descriptive research attempts to build on the groundwork
made by exploration, such as providing additional information, filling in gaps in knowledge, or
expanding it. Unique to descriptive research is that it also aims to collect as much data and
information as possible.
An example of descriptive research is market research. An investor, for example, may need to
look at the market, such as its current state, its trends, and so on.
Experimental Research

Explanatory Research

As evidenced by the name, explanatory research aims to explain the researcher’s findings and
ideas to expand the theory. Using this research design, the researchers explore the limits and
boundaries of a subject in order to present the reader with the results that answer the what, how,
and why of the research’s central thesis. When conducting the research, the researcher should
leave all biases behind and adapt to new data and/or findings.

Researchers and students conduct explanatory research to find the underlying problem or a new
angle to a problem. These may not always be readily apparent when initially proposing the
research or it was not studied in-depth before (GradesFixer, 2019).

Note that explanatory research does not seek to provide conclusive answers, but to give an
avenue to researchers to plumb the depths of the subject.

5. Research Design Approaches

Any researcher would need an understanding of the research design types to see which is more
appropriate for the study or which one brings to fruition the most accurate results. To do this,
there are three broad ways to approach the design, as we will discuss below.

Quantitative

The first approach is to design the research using a quantitative perspective. This approach best
suits a research goal where actionable insight is tied to a statistical conclusion. As the name
implies, the quantitative approach frames numbers as a representation of data. Because numbers
are objective, a quantitative approach is necessary, for example, in making data-driven business
decisions where margins of profits turn on the most minute of details and/or figures.

Often called a “top-down" approach (Burney, 2008), it involves taking away the parts from the
general to the specific. This way, the researchers arrive at a conclusion based on the premises or
the available facts. Because quantitative data also tend to be voluminous, statistical software and
other services are used to analyze them

Objectivity is highly prized in a quantitative approach to research. As a result, researchers go to

great lengths so that the results of their research are untarnished by their own presence, behavior,
or expectations. One such way to do so is by self-examination such that their methods or
conclusions are free of unwarranted biases or presumptions. A quantitative approach to research
must mean that the design itself must account for and/or control external variables; they can
never be eliminated completely, and as such must be acknowledged in the interpretation of the
findings. A basic example would be the process of registering a business name: check
availability first to avoid duplicates, which impede the likelihood of achieving natural outcomes.
In order to approach a design with quantitative intent, researchers often start with one or more
hypotheses and the relationships between the variables they want to investigate. The design must
also factor in stricter forms of methodology and tools used to measure and validate the collected
data, a clear plan of action, a statistical procedure to analyze data, and a valid way to present
these results.

Qualitative
A qualitative approach, on the other hand, to research sets out to determine a relationship
between collected data and observations. As it is about recording, analyzing, and discovering the
web of interconnectedness that underpins related subjects, it generates a plethora of raw data,
whether obtained through statistical means or otherwise. This nature of a qualitative approach
thus lends itself well to exploratory research (Blaikie, 2009).
Unlike quantitative approaches, a qualitative approach is its opposite. It uses an inductive way of
approaching the conclusion of the study. Also called a “bottom-up" approach, it infers meaning
or looks for patterns on the basis of the data that they have collected.
Qualitative research is employed extensively in the social sciences. It is concerned with
observing and uncovering the social constructs that human societies are framed in and looks at
the significance of the human experience in the lens of beliefs, behaviors, and emotions. A
qualitative approach is, thus interested in gaining an understanding of what works as the
participant sees and feels it (that is, subjectively).
While qualitative research also uses some form of quantitative analysis, the way it collects data
allows for greater freedom. Unlike quantitative methods that gather and collate data in computer-
readable forms to be crunched at a later time, qualitative approaches record data in textual format
from observation and interaction with the subjects. In addition, the methods used vary wildly,
with open-ended, exploratory, and wide-ranging processes and little, if any, assumptions on the
part of the researchers so as to make the data pristine and as accurate as possible.
Ultimately, quantitative and qualitative methods should not be considered as strict, divergent
dichotomies, opposites, or categories. Rather, they should be seen as representing distinctive
ends on a continuum or large system (Creswell, 2015). For instance, a research work tends to be
more quantitative than qualitative or the other way around (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).

Ethical Considerations in Research Design

Ethical considerations are crucial in research design, ensuring that studies are conducted
responsibly and with respect for participants. A strong ethical framework protects the rights and
well-being of individuals involved. It enhances the credibility and integrity of the research itself.
Here are vital ethical considerations to keep in mind:

 Informed Consent: Researchers must obtain informed consent from participants before
involving them in a study. This means that participants should fully understand the
research's nature, purpose, risks, and benefits. Clear information helps participants decide
about their involvement, fostering trust and transparency.
 Confidentiality: Maintaining the confidentiality of participant data is essential.
Researchers should take steps to protect personal information and ensure that it is not
disclosed without consent. This can involve anonymizing data, securely storing
information, and limiting access to only those directly involved in the research.
Respecting confidentiality builds trust between researchers and participants.
 Minimizing Harm: Researchers must minimize any potential harm to participants,
whether physical, psychological, or emotional. This includes assessing risks associated
with the research design and implementing measures to mitigate them. Conducting a
thorough risk-benefit analysis can help ensure that the potential benefits of the research
outweigh any possible harm.
 Vulnerable Populations: Special ethical considerations apply when conducting research
involving vulnerable populations, such as children, the elderly, or individuals with
disabilities. Researchers must be particularly cautious and ensure that these individuals
are not exploited or coerced into participating. Additional safeguards may be necessary to
protect their rights and welfare.
  Debriefing Participants: After participation, researchers should offer debriefing
sessions to inform participants about the study's purpose and findings. This helps
participants understand their contribution and the overall significance of the research.
Debriefing can also provide an opportunity to address participants' questions or concerns
about their involvement.
 Research Misconduct: Researchers must avoid any form of misconduct, including
fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism. Upholding ethical standards in data collection,
analysis, and reporting is vital for maintaining the integrity of the research process.
Adhering to ethical guidelines can prevent breaches of trust between the research
community and society.
 Compliance with Institutional Review Boards (IRBs): Most research involving human
subjects requires approval from an Institutional Review Board (IRB) or ethics committee.
These bodies review research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met. Compliance
with IRB guidelines helps protect participants and maintains the credibility of the
research.
Researchers can create a responsible and trustworthy research environment by prioritizing ethical
considerations in research design. These practices not only safeguard participants but also
contribute to the overall validity and reliability of research findings, ultimately advancing
knowledge responsibly.

Designing and Implementing an Actionable Research Design

As this article has explained, a research design is independent of any method or procedure for
collecting data. By definition, any type of research can do so, and researchers can perform any
type of approach as appropriate to the situation or the problem of the research. What research
design aims to do is to create a direction or a blueprint of the research by recommending a
framework of the inquiry. On the other hand, a question on how to find if a business name is
taken does not require a research design because it is much simpler and easier to answer.
The design of the research thus enables researchers to identify the type of data collected and the
evidence they need to answer the question. Simply collecting evidence to support a postulated
hypothesis would not do; it is the task of the researcher, by designing a framework, to allow the
study to find alternative, even conflicting explanations and which one makes more sense or can
be most validated.
Scholars and researchers use a variety of research methods to collect and analyze information.
To know more about these methods, read our article on primary and secondary research methods.

Key Insights

 Definition and Importance: Research design is a structured plan to answer specific

research questions, integrating various components and methods for data collection and
analysis.
 Research Design vs. Methodology: While research design outlines the approach to the
research problem, methodology details the implementation of this design.
 Goals of Research Design: The primary goal is to ensure data addresses the research
problem clearly, accurately, and without bias, ultimately minimizing error and producing
reliable conclusions.
 Characteristics of Good Research Design:
o Neutrality: Ensures objective data analysis.
o Validity: Uses appropriate tools and techniques for accurate measurement.
o Reliability: Generates consistent results across repeated studies.
o Generalizability: Applies findings to broader contexts beyond the study sample.
 Basic Research Methods: Include experiments, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, case
studies, observational trials, and the Delphi method.
 Types of Research Design:
o Descriptive: Focuses on describing a case or phenomenon without exploring
causality.
o Experimental: Establishes cause-and-effect relationships through controlled
experiments.
o Correlational: Examines associations between variables using statistical analysis.
o Explanatory: Expands on findings to explain the underlying theory without
providing conclusive answers.
  Approaches to Research Design:
o Quantitative: Uses statistical analysis for objective, numerical data.
o Qualitative: Explores subjective experiences and social constructs through textual
data.
o Pragmatic: Adopts the most suitable methods from both quantitative and
qualitative approaches as needed.

Methods and procedures

Most frequently used methods include:

 Observation / Participant Observation.

 Surveys.

 Interviews.

 Focus Groups.

 Experiments.

 Secondary Data Analysis / Archival Study.

 Mixed Methods (combination of some of the above)

What are research methods?

Research methods are the strategies, processes or techniques utilized in the collection of data or
evidence for analysis in order to uncover new information or create better understanding of a
topic.

There are different types of research methods which use different tools for data collection.
Types of research

 Qualitative Research

 Quantitative Research

 Mixed Methods Research

Qualitative Research gathers data about lived experiences, emotions or behaviours, and the
meanings individuals attach to them. It assists in enabling researchers to gain a better
understanding of complex concepts, social interactions or cultural phenomena. This type of
research is useful in the exploration of how or why things have occurred, interpreting events and
describing actions.
Data collection tools
Techniques or tools used for gathering research data include:

Quantitative Techniques o
Qualitative Techniques or Tools
r Tools

Interviews: these can be structured, semi-structured or Surveys or questionnaires:

unstructured in-depth sessions with the researcher and a which ask the same
participant. questions to large numbers
of participants or
use Likert scales which
measure opinions as
numerical data.

Focus groups: with several participants discussing a particular Observation: which can
topic or a set of questions. Researchers can be facilitators or either involve counting the
observers. number of times a specific
phenomenon occurs, or the
coding of observational data
in order to translate it into
numbers.

Observations: On-site, in-context or role-play options. Document screening:

sourcing numerical data
from financial reports or
counting word occurrences.
 Quantitative Techniques o
Qualitative Techniques or Tools
r Tools

Document analysis: Interrogation of correspondence (letters, Experiments: testing

diaries, emails etc) or reports. hypotheses in laboratories,
testing cause and effect
relationships, through field
experiments, or via quasi- or
natural experiments.

Oral history or life stories: Remembrances or memories of

experiences told to the researcher.

Procedures and research methods

A scientific procedure means a procedure through which a given task related to the research and
reaching the research aim is successively implemented. A scientific procedure is based on certain
methodology. Its content is supported by the methodology. The meaning of a scientific
procedure is to successfully reach the research aim. At the same time, a scientific procedure
means implementation of research methods.

Selecting methods

1) Classification of scientific procedures according to method criteria

Type of scientific procedure Example of the kind of scientific procedure

Empiric Observation, measuring, experiment
Theoretical Inductive, deductive
“Other” e.g. heuristic
Description Example

theoretica • uses purely theoretical methods (analysis, Pedagogical behavior of a teacher is

l synthesis, induction, deduction, modeling) clarified through models or
• usually does not work with specific data constructions...
• specific phenomena are viewed from a It can be described verbally or with
 theoretical point of view a scheme...
It is treated only theoretically
regardless of specific agents...
empiric • always works with specific data A novice teacher (Šimoník, 1994).
• reaches specific pieces of knowledge via Specific teachers, specific methods
exact methods (questionnaire), arrives at specific
• its subjects are animate subjects (teachers, results.
students) or inanimate objects (textbooks,
essays written by students)
Scientific procedures can be classified from different points of view. The table presents one of
possible classifications: the type of scientific procedure is differentiated on the basis of the
prevailing type of scientific procedure, i.e. whether empiric or theoretical methods prevail in the
course of scientific procedure.

Another possible classification is based on the way of explanation or interpretation of the treated
issue respectively. Based on this criterion, so-called types of scientific methods are
differentiated. Among them, there are explanation and interpretation methods. Explanation
proceeds from the general to the individual. The general means familiar relationship (e.g. in the
form of a “scientific law”); the specific is the phenomena which is being explained and which is
included into a general relationship. Interpretation is a different procedure.

From the point of view of generality, the most general methods are methods referred to as
general scientific methods. They can be used in scientific research universally. The most
important are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, comparing, specifying and analogy.

An individual field of study may use its own (specific) research method. Such a method is
referred to as a “specific method”, which suggests that the given method is unique and used only
in the given field of study.

2) Differentiation of general scientific methods relative to explanation and interpretation

Types of methods Kinds of methods Example of individual kinds of methods

Explanation Empiric Observation
Measuring
Experiment
General- Analysis
theoretical Synthesis
 Induction
Deduction
Analogy
Comparing
Specific
Interpretation Narrative Narration
Hermeneutic Understanding a text
3) Classification of scientific methods which are prevailing in kin anthropology

QUANTITATIVE – based on positivism, uses deduction (Theory – forming hypotheses –

observation – testing hypotheses – interpretation and generalization). It is based on theory and
presupposes a research project.

QUALITATIVE – based on phenomenology, ethnomethodology, symbolic interactionism

(interpretative paradigm), uses induction (observation – revealing regularity – conclusions –
theory). It is numeric examination and interpretation. The aim is to reveal the meaning of
information (narrative sociology).

Quantitative approach tests formed hypotheses, it formulates them qualitatively and it creates
new hypotheses and new theory.

Quantitative approach tests formed hypotheses, it formulates them qualitatively and it creates
new hypotheses and new theory.

Examples of quantitative methods:

experiment, (quasi-experiment)

correlative examination

more specialized

normative examination

longitudinal study

time series analysis

Q-methodology

Cluster analysis
One-dimensional and multi-dimensional scaling

Operative research

Examples of qualitative methods:

Case study

Ethnography (including observation and participation observation)

Grounded theory

Examining narrations based on language examination

Ethnomethodology and conversation analysis

Discourse analysis, semiotics

Document and text analysis

Hendl in Hendl, J. Introduction into qualitative research. Prague: Karolinum, 1997 defines the
advantages and disadvantages of quantitative research

Advantages of quantitative research Disadvantages of quantitative research

Testing and validating theories. Categories and theories used by the researcher
Can be generalized for population. do not need to reflect local specialties.
The researcher can construct situations in The researcher may disregard phenomena
such a way to eliminate interfering variables because he/she is focused only on certain theory
and prove the relation cause-consequence. and its testing and not on developing the theory.
Relatively fast and direct data collection. Acquired knowledge may be too abstract and
Provides precise, numeric data. general to be applied in local conditions.
Relatively fast data analysis (use of In a reductive way, the researcher is restricted in
computers). data gathering.
Results are relatively independent from the
researcher.
It is useful while examining large groups.
Advantages of qualitative research Disadvantages of qualitative research
It provides detailed description and form It may not be possible to generalize the acquired
during examining an individual, group, event knowledge for population and in different
or phenomenon. environment.
 It treats a phenomenon in natural It is difficult to make quantitative predictions.
environment. It is more difficult to test hypotheses and
It makes it possible to study processes. theories.
It makes it possible to propose theories. Data analysis and collection are often time
It reacts well to local situations and consuming stages.
conditions. Results are easily influenced by the researcher
It looks for local (idiographic) causative and his/her personal preferences.
relationships.
It assists in initial exploration of phenomena.
Rules of qualitative research

Openness

Towards tested persons, including their irregularities

Towards used methods

In creating a plan when hypotheses are finalized only during research

Including subjectivity

The researcher’s identification with the examined phenomenon; this approach should be of a
critical and dialectic distance

Processuality

Both social processes and communication are of a processual character; its features changes
(methods, ways of researcher’s interpretation etc.).

Reflexivity

Interpretative understanding; ability to react to new and unexpected situations.

Case-focus

Attention paid to individual cases, detailed description; with the help of cases, theories are
proposed and tested.

History and context

All conclusions must be validated for a given context.

Questioning determinedness
Determinism can be overcome by human interpretation. A certain system must be regarded as a
guessed order within which people continuously argue while mutual communication about their
intentions and expectations.

Plans of qualitative research (research conception, basic research arrangement)

case study

document analysis

biographical research

ethnographic terrain research

active and critical research

evaluation

Field Research
What is Field Research? Definition, Types

Conducting field research can provide professionals with the information necessary to create and
prove new theories through a variety of data collection methods. Many social sciences use field
research to gather information about human interactions and subjects in their natural
environments. Individuals who work in an occupation that uses field research can benefit from
understanding the purpose and methods of data collection.

What is field research?

Field research refers to the process and methods of gathering qualitative data about the
interactions of people or groups in their natural environments. Social scientists use field research
methods to collect information and develop new theories about sociology, human nature and
interpersonal interactions. Field research aims to establish and prove cause-and-effect
relationships in various natural environments and communities.

Types of field research

Field research encompasses many types of data collection and research objectives. The various
types of field research can include written reports, observational records and data analysis. Each
component of the field research process contributes to the overall development of theories and
conclusions.

Written reports

Creating a written report of your field research includes creating a summary of your methods,
hypotheses, findings and overall conclusions. A written report often follows the structure of a
formal paper or journal. Providing a written report of your field research allows you to reflect on
your findings and share information with other researchers.

Observational records

Field research methods rely heavily on the use of observation to identify patterns, causes and
behaviors within a group of subjects. Keeping detailed observational records allows you to recall
events, data and factors that can influence your overall results and conclusions. Observational
records include informal field notes, journal entries and recordings from the field research
process.

Data analysis

The primary goal of conducting field research includes the ability to analyze your findings and
develop theories that correspond to the provided data. Data analysis in field research includes
using both qualitative and quantitative data to identify patterns or correlations between
behaviors, environmental factors, demographics and belief systems. The evaluation of field
research results allows social scientists to assign meaning and parameters to specific actions or
responses.
Field research methods

The processes used to gather data can vary depending on your desired information and results.
Here are some of the most common field research methods:

Case study

Field researchers and social scientists use case studies to create in-depth analyses. Conducting a
case study entails performing a thorough evaluation of a singular person, event or environment.
You can use the data and principles from a case study to infer and develop social theories that
apply to a larger grouping of people or situations.
This method is meant to give snapshot of a particular individual, family, social group a situation
over a period of time. It would document the Most Significant Change (MSC) stories over time
in order to obtain insight into people’s effect and to learn about people’s know-how, dreams, and
perception of the context and human factors behind summarized data collected through other
means. It documents the life story or sequence of events over time related to a person, location,
HH or organization in order to obtain insight into people’s effect and to learn about people’s
experience, dreams, and understanding of the context and human factors behind summarized data
collected through other means. The team should agree beforehand as to how the subject will be
selected. Questionnaires, semi-structured interview questions, and other relevant methodologies
will need to be employed. 4 case studies will be conducted.

Ethnography

What is ethnography?
Ethnography is the study of social interactions, behaviours, and perceptions that occur within
groups, teams, organizations, and communities. Its roots can be traced back to anthropological
studies of small, rural (and often remote) societies that were undertaken in the early 1900s, when
researchers such as Bronislaw Malinowski and Alfred Radcliffe-Brown participated in these
societies over long periods and documented their social arrangements and belief systems. This
approach was later adopted by members of the Chicago School of Sociology (for example,
Everett Hughes, Robert Park, Louis Wirth) and applied to a variety of urban settings in their
studies of social life.

The central aim of ethnography is to provide rich, holistic insights into people’s views and
actions, as well as the nature (that is, sights, sounds) of the location they inhabit, through the
collection of detailed observations and interviews. As Hammersley states, “The task [of
ethnographers] is to document the culture, the perspectives and practices, of the people in these
settings. The aim is to ‘get inside’ the way each group of people sees the world.” Box 1 outlines
the key features of ethnographic research.

Box 1 Key features of ethnographic research

_ A strong emphasis on exploring the nature of a
particular social phenomenon, rather than setting out
to test hypotheses about it
_ A tendency to work primarily with “unstructured data”
—that is, data that have not been coded at the point of
data collection as a closed set of analytical categories
_ Investigation of a small number of cases (perhaps
even just one case) in detail
_ Analysis of data that involves explicit interpretation of
the meanings and functions of human actions; the
product of this analysis primarily takes the form of
verbal descriptions and explanations

Newer developments in ethnographic inquiry include auto-ethnography, in which researchers’

own thoughts and perspectives from their social interactions form the central element of a study;
meta-ethnography, in which qualitative research texts are analyzed and synthesized to
empirically create new insights and knowledge; and online (or virtual) ethnography, which
extends traditional notions of ethnographic study from situated observation and face to face
researcher-participant interaction to technologically mediated interactions in online networks and
communities.

What should I be looking for in an ethnographic study?

Ethnographers typically gather participant observations, necessitating direct engagement and

involvement with the world they are studying. Owing to the complex nature of social life,
ethnographers need to record a variety of elements in their field notes.
Box 2 Nine observational dimensions and their descriptions

Space—Physical layout of the place(s)

Actor—Range of people involved

Activity—A set of related activities that occur

Object—The physical things that are present

Act—Single actions people undertake

Event—Activities that people carry out

Time—The sequencing of events that occur

Goal—Things that people are trying to accomplish

Feeling—Emotions felt and expressed

Box 3 Triangulation in ethnography

Triangulation is a term linked to navigation or surveying: people discover their position on a map
by taking bearing son landmarks, and where the lines intersect is where they are positioned. As
well as methodological triangulation, Denzin outlines three other types:

Data triangulation, which uses different sources of data to examine a phenomenon in several
different settings and different points in time or space.

Investigator triangulation, which uses multiple researchers to generate a complex range of

perspectives on the data

Theory triangulation, in which researchers approach data with different concepts and theories to
see how each helps to understand the data.

During their observations, ethnographers routinely use informal or conversational interviews,

which allow them to discuss, probe emerging issues, or ask questions about unusual events in a
naturalistic manner. Because of the “casual” nature of this type of interview technique it can be
useful in eliciting highly candid accounts from individuals.

Box 4 An ethnographic study of professional relationships

This ethnographic study took place in a large general hospital in the United Kingdom. It aimed to
understand, in depth, the nature of hospital based nurse-doctor relationships in the wake of
changes to health policy and to the delivery of professional education. The author, a nurse,
undertook participant observations for 10 months, during which she worked as a nurse (on an
unpaid basis) with doctors, nurses, managers, and auxiliary staff on both a surgical and a medical
ward. To gain a candid insight into these professionals’ views, she undertook informal interviews
with staff while they worked together. She also collected 57 tape recorded interviews, each
lasting 60 to 90 minutes, with nurses, doctors, auxiliaries, and managers. These explored in more
depth participants’ views of their interprofessional relationships. Documentary data were also
generated through analysis of organizational documents and through attendance at professional
and managerial meetings. The author undertook an inductive approach to data analysis, in which
meanings emerged from the data through exploration of all data sets. In addition, she used data
from different sources (observations, interviews, and documentary data) to generate a more
comprehensive understanding in the emerging analysis. The author drew upon negotiated order
perspective—a sociological theory developed by Strauss to frame and illuminate the findings
from her analysis. She also discussed her reflexive role in the study, and as a nurse, how that
helped her secure access into this clinical setting, and how it helped her attain richer insights into
the nature of nurse-doctor relationships in relation to how they negotiate professional boundaries
in their clinical work.

Further reading Books

Atkinson P, Coffey A, Delamont S, Lofland J, Lofland L, eds.

Handbook of ethnography. London: Sage, 2001.
Fetterman D. Ethnography: step by step. 2nd ed. London: Sage, 1988.
Fielding N. Ethnography. In: Researching social life. London: Sage, 1993:155-71.
Hammersley M, Atkinson P. Ethnography: principles in practice. 2nd ed. London:
Routledge, 1995.
Spradley J. The ethnographic interview. New York: Holt, 1979.
Journal articles Atkinson P, Pugsley L. Making sense of ethnographic research in medical
education. Med Educ
2005;39:228-34.
Charmaz K, Oleson V. Ethnographic research in medical sociology: its foci and distinctive
contributions. Sociol Methods Res 1997;25:452-94.
Fine G. Ten lies of ethnography. J Contemp Ethnogr 1993;22:267-94.
Jeffrey B, Troman G. Time for ethnography. Br Educ Res J 30:535-48
Savage J. Ethnography and health care. BMJ 2000;321:1400-2.

Ethnographers also gather formal in-depth interviews and documentary data such as minutes of
meetings, diaries, and photographs. Participants or situations are sampled on an opportunistic or
purposive basis. It is also usual for ethnographers to focus upon specific features (for example,
medical ward rounds) that occur within a research setting. Analysis of ethnographic data tends to
be undertaken in an inductive thematic manner: data are examined to identify and to categories
themes and key issues that “emerge” from the data. Through a careful analysis of their data,
using this inductive process, ethnographers generate tentative theoretical explanations from their
empirical work. Reflexivity (that is, the relationship a researcher shares with the world he or she
is investigating) is a central element of ethnographic work, owing to the relationship the
ethnographer shares with participants and the ethical issues that flow from this close relationship.
Within research reports, reflexivity is presented in the form of a description of the
ethnographer’s ideas and experiences, which can be used by readers to judge the possible impact
of these influences on a study. To enhance the quality of their work, ethnographers will often
provide a detailed or “thick description” of the research setting and its participants, which will
typically be based on many hours of direct observation and interviews with several key
informant

SUMMARY POINTS

Ethnography is the study of social interactions, behaviours, and perceptions that occur within
teams, organizations, and communities.

Ethnographic studies typically gather participant observations and interviews; through using
these methods ethnographers can immerse themselves in settings and can generate rich
understanding of the social action that occurs

Owing to the relationship the ethnographer shares with research participants, reflexivity
(whereby ethnographers describe the relationship they shares with the people and world they are
studying) occupies a central element of this type of research

Ethnographers commonly triangulate (that is, compare and contrast) interview and observation
methods to enhance the quality of their work; this technique is important as what people say
about their behaviour can contrast with their actual actions.

In addition, ethnographic work commonly uses methodological triangulation—a technique

designed to compare and contrast different types of methods to help provide more
comprehensive insights into the phenomenon under study. This type of triangulation can be very
useful, as sometimes what people say about their actions can contrast with their actual behaviour.

Why choose ethnography?

Ethnographic research offers several advantages. For example, the use of participant observation
enables ethnographers to “immerse” themselves in a setting, thereby generating a rich
understanding of social action and its subtleties in different contexts. Participant observation also
gives ethnographers opportunities to gather empirical insights into social practices that are
normally “hidden” from the public gaze. Additionally, since it aims to generate holistic social
accounts, ethnographic research can identify, explore, and link social phenomena which, on the
surface, have little connection with each other.

Conclusion
 Ethnography is a highly useful methodology for addressing a range of research questions within
the health professions. In particular, it can generate rich and detailed accounts of clinicians’
professional and inter professional relationships, their interactions with patients, and their
approaches to delivering care, as well as in-depth accounts of patients’ care experiences.
Understanding the foundations of ethnography and its key elements will help readers when they
come across reports that use this methodology.

Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

A focus group discussion (FGD) is a good way to gather together people from similar
backgrounds or experiences to discuss a specific topic of interest. The group of participants is
guided by a moderator (or group facilitator) who introduces topics for discussion and helps the
group to participate in a lively and natural discussion with them. The strength of FGD relies on
allowing the participants to agree or disagree with each other so that it provides an insight into
how a group thinks about an issue, about the range of opinion and ideas, and the inconsistencies
and variation that exists in a particular community in terms of beliefs and their experiences and
practices. FGD sessions need to be prepared carefully through identifying the main objective(s)
of the meeting, developing key questions, developing an agenda, and planning how to record the
session. The next step is to identify and invite suitable discussion participants; the ideal number
is between six and eight. The crucial element of FGD is the facilitation. Some important points to
bear in mind in facilitating FGDs are to ensure even participation, careful wording of the key
questions, maintaining a neutral attitude and appearance, and summarizing the session to reflect
the opinions evenly and fairly. To consider the Tor requirements, this technique will be
conducted with community influential to measure prospects of sustainability of services rendered
through the intervention period. FGD will be conducted with 8-12 carefully selected participants
with similar backgrounds. The facilitator will use a discussion guide, a record keeper who will
record comments and observations. A total number of 4 Focused Group Discussions will be
conducted with different stakeholders.

Qualitative interviews

A qualitative interview involves directly asking research subjects a series of close-ended

questions. This process creates a collection of information and qualitative data from multiple
sources. You can perform qualitative interviews through focus groups, written surveys and
individual interviews. The results from these interviews provide relational data that shows
interactions, beliefs and perspectives.

Participant observation

Participant observation refers to a method of field research where the researcher becomes an
active participant in the society or group they observe. As a participating researcher, you can
observe the interactions of a group while also having the ability to ask questions and guide
discussions to gather more specific data. Using participant observations methods requires skills
in communication and interpersonal relations to encourage your subjects to engage in discussions
about their personal lives or beliefs.

Direct observation

Direct observation is the process of objectively and silently observing subjects in their natural
environments. In this method, the research doesn't interfere or directly interact with subjects. The
data gathered through direct observation provides a contextual analysis of interactions and social
structures and can help in developing theories about behaviors and environmental factors.