A mistake in coding is called Error, error found by tester is called Defect, defect accepted by development team

then it is called Bug, build does not meet the requirements then it Is Failure.

Types of testing:
Functional - Functional testing is a type of testing which verifies that each function of the software application
operates in conformance with the requirement specification.
Nonfunctional - Non-functional testing is a type of testing to check non-functional aspects (performance, usability,
reliability, etc.) of a software application.

Levels of testing:
Unit testing - It focuses on smallest unit of software design.
Integration testing - The objective is to take unit tested components and build a program structure that has been
dictated by design.
System testing - In this software is tested such that it works fine for different operating system. The whole
software is tested.
Acceptance testing - ACCEPTANCE TESTING is a level of software testing where a system is tested for acceptability.

Method of testing:
Black box - BLACK BOX TESTING, also known as Behavioral Testing, is a software testing method in which the
internal structure/design/implementation of the item being tested is not known to the tester.
White box - WHITE BOX TESTING (also known as Clear Box Testing, Open Box Testing, Glass Box Testing,
Transparent Box Testing, Code-Based Testing or Structural Testing) is a software testing method in which the
internal structure/design/implementation of the item being tested is known to the tester.
Grey box - GRAY BOX TESTING is a software testing method which is a combination of Black Box Testing method
and White Box Testing method. In Gray Box Testing, the internal structure is partially known. This involves having
access to internal data structures and algorithms for purposes of designing the test cases, but testing at the user,
or black-box level.

Summary of the Seven Testing Principles:

Principle 1 Testing shows presence of defects
Principle 2 Exhaustive testing is impossible
Principle 3 Early Testing
Principle 4 Defect Clustering
Principle 5 Pesticide Paradox
Principle 6 Testing is context dependent
Principle 7 Absence of errors – fallacy

Retesting - To ensure that the defects which were found and posted in the earlier build were fixed or not.

Regression testing - Regression Testing is defined as a type of software testing to confirm that a recent program or
code change has not adversely affected existing features.

Smoke testing - Smoke Testing is performed to ascertain that the critical functionalities of the program is working
fine. Performed on initial builds when software is relatively unstable. Smoke testing is a subset of Acceptance
testing.

Sanity testing - Sanity Testing is done to check the new functionality/bugs have been fixed. Relatively stable builds
after multiple rounds of regression tests. Sanity testing is a subset of Regression Testing.

Static testing: During Static testing method, the code is not executed, and it is performed using the software
documentation.

Dynamic testing: To perform this testing the code is required to be in an executable form.
Requirement Traceability Matrix: Mapping between test cases and customer requirements is known as
Traceability Matrix.
Test plan - A TEST PLAN is a document describing software testing scope and activities. It is the basis for formally
testing any software/product in a project. Test design, scope, test strategies, approach are various details that Test
plan document consists of.

Test Strategy - Test Strategy is defined as a set of guiding principle that enlightens test design & regulates how
testing needs to be done.

Test case - A Test Case is a set of actions executed to verify a particular feature or functionality of your software
application. The Test Case has a set test data, precondition, certain expected and actual results developed for
specific test scenario to verify any requirement.

Test scenarios - A Test Scenario is defined as any functionality that can be tested. It is a collective set of test cases
which helps the testing team to determine the positive and negative characteristics of the project. Test Scenario
gives a high-level idea of what we need to test.

V model:

The V-model is an SDLC model where execution of processes happens in a sequential manner in a V-shape. Under
the V-Model, the corresponding testing phase of the development phase is planned in parallel. The entire figure
looks like a V, hence the name V – model

The left side of the model is Software Development Life Cycle – SDLC
The right side of the model is Software Test Life Cycle – STLC

Entry Criteria: Entry Criteria gives the prerequisite items that must be completed before testing can begin.
Exit Criteria: Exit Criteria defines the items that must be completed before testing can be concluded.

Verification - The verifying process includes checking documents, design, code, and program. It does not involve
executing the code. Verification uses methods like reviews, walkthroughs, inspections, and desk- checking etc. Are
we building the product right?
Validation - Validation is a dynamic mechanism of Software testing and validates the actual product. It involves
executing the code. It uses methods like Black Box Testing, White Box Testing, and non-functional testing. Are we
building the right product?

Latent defect - The bug may exist in the system for one or more versions of the software and may be
identified after its release.

Debugging in software testing - Debugging is defined as a process of analyzing and removing the error.
During debugging, errors are encountered that range from less damaging (like input of an incorrect
function) to catastrophic (like system failure, which lead to economic or physical damage).
Defect analysis: If the defect is genuine, the next step is to understand the root cause of the problem.
Generally, engineers debug by starting a debugging tool (debugger) and they try to understand the root
cause of the problem by following a step-by-step execution of the program.
Defect resolution: Once the root cause of a problem is identified, the error can be resolved by making an
appropriate change to the system by fixing the problem.

Deferred: The bug is expected to be fixed in next releases.

What is a Database?
A database is a collection of related data which represents some aspect of the real world. A database system is
designed to be built and populated with data for a certain task.

What is DBMS?
Database Management System (also known as DBMS) is a software for storing and retrieving users' data by
considering appropriate security measures. It allows users to create their own databases as per their requirement.

Four Types of DBMS systems are:

Hierarchical, Network, Relational & Object-Oriented DBMS
Hierarchical DBMS
In a Hierarchical database, model data is organized in a tree-like structure. Data is Stored Hierarchically (top down
or bottom up) format. Data is represented using a parent-child relationship. In Hierarchical DBMS parent may have
many children, but children have only one parent.

Network Model
The network database model allows each child to have multiple parents. It helps you to address the need to model
more complex relationships like as the orders/parts many-to-many relationship. In this model, entities are
organized in a graph which can be accessed through several paths.

Relational model
Relational DBMS is the most widely used DBMS model because it is one of the easiest. This model is based on
normalizing data in the rows and columns of the tables. Relational model stored in fixed structures and
manipulated using SQL.

Object-Oriented Model
In Object-oriented Model data stored in the form of objects. The structure which is called classes which display
data within it. It defines a database as a collection of objects which stores both data member’s values and
operations.

Data Warehouse
A large store of data accumulated from a wide range of sources within a company and used to guide management
decisions

Data warehouse v/s Database

Data warehouses and databases are both relational data systems, but were built to serve different purposes. A
data warehouse is built to store large quantities of historical data and enable fast, complex queries across all the
data, typically using Online Analytical Processing (OLAP). A database was built to store current transactions and
enable fast access to specific transactions for ongoing business processes, known as Online Transaction Processing
(OLTP).

Types of Data Warehouse

1. Enterprise Data Warehouse:

Enterprise Data Warehouse is a centralized warehouse. It provides decision support service across the enterprise.
It offers a unified approach for organizing and representing data. It also provide the ability to classify data
according to the subject and give access according to those divisions.

2. Operational Data Store:

Operational Data Store, which is also called ODS, are nothing but data store required when neither Data
warehouse nor OLTP systems support organizations reporting needs. In ODS, Data warehouse is refreshed in real
time. Hence, it is widely preferred for routine activities like storing records of the Employees.
3. Data Mart:

A data mart is a subset of the data warehouse. It specially designed for a particular line of business, such as sales,
finance, sales or finance. In an independent data mart, data can collect directly from sources.

Schema
A schema contains schema objects, which could be tables, columns, data types, views, stored procedures,
relationships, primary keys, foreign keys, etc.

Fields and columns are different, a field is the intersection of a row and a column. i.e. if your table has 10 rows and
10 columns, it has 100 fields.

Views in SQL are kind of virtual tables. A view also has rows and columns as they are in a real table in the database.
We can create a view by selecting fields from one or more tables present in the database. A View can either have
all the rows of a table or specific rows based on certain condition.
Syntax: CREATE VIEW view_name AS SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name WHERE condition;

A fact table consists of facts of a particular business process e.g., sales revenue by month by product. Facts are also
known as measurements or metrics.

Data warehouses are built using dimensional data models which consist of fact and dimension tables. Dimension
tables are used to describe dimensions. They contain dimension keys, values and attributes.

Surrogate keys are key generated and managed inside the data warehouse rather than keys extracted from data
source systems.

Indexes - Indexes are used to retrieve data from the database very fast. The users cannot see the index they are
just used to speed up searches/queries.
There are two main index types: Clustered index and Non-Clustered index.

Joins
INNER, LEFT, RIGHT, FULL OUTER

Constraints
NOT NULL - Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value
UNIQUE - Ensures that all values in a column are different
PRIMARY KEY - A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Uniquely identifies each row in a table
FOREIGN KEY - Uniquely identifies a row/record in another table
CHECK - Ensures that all values in a column satisfies a specific condition
DEFAULT - Sets a default value for a column when no value is specified
INDEX - Used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly

Store function- A stored function is a special kind stored program that returns a single value.

DDL (Data Definition Language)

CREATE, DROP, ALTER, TRUNCATE, COMMENT, RENAME

DML (Data Manipulation Language)

SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

DCL (Data Control Language)

GRANT, REVOKE

TCL (transaction Control Language)

COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT, SET TRANSACTION