QUANTUM

PHYSICS
MODULE-5
SYLLABUS Hours: 6

Quantum Mechanics
De Broglie hypothesis of matter waves; properties of matter waves; wave
packet, phase velocity and group velocity; Wave function; Physical
interpretation of wave function; Heisenberg uncertainty principle;
nonexistence of electron in nucleus; Schrodinger’s time dependent wave
equation; time independent wave equation; Particle trapped in one
dimensional infinite potential well.

Topic:
5.1 Introduction
5.2 De Broglie hypothesis of matter waves;
5.3 Properties of Matter Waves
5.4 Wave Packet, Phase Velocity and Group Velocity
5.5 Wave Function; Physical Interpretation of Wave Function
5.6 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
5.7 Applications of Uncertainty Principle: nonexistence of electron
in nucleus
5.8 Schrodinger’s Time Dependent Wave Equation
5.9 Schrodinger’s Time Independent Wave Equation
5.11 Particle Trapped in One Dimensional Infinite Potential Well
5.12 Summary
5.13 Important Formulae
5.14 Solved Problems
5.15 Questions
5.16 Multiple Choice Questions
5.17 Reference Books
5.18 Weblinks
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The motion of particles which can be observed directly or through microscope
can be explained by classical mechanics. But when the phenomena like
photoelectric effect, X-rays, ultraviolet catastrophe, superconductivity were
discovered, classical physics failed to explain such phenomena. The microworld of
atoms obeys different laws. The new laws applicable for microparticles constitute
quantum mechanics. The revision of classical concepts began with the seminal
hypothesis of Planck and many distinguished physicists such as Einstein, Bohr, de
Broglie, Schrodinger, Born, Pauli, Heisenberg, Dirac and others contributed to the
development of quantum mechanics.

Quantum Mechanics is a branch of physics dealing with the behaviour of matter

and energy on the microscope scale of atoms and subatomic particles. Quantum
mechanics is fundamental to our understanding of all the fundamental forces of
nature except gravity.

It provides the foundation to several branches of physics, including

Electromagnetism, Particle Physics, Condensed Matter Physics, and some parts of
Cosmology. Quantum Mechanics is essential to understand the theory of
chemical bonding (and hence, the entire subject of chemistry), structural biology,
and technologies such as Electronics, Information Technology (IT), and
Nanotechnology (a recently growing field of science). Hundreds of experiments
and commendable work in applied sciences has proved quantum mechanics a
successful and practical science.

5.2 De Broglie hypothesis of matter waves;

Q.1 Explain De Broglie’s hypothesis of matter wave.

Ans.: In nature energy can be transmitted either in the form of radiation (wave)
or in the form of particle (matter). If nature is symmetric then like
radiation particle should exhibit wave like behaviour. On this basis De
 broglie’s stated that “particle can exhibit wave like behaviour and the
h
wavelength () of the particle having momentum P is  = . ”
P

The wave associated is termed as matter wave and the wavelength

associated with it is termed as De broglie’s wavelength.

When particle is used in experiment where interference, reflection,

refraction is to be studied it exhibits wave behaviour, and it’s particle
behaviour is suppressed. If it word to be used for photoelectric effect
quantum effect, collision it is termed to be a particle as it provides
momentum.

Q.2 On basis of De broglie's theory explain postulates of quantisation of

angular momentum.
Ans.: According to Bohr’s second postulate electron will revolve only in those
permissible orbits for which angular momentum is equal to integral
h
multiple of . According to De broglie’s when e− in hydrogen atom
2
revolves around the nucleus then there are two possibilities.

Case 1 : Electron travels in the form of wave of wavelength  along the

nucleus at the closure if the two waves are out of phase (crest on trough
and trough on crest), it will cause destructive interference due to which
wave will be lost but this is not observed.

Case 2 : If at the closure the two waves are in phase (crest on crest and
trough on trough) will give rise to constructive interference. Since, two
waves are traveling in the opposite directions and hence will not
constitute flow of energy hence give rise to concept of stationary orbits.

→1
The total distance traveled by
electron is 2r.
2r = n +
h N+ N
But  = N +
mv
2r h Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
 =
n mv
 nh
 mrv =
2
h
mrv =n where =
2

Q.3 If an electron is accelerated at potential V, find out the wavelength of

matter wave ? Give its importance ? [D-08]
Ans.: de Broglie wavelength : The expression of the wavelength associated
with a material particle can be derived on the analogy of radiation as
follows :
Considering the Planck’s theory of radiation, the energy of a photon
(quantum) is given by
hc
E = h = ...(1)

where c is the velocity of light in vacuum and  is its wavelength.

According to Einstein energy mass relation

E = mc2 ...(2)
From equations (1) and (2), we get
hc hc h
mc2 = or = or  = ...(3)
 mc 2
mc
where mc = p (momentum associated with photon)

If we consider the case of a material particle of mass m and moving with a

velocity v, i.e., momentum mv, then the wavelength associated with this
particle is given by
h h
 = = ...(4)
mv p

If E is the kinetic energy of the material particle, then

1 1 m2 v 2 p2
E = mv 2 = =
2 2 m 2m
or p = 2mE
 de Broglie wavelength
 h
 = ...(5)
2mE
de Broglie’s wavelength associated with electrons. Let us consider the
case of an electron at rest mass m, and charge e which is accelerated by a
potential V volts from rest to velocity v, then
1 2eV
m v 2 = eV or v=
2 0 m0

h h m0 h
 = = =
m0 v m0 2eV 2eV m0
6.625  10−34 12.26
or  = = Å
( 2  1.632  10−19 V  9.1  10−31 ) V
If V = 100 volts, then
 = 1.226 Å ...(6)
Equation (6) shows that the wavelength associated with an electron
accelerated to 100 volts is 1.226 Å.

Q.4 Write the various other equivalent forms of de-broglie’s wavelength.

Ans.: • Expression for de-Broglie wavelength in terms of the K.E.
1 p2
E = mv 2 =
2 2m
 p = 2 mE
h
 Substitute value of p in  =
p
h
  =
2 mE
• Expression for de-Broglie wavelength of a charged particle in terms of
accelerating potential. The K.E. of a charged particle can be expressed
in terms of accelerating potential as,
1
mv 2 = eV
2
2 eV
 v =
m
 Momentum = mv = 2 meV
h h
 Substituting in  = =
p 2 meV
 • de-Broglie’s wavelength associated with an electron.
Substituting m = 9.1  10−31 kg
e = 1.6  10−19 C
6.6  10−34
  =
2  9.1  10−31  1.6  10−19  V
12.26
= Å
V

Q.5 Give the experimental verification of de broglie's theory of matter

waves by Davisson and Germer Experiment on Electron Diffraction.
Ans.: If material particle has a wave character, it is expected to show
phenomena like interference and diffraction. In 1927, Davisson and
Germer demonstrated that a beam of electrons does suffer diffraction.
Their apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. Electrons from a heated filament are
accelerated through a variable potential V and emerge from the 'electron
gun' G. This electron beam falls normally on a nickel crystal C. The
electrons are diffracted from the crystal in all directions. The intensity of
the diffracted beam in different directions is measured by a Faraday
cylinder F (connected to a galvanometer), which can be moved along a
circular scale S. The crystal can be turned about an axis parallel to the
incident beam. Thus, any azimuth of the crystal can be presented to the
plane defined by the incident beam and the beam entering the Faraday
cylinder.

Fig. 1 : Davisson Germer experiment setup

First of all, the accelerating potential V is given a low value and the crystal
is turned at any arbitrary azimuth. The Faraday cylinder is moved to
various positions on the scale S and the galvanometer current at each
position is noted. The current, which is a measure of the intensity of the
diffracted beam, is plotted against the angle § between the incident
beam, and the beam entering the cylinder. The observations are repeated
for different accelerating potentials and the corresponding curves are
drawn as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

It is seen that a 'bump' begins to appear in the curve for 44-volt electrons.
With increasing potential, the bump moves upwards and becomes most
prominent in the curve for 54-volt electrons at  = 50°. At higher
potentials the bump gradually disappears.

The bump in its most prominent state verifies the existence of electron
waves. For, according to de Broglie, the wavelength associated with an
electron accelerated through V volts is
12.26
 = Å
V
Hence, the wavelength associated with a 54-volt electron is
12.26
 = = 1.67 Å
(54 )
Now, it is known from X-ray analysis that the nickel crystal acts as a plane
diffraction grating with grating space = d = 0.91 Å (Figure 3). According
to experiment, we have a diffracted electron beam at  = 50°. This arises
from wave-like diffraction from the family of Bragg atomic planes. The
corresponding angle of incidence relative to the family of Bragg planes is
 180 − 50 
 = 65°  =  . Hence, using the Bragg's equation (taking the
 2 
order n = 1), we get
  = 2 d sin 
= 2(0.91 Å) sin 65 = 1.65 Å
This being in excellent agreement with the wavelength computed from de
Broglie hypothesis, shows that electrons are wave-like in some
circumstances. Other fundamental particles like neutrons also show wave-
like properties. The Davisson-Germer experiment thus provides direct
verification of de Broglie hypothesis of the wave nature of moving particles.

Fig. 3 : Bragg’s reflection of electron waves at

lattice planes of the crystal.

5.3 PROPERTIES OF MATTER WAVES

Q.1 State the properties of Matter Waves.
Ans.: Following are the properties of matter waves:
1) Lighter is the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.
2) Smaller is the velocity of the particle, greater is the wavelength
associated with it.
3) When v = 0 then  = , i.e., wave becomes indeterminate and if v = 
then  = 0. This shows that matter waves are generated by the motion of
particles. These waves are produced whether the particles are charged
h
particles or they are uncharged ( = is independent of charge). This
mv
fact reveals that these waves are not electromagnetic waves but they are
a new kind of waves (electromagnetic waves are produced only by
motion of charged particles).
 4) The velocity of matter waves depends on the velocity of material
particle, i.e., it is not a constant while the velocity of electromagnetic
wave is constant.
5) The velocity of matter waves is greater than the velocity of light. This
can be proved as under :
We know that E = h and E = mc2
mc 2
 h = mc2 or v=
h

The wave velocity () is given by

mc2 h h
 = =   =
h mv mv
c2
 =
v
As particle velocity v cannot exceed c (velocity of light), hence  is
greater than the velocity of light.
6) The wave and particle aspects of moving bodies can never appear
together in the same experiment. When we can say is that waves have
particle-like properties and particles have wave-like properties and the
concepts are inseparably linked. Matter wave representation is only a
symbolic representation.
7) The wave nature of matter introduces an uncertainty in the location of
the position of the particle because a wave cannot be said exactly at
this point or exactly at that point. However, where the wave is large
(strong), there is a good chance of finding the particle while, where
the wave is small (weak) there is very small chance of finding the
particle.

Q] Distinguish between electromagnetic waves and matter waves.

Sr. No Electromagnetic Waves Matter Waves

1 EMW are associated with photons Matter waves are associated with
which have zero rest mass. any material particle having non-
zero rest mass and which are
moving with same velocity.
2 A single e.m.w. can be associated A number of waves called wave
with the photon. group or wave packet is associated
with a material particle.
 3 The quantity that varies periodically The quantity that varies with space
with space and time are called and time is called wave function Ψ.
electric and magnetic field (E and
B)
4 Electric and magnetic fields are real Wave function is an abstract
and can be measured mathematical quantity, and it has
experimentally. no direct physical relevance.
5 Square of electric and magnetic Square of wave function gives
field gives intensity of probability of finding the particle.
electromagnetic radiation.
6 Since E and B are real, intensity is Since Ψ is complex, probability is
simply the square i.e., E2 and B2 taken as ΨΨ* where Ψ* is the
complex conjugate.

5.4 WAVE PACKET, PHASE VELOCITY AND GROUP VELOCITY

Q.1 Define Phase Velocity.
Ans.: Consider a wave moving along the x−axis such a wave can be described
by
x t 
(x, t) = A cos 2  −  …(1)
 T 
can also be written in terms of
(x, t) = A cos [kx − t] …(2)

Velocity of propagation of wave is called as phase velocity and it is

mathematically given by,
Coefficient of t 
Vp = =
Coefficient of x k
where A = amplitude of the wave
2
k= = angular wave number
k
2
= = 2f = angular frequency
T
Q.2 Define group velocity and obtain expression for it.
Ans.: When two or more waves are added together the resultant obtained due
to alternate constructive and destructive interference is termed as
envelope or group of waves.
“The velocity of the wave group is termed as group velocity.”
 It is mathematically given by
 / 2  d
Vp = − =
k / 2 k dk

Q.3 Prove that the de Broglie wave group travels with the same velocity
as that of the particle.
Ans.: Consider a particle of rest mass m0 and moving with velocity v. Let  be
the angular frequency and k be the wave number of de Broglie waves
associated with a particle.
 mc2  2m0 c2
 = 2 = 2   = 
 h  v2 h
1− 2
c
2 mv 2 m0
k = = 2 = v
 h h v2
1− 2
c
2
 c
wave velocity vp = =
k v
As v < c, the phase velocity of the associated wave is always greater than c, the
velocity of light.
d d / dv
The group velocity vg = = .
dk dk / dv
−3/2
d 2m0c2  1   v2  −2v 2m0 v
=  −  1 − 2   =
dv h  2 c  c2  v2 
3/2

h 1 − 2 
 c 
2m0 v  −1    −2v  
−1/2 −3/2
dk 2m0  v2  v 2

=  1 −  +    1 −    
dv h  c2  h  2   c2   c2  
−3/2 −3/2
dk 2m0  v2   v2 v2  2m0  v2 
= 1 − 2  1 − 2 + 2  = 1 − 2 
dv h  c   c c  h  c 
dw / dv 2m0 v 2 2 3/2
h(1 − v / c )
 vg = =  =v
dk / dv 2 2 3/2
h[1 − v / c ] 2m0
 vg = v
Thus, the de Broglie wave group travels with the same velocity as that of
the particle.

5.5 WAVE FUNCTION; PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF

 WAVE FUNCTION
Q.1 What is wave function?
Ans.: • Waves represent the propagation of a disturbance in a medium. Light
waves are represented by electromagnetic field variations and sound
waves are represented by pressure variations.
• The de Broglie wave associated with a moving particle cannot be
specified in a similar manner, since electrons have wave properties, it
may be assumed that a quantity  represents a de Broglie wave just as
the electric vector represents a light wave. The quantity  is called the
wave function.
•  (x, y, z, t) is function of space and time coordinates and it
represents position of particle at some time t.
• However, it is not possible to locate a particle precisely at position x, y,
z, there is only a probability of the particle being at the specific point
(x,y, z).  is usually a complex quantity.

Q.2 What is the physical interpretation of Wave Function?

Ans.: • The first and the simple interpretation of  was given by Schrodinger
himself in terms of charge density.
• We know that in any electromagnetic wave system if A is the
amplitude of the wave, then the energy density, i.e., energy per unit
volume is equal to A2, so that the number of photons per unit volume,
i.e., photon density is equal to A2/h or the photon density is
proportional to A2 as h is constant.
• If  is the amplitude of matter waves at any point in space, then the
particle density at that point may be taken as proportional to 2.
• Thus, 2 is a measure of particle density. When this is multiplied by
the charge of the particle, the charge density is obtained.
• In this way, 2 is a measure of charge density.
• It is observed that in some cases,  is appreciably different from zero
within some finite region known as wave packet. It is natural to ask,
"where is the particle in relation to wave packet?"
• To explain it, Max Born suggested a new idea about the physical
significance of  which is generally accepted nowadays.
• According to Max Born * = ||2 gives the probability of finding the
particle in the state  i.e., 2 is a measure of probability density.
• The probability of finding a particle in volume d  = dx dy dz is given
by ||2 dx dy dz.
 • For the total probability of finding the particle somewhere is, of
course, unit, i.e., the particle is certainly to be found somewhere in
space.
2
 |  | dx dy dz = 1  satisfying above requirement is said to be
normalized.

Q.3 Explain normalization of wave function.

Ans.: • We define probability density function (probability distribution
function) as
P(x, t)dx = (x, t) . (x, t) dx
• It is an interpretation about the wave which arises due to an e− lying
between finite interval bounded by x1 and x 2 . i.e. we are sure to find
the particle within confined limits lying between x(x1) and (x + dx)(x2)
• i.e. maximum probability to find the particle lying between −∞ and +∞
is one
 
i.e.  P(x, t) dx =  (x, t) (x, t) dx = 1
− −
• If at all the particle exists, the particle is certainly somewhere in the
universe therefore, the probability of finding the particle somewhere
in the universe must be unity.
• Since the probability of its being located in an elemental volume is
proportional to ||2 dx dy dz, it is convenient to choose the constant
of proportionality such that the sum of the probabilities over all values
of x, y, z must be unity.

• Thus,     * dx dy dz = 1
−
• This is called the normalization condition. A wave function satisfying
the above condition is said to be normalized.

5.6 HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

Q.1 Explain Heisenbergs uncertainty principle with an example and give
its physical significance. [D-08,09,13,14]
Ans.: In classical mechanics, we describe a particle occupying a definite place in
space and a specific momentum. At a given instant of time, one can
 evaluate position and momentum simultaneously. This may appear valid
only under the boundary of classical mechanics. When one steps out of
classical mechanics and enters the wave mechanics (available at atomic
scale) this idea is no more valid.

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that quantum mechanics does

not simultaneously permit the determination of position and momentum
of a particle accurately. Any effort made ot make the measurement of
position of the particle such as an electron very accurately, results in a
large uncertainty in the measurement of momentum and vice versa.

Mathematically,
x  px 
h
or x  px 
2
where, x = Uncertainty in the measured values of position.
px = Uncertainty in the measured values of momentum.

Important Characetristics :
• The uncertainty principle is a direct consequence of the wave nature of
particles.
• The limit on measurement is independent of measuring procedure or
sophistication of instrument.
• It is a fundamental property of nature.
• It is applicable to conjugate variables like energy and time as
E  t 
also to angle and angular mementum,
L   

Physical significance of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle [D-09]

• The physical significance of the above argument is that one should not think
of the exact position or an accurate value for momentum of a particle.
Instead, one should think of the probability of finding the particle at a certain
position, or of the probable value for the momentum of the particle.
• The estimation of such probabilities are made by means of certain
mathematical functions, named probability density functions in quantum
mechanics.

Q.2 State the consequences of Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

Ans.: “In any simultaneous measurement of displacement and momentum of a
particle the product of uncertainty in displacement (x) and uncertainty in
momentum (p) is greater than
2
i.e. x . p  .
2

Consequences of Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (HUP) :

1) HUP has nothing to do with instrument used for the measurement of
the given quantity as its limits are set by nature i.e. an ideal instrument
will provide an error for the product,
x. p will exceed .
2
2) HUP imposes no limitations on precision with which the position or
momentum is measured. But restriction involved is that if one
measures the displacement precisely then greater is uncertainty one
introduces into simultaneous measurement of momentum or
otherwise i.e., if p is known exactly then nothing is known about x
i.e. p = 0, then x = .
3) Since is very very small quantity, HUP has no practical significance
in ordinary macroscopic situations where measured quantities are
large.

ELECTRON DIFFRACTION EXPERIMENT

Q.3 How can Heisenberg’s Principle be proved by electron diffraction
experiment?
Ans.: Let us consider a stream of electrons moving along x direction passes
through a narrow slit of width d (= y). If y is comparable to the
wavelength of the electron beam, then the electrons will diffract
according to single slit diffraction pattern and form a central maximum
and two secondary minimum. According to diffraction theory,
d sin  = 

or y = …(1)
sin 
d = y = uncertainty in position of electron before being diffracted.
 Fig. : Electron diffraction experiment.

Before diffraction a slit electron has momentum px only along x direction

and zero in y direction. Therefore, uncertainty of y component of
momentum of py = 0. Because of the diffraction effect at the slit, the
particle acquires a small component of momentum py in y direction. The
original momentum of the particle in the X direction px decreases so that
the resultant momentum p remains constant. The original momentum of
the particle in the y direction was accurately known to be zero. Therefore,
py is the uncertainty introduced in the y component of the momentum.
 py is the uncertainty produced in y component of momentum.

Particles that strike the screen at a point A the first minima, must have left
the slit at an angle , given by
p y
tan  =  = …(2)
px
Equating (1) and (2)
p y 
=
px y
 y  py = px

 y  py = h =
px
which is the uncertainty principle, i.e., if we try to improve the accuracy in y,
we have to reduce to y using a finer slit which results in turn in a wider
pattern. It leads to a larger py.

5.7 APPLICATIONS OF UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

Q.1 Prove that electron cannot survive in the nucleus but protons and
neutrons can, by Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle. [M-09; D-14]
Ans.: Non-existence of electrons and existence of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus: The radius of nucleus of any atom is of the order of 10−14 m. If
an electron is confined inside the nucleus, then the uncertainty in the
position x of the electron is equal to the diameter of the nucleus,
i.e., x = 2  10−14 m.
Using the uncertainty principle,
h
x  px 
2
h
 px 
2  x
h
But =1.055  10−34 J-s & x = 2  10−14 m
2
1.055  10−34
 px   0.527  10−20 N − sec.
2  10−14
If it is assumed px  px  p where p is total momentum of the electron
in the nucleus. Thus, p  0.527  10−20 N−sec.
The relativistic formula for energy of electron is
1
E = mv 2 + m0c2
2
when the velocity of the particle is very high, then the mass of particle will
charge with velocity as
m0
m =
1 − v 2 / c2
E2 = p2 c2 + m02 c4
m02 c4 = (9.1  10−31)2  (3  108)2 = 6.5  10−27 J2
p2c2 = (0.5  10−20)2 (3  108)2 = 2.25  10−24 J2
 p2c2 > m02c4, m02c4 can be neglected
 E = p c = 2.25  10 / J2
2 2 2 −24

1/2
 2.25  10−24 
E =   eV = 1  107 eV = 10 MeV
 1.6  10−19 
which means if the electrons exist inside the nucleus, their energy must be
of the order of 10 MeV. However, the electrons emitted by radioactive
nuclei during beta decay have enegies only 3 to 4 MeV. So, in general,
electrons cannot exist in the nucleus.
For protons and neutrons, m0 = 1.67  10−27 kg.
This is non-relativistic problem as v is 3  106 m/s.
This K.E. is given by the relation
 2
p2 ( 0.527  10 −20 )
K.E. = = eV = 52 KeV
2m0 2  1.67  10 −27  1.6  10 −19
Since this energy is less than the energy carried by these particles emitted
by the nuclei, both these particles can exist inside the nucleus.

5.8 SCHRODINGER’S TIME DEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION

Q.1 Derive Schrodinger’s time dependent wave equation for matter
waves.
[M-09; D-13,14]
Ans.: • Based on de-Broglie’s idea of matter waves, Schrödinger developed a
mathematical theory which plays the same role as Newton’s laws in
chassical mechanics.
• Using de-Broglie’s hypothesis for a particle of mass m, moving with a
velocity v, associated with it is a wave of wavelength.
h
 =
p
• The wave equation for a de-Broglie wave can be written as

 = A e− i t ...(1)
where, A = Amplitude
 = Angular frequency
• For a one dimensional case, the classical wave equation has the
following form
d2 y 1 d2 y
= ...(2)
dx 2 v 2 dt2
where, y is the displacement and v is the velocity of the wave. The
solution is,
−i(kx −  )
y(x, t) = A e t
...(3)
where,  = 2 v
• By analogy we can write the wave equation for de-Broglie wave for
the motion of a free particle as
d2  1 d2 
= ...(4)
dx2 v 2 dt2
where,  = vk
v = Phase velocity
• The solution of the above equation is,
(x, t) = A e−i(Et − px)/ħ ...(5)
 There we have replaced  and k of Equation (3) with E and p using
Einstein and de-Broglie relations.
• Taking differentiation with respect to t.
   −i(Et − px ) /  −i Et − px ) / h −iE
=  Ae  = Ae ( 
t t  
 −i
= E ...(6)
t
• Similarly taking double differentiation of Equation (5) with respect to x
2 −p2
=  ...(7)
x2 2

• In classical mechanics we have energy of a free particle described as

p2
E=
2m
• Let there be a field where particle is present. Depending upon its
position in the field, the particle will posses certain potential energy V.
 Total energy of particle E is given by
p2
E= +V
2m
p2
or =E−V ...(8)
2m
p2
  = E − V ...(9)
2m
But from Equation (6),
− 
E =
i t
And from Equation (7)
2
p2 = 2 2
x
 Equation (9) becomes,
− 2 2 − 
= − V
2m x 2
i t
− 2 2 
 + V = i ...(10)
2m x 2
t
Equation (10) is one dimensional time dependent Schrödinger equation.

5.9 SCHRODINGER’S TIME INDEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION

Q.1 Obtain Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation for matter
waves.
Ans.: In many cases the potential energy V of a particle does not depend on
time, it varies only with the position of the particle and the field is said to
be stationary.
In such cases Schrödinger’s time independent wave equation is used.

In this case the wave function is written as product of (x) and (t)
(x, t) = (x) (t) ...(1)
Substitute this in Schrödinger’s time dependent wave equation.
2
 2(x) (t)
− (t) + V(x) (x) (t) = i (x)
2m x 2
t
and dividing by (x, t) = (x) (t), we get
− 1  2 (x) 1 
+ V(x) = i ...(2)
2m (x) x2  t

The right-hand side of eqn. (1) is a function of t only and the left-hand
side a function of x only. Therefore, eqn. (1) must be valid for any x and t,
it can be so only if the two sides of eqn. (1) are equal to a constant.
Setting this constant equal to energy E, we get
− 2 1  2 (x)
+ V(x) = E
2m (x) x 2
− 2 2
 + V = E ...(3)
2m x2
This is time independent Schrödinger equation.
In three dimensions, the time independent Schrödinger equation, is
written as
− 2 2
  + V(r)  = E ...(4)
2m
2 2 2
where, 2 = 2 + 2 + 2
x y z
Equation (3) is frequently writen in the form H = E.
where H is Hamiltonian operator
− 2 2
H =  +V ...(5)
2m
Q.2 What is Eigen function and Eigen wave equation also explain the
term operator.
Ans.: We have STIE given by
 2  2( x ) 
− . + V (x)
  (x) = E  (x)
 2m x 2 
This can be rewritten
 2
2 
− + V( x )   ( x ) = E  (x)
 2m x 2

2
2
In this equation − + V(x) operates on a function (x).
2m x2
dx d
(Say , x is a function and which lies on LHS is termed as operator
dt dt
and x is termed as operand.) Similarly for  x integral is operator (x is
operand).
Hence the above value which operates on (x) is called as Eigen value
equation and equation (x) is called as Eigen function.

5.10 PARTICLE TRAPPED IN ONE DIMENSIONAL INFINITE

POTENTIAL WELL
Q.1 Show that the energy of an electron in the box varies as the square of
natural numbers. [M-13]
Ans.: • Suppose a particle of mass m is free to move in the x-direction only in
the region from x = 0 to x = a (fig.). Outside this region the potential
energy V is taken to be infinite, and within this region it is zero. A
particle does not lose energy when it collides with walls, hence its
energy remains constant.
• Outside the box V =  and particle cannot have infinite energy
therefore it cannot exist outside the box.
 Schrodinger’s equation is written as
d2 82m
+ 2 (E − )  = 0 ...(1)
dx2 h
Inside the box, V = 0
 Schrodinger’s equation is written as
d2  82m
+ 2 E = 0 ...(2)
dx2 h
 Fig. : One dimensional potential well of infinite height.
Equation (2) may be simplified as
d2 
2
+ K 2 = 0 ...(3)
dx
82mE 2mE
where K2 = 2
or K2 = 2
h
Solution of Equation (3) is written as,
 = A cos Kx + B sin Kx ...(4)
BOUNDARY CONDITION:
When x = 0 at  = 0 we get
0 = A cos 0 + B sin 0
 A =0 (Since cos 0 = 1)
When x = a,  = 0
 0 = A cos Ka + B sin Ka
But A = 0 ...(5)
 B sin Ka = 0
Here B need not be zero
 sin Ka = 0 only when
2mE
Ka = a = n (where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...) ...(6)

where n = Quantum number

n
 n = B sin  x ...(7)
 a 
Which represents the permitted solutions. In Equation (7), n = 0 is not
acceptable because for n = 0,  = 0, means the electron is not present
inside the box which is not true.
82mE
as K2 =
h2
n
and K =
a
 (n)2 82mE
 =
a2 h2
n2h2
 En = (n = 1, 2, 3, ...)
8ma2
 En  n2
This shows that the energy of the particle can have only certain values
which are Eigen values.

5.11 SUMMARY
• Louis de Broglie put forward the dual behaviour in terms of hypothesis which
states “If the radiation behaves as particle under certain circumstances and
wave under other circumstances, then one can even expect that, entities
which ordinarily behave as particles to exhibit properties attributed to only
waves under appropriate circumstances”.
• Electromagnetic waves always travel with a constant velocity c, whereas
matter waves may travel with that phase velocity which depends upon mass
and velocity of particle.
• Based upon the result from de−Broglie’s hypothesis.
12.26
= Å
V
• It was predicted that if a suitable voltage is considered then a wavelength of
the order of few Å which is of the order of interplanar spacing in the crystal
can be obtained.
• Experimental value which is obtained by considering electron as wave is
verified with theoretical value. This confirms de Broglie’s hypothesis.
• It is important to know that wave function  has no direct physical
significance but |  |2 has.
• Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that quantum mechanics does not
simultaneously permit the determination of position and momentum of a
particle accurately.
• The KE of electron must be greater than 19 MeV if it is to remain inside the
nucleus. This is practically not possible (atom becomes unstable) hence one
can say that electron cannot survive inside the nucleus.
• Based on de−Broglie’s idea of matter waves, Schrodinger developed a
mathematical theory which plays the same role as Newton’s laws in classical
mechanics.
5.12 IMPORTANT FORMULAE
1. de Broglie’s Hypothesis
h h
= =
mv p
2. Electron wavelength
h h
= =
2 mE 2me V
3. Phase and group velocity
Vpvg = c2
4. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
x . p  h
5. One Dimensional Time Dependent Schrodinger Equation
− 2 (x, t)   (x, t)
. + V  (x, t) = j
2m x 2
t
6. One Dimensional Time Independent Schrodinger equation
− 2 d2 (x)
. + V (x)  (x) = E  (x)
2m dx2

7. A particle in an One Dimensional Infinite Potential Well

(a) Energy states of the particle
h2
En = n2 with n = 1, 2, 3, ………
8 mL2

(b) Quantized wave function of the particle

2 nx
n(x) = sin
L L

5.13 SOLVED PROBLEMS

5.14 QUESTIONS
1. What are matter waves? State their properties.
2. Describe with necessary theory. the Davisson and Germer
experiment establishing wave nature of electrons
 3. What do you mean by group and phase velocity? Show that de-
Broglie’s group velocity associated with the wave packet is equal to
the velocity of the particle.
4. Discuss diffraction experiment for verification of uncertainty
principle.
5. Explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle with an example and give
its physical significance.
6. How will you prove the non-existence of electron in the nucleus
using uncertainty principle?
7. Derive Schrödinger’s time-dependent wave equation.
8. Solve the Schrödinger’s time-independent wave equations for a
particle confined to infinite square well (particle in a box). Hence
show that its energy is quantized.

5.15 MCQ’s
1. The relation between momentum and K.E. of a material particle is
2m
(A) p = (B) p = 2mE
E
1
(C) p = 2mE (D) p =
2mE
Ans=b
2. If an electron is accelerated by a p.d of 100 volt, the de Broglie
wavelength is
(A) 0.1224 nm (B) 1.224 nm (C) 0.1224 cm (D) 12.44 nm
Ans=a
3. An electron is accelerated by a potential difference V, the velocity of
the electron is
m 2eV
2eV
(A) (B) 2eV (C) m (D) eV
m
where m and e are the mass and charge of the electron
respectively.

Ans=c
4. The de Broglie wavelength of a particle is
A) inversely proportional to its mass
 B) directly proportional to its mass
C) inversely proportional to its charge
D) directly proportional to its charge.
Ans=a
5. Which of the following represents probability of finding the
particle in a distance dx around a point x?

(A)  (B) * (C) 
(D) * dx
 dx
Ans=d
6. Which of the following represents normalization condition?
(A)  n* m dV = 0 for n  m
(B)  n* mdV = 1 for n  m
(C)  n* mdV = 1 for n = m
(D)  dV = 1 for n < m
Ans=c
7. The time dependent Schrodinger equation for one-dimensional

matter waves is given by i = … + V. Fill up the first term by
t
the correct quantity
2m  2 
2
2
(A) (B) 2m x
2
x 2

2
2m
 x 2
(C) − (D)
2m t
Ans=b
8. Uncertainty principle is applicable to
A. large system only
B. small system only
C. subatomic particle only
D. both subatomic and large systems
Ans=c

9. Energy of photon is directly related to the

A. wavelength
B. wave number
 C. frequency
D. amplitude

Ans=a
10. When a charged particle is accelerated through a potential
difference V, it's kinetic energy
A. decreases
B. remains same
C. increases
D. varies depending on resistance of wire
11. The product of the phase and the group velocities is given by the
a) Speed of light
b) (Speed of light)2
c) 2 x Speed of light
d) (speed of light)4

Answer: b

12. The group velocity of a wave with a phase velocity of 60 x 109 is

(in 106 order)
a) 1.5
b) 2
c) 2.5
d) 3
Answer: a
13. For a particle inside a box, the potential is maximum at x =
___________
a) L
b) 2L
c) L/2
d) 3L
Answer: a
 14. Calculate the Zero-point energy for a particle in an infinite
potential well for an electron confined to a 1 nm atom.
a) 3.9 X 10-29 J
b) 4.9 X 10-29 J
c) 5.9 X 10-29 J
d) 6.9 X 10-29 J
Answer: c
15. The total probability of finding the particle in space must be
(a) zero
(b) unity
(c) infinity
(d) double
Ans=b
16. The square of the magnitude of the wave function is called
a) current density
b) probability density
c) zero density
d) volume density
Ans=b

5.16 REFERENCE BOOKS

1. A textbook of Engineering Physics-Avadhanulu & Kshirsagar, S. Chand
2. A textbook of Engineering Physics-Gaur and Gupta, Dhanpat Rai
Publications
3. Concepts of Modern Physics- Arther Beiser, Tata McGraw Hill
4. A Textbook of Engineering Physics, S. O. Pillai, New Age
International Publishers.
5. Principles of Quantum Mechanics R Shankar

5.17 WEB LINKS

1. https://scienceexchange.caltech.edu/topics/
quantum-science-explained/quantum-physics
2. https://www.britannica.com/science/quantum-mechanics-physics

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