SEMICONDUCTOR

PHYSICS

MODULE-1
SYLLABUS Hours: 6

SEMICONDUCTORS PHYSICS
Fermi level; Fermi dirac distribution; Fermi energy level in intrinsic & extrinsic
semiconductors; effect of impurity concentration and temperature on fermi
level; mobility, current density; Hall Effect; Fermi Level diagram for p-n
junction (unbiased, forward bias, reverse bias); Semiconducting devices : LED,
Solar Cell, , Photo diode,

Topic:
1.1 Fermi level and Fermi Dirac distribution
1.2 Fermi energy level in intrinsic & extrinsic semiconductors
1.3 Effect of impurity concentration and temperature on fermi level
1.4 Mobility, current density
1.5 Hall Effect
1.6 Fermi Level diagram for p-n junction (unbiased, forward bias, reverse
bias)
1.7 Semiconducting devices : LED, Solar Cell, , Photo diode,
1.8 Summery
1.9 Important Formulae
1.10 Solved problems
1.11 Questions
1.12 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ’s)
1.13 Reference Books
1.14 Weblinks

INTRODUCTION
Solids are classified into three distinct categories based on their electrical
properties. They are conductors, insulators and semiconductors. The range of
conductivity is quite large for metals like copper, silver, etc., i.e. it is of the order
 of 10+8 siemens/m while conductivity for insulators like glass is of the order of
10−n siemens/m. Hence, it is convenient to consider another intermediate class of
materials having moderate conductivity, which are known as semiconductors. A
typical semiconductor like silicon (pure) has conductivity of 10−4 siemens/m.

But the main reason for studying semiconductors separately is that the
conductivity of metals and insulators cannot be altered significantly and their role
in any electrical/electronic circuit or device remains limited. Whereas in
semiconductors, there are two potential advantages: one; their conductivity can
be greatly modified by adding impurities and two; there can be two types of
impurities called donors and acceptors. Such semiconductors are called extrinsic
semiconductors. Both, intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors serve as essential
part of all discrete electronic/electrical components and integrated circuits.

1.1 Fermi level and Fermi Dirac distribution

Direct bandgap (DBG) Indirect bandgap (IBG)

semiconductor semiconductor
A direct bandgap (DBG) semiconductor is An Indirect bandgap (IBG)
one in which the maximum energy level of semiconductor is one in which the
the valence band aligns with the minimum maximum energy level of the valence
energy level of the conduction band with band and the minimum energy level
respect to momentum. of the conduction band are
misaligned with respect to
momentum.
In a DBG semiconductor, a direct In case of an IBG semiconductor, due
recombination takes place with the release to a relative difference in the
of the energy equal to the energy difference momentum, first, the momentum is
between the recombining particles. conserved by release of energy and
only after the both the momenta
align themselves, a recombination
occurs accompanied with the release
of energy.
 The probability of a radiative recombination The probability of a radiative
is high. recombination is comparatively low.

The efficiency factor of a DBG The efficiency factor of a IBG

semiconductor is higher. Thus, DBG semiconductor is lower.
semiconductors are always preferred over
IBG for making optical sources.
Example, Gallium Arsenide (GaAs). Example, Silicon and Germanium

Q.1 What is Fermi energy and Fermi-Dirac distribution function?

Ans.: Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function
Statistical mechanics studies the overall behaviour of a system of many
particles and its relation to the properties of the particle. It doesn’t
consider the actual motion or interaction of individual particles but
describes what is most likely to happen. Many phenomenon in the
physical world involve systems of great numbers of particles, where
statistical mechanics is used. It is applicable to classical systems (such as
molecules in a gas) as well as quantum mechanical systems (such as
photons in a cavity or free electrons in a conductor).

Indistinguishable particles with odd half-

Band Energy

1 3 5 
integral spin  , , , ........  are called C.B.
2 2 2 
Fermi
Eg
level

V.B.
 fermions. They obey exclusion principle.
The Fermi−Dirai Probability distribution
function is used to study their
behaviour. The free electrons in a
conductor fall in this category.

Energy band diagram of pure semiconductor at room temperature is as

shown aside. A line drawn mid-way in the forbidden gap represents an
average energy level in the material. If the energy distribution changes
i.e., more electrons move into the conduction band then Fermi level
would shift upward to represent increase in energy level and obviously
downward shift indicate decrease in energy level.

The energy of the highest occupied state is called as "Fermi energy level"
or (Fermi level) denoted by EF. The magnitude of Fermi level EF depends
upon the number of electrons per unit volume in the solid.
The number of electrons available in a solid per unit volume is given by
expression

=  n(E)f (E) dE
EC

where n (E) = the density of energy states in energy range E and E + dE

f (E) = the Fermi−Dirac distribution function
EC = the lowest energy in the conduction band

According to Fermi−Dirac probability function the probability that a

quantum state with energy E is occupied by an electron, is given by
1
f (E) = (E −EF )/kT
1+ e
where k is Boltzmann's constant
T is temperature in K
EF is the Fermi energy level for the crystal

This function is known as "Fermi function". It gives the probability of an

energy state of energy E being occupied by an electron.

Q.2 What is Fermi Level in a conductor? What is the effect of

temperature on Fermi level?
Ans.: Fermi Level in Conductors or Fermi Level
• When the filling up of electrons is undertaken, the universal rule is
that the lowest energy level gets filled first. However there will be
many more allowed energy levels left vacant as shown in Figure 1
below,

Fig. 1 : Fermi energy

Here we define Fermi energy of Fermi level as :

• The energy of the highest occupied level at zero-degree absolute is
called the Fermi-energy and the level is referred to as the Fermi level
EF.
• All the energy levels above the Fermi level at T = 0 K are empty and
those lying below are completely filled. EF may or may not be an
allowed state. It provides a reference with which other energy levels
can be compared.

Fermi Level in Conductor :

As mentioned in classification the conductors are having many free
electrons. Let us see how Fermi function helps us understand their
distribution.

(a) At T = 0 K :
• At 0 K electrons occupy the lower energy levels in the conduction
band leaving upper energy levels vacant.
• The band is filled up to a certain energy level EF therefore Fermi level
may be regarded as the uppermost filled energy level in conductor at
0K.
At T = 0, levels below EF have E < EF
1 1 1
 f(E) = = = =1
(E−EF ) /KT 1+e −
1+0
1+e
f(E) = 1 means all the levels below EF are occupied by electrons.

At T = 0K, levels above EF have E > EF

 1 1 1
 f(E) = = = =0
(E−EF ) /KT 1+e 
1+
1+e
 f(E) = 0 means all the levels above EF are vacant.

At T = 0K, for E = EF
1 1
f(E) = =
1+e
(E − EF )/KT
1 + e%
 f(E) is indeterminable.
This is summarized in Figure 2.

Fig. 2 : Fermi-Dirac distribution

(b) At T > 0 K : at T = 0K
• At temperature above 0 K, few electrons are excited to vacant levels
above EF. This happens to those electrons which are close to EF hence
probability to find an electron at E > EF will become greater than unity
which was zero at T = 0 K.
• Similarly, due to excitation of electrons, few levels just below E F will be
become vacant and f(E) will be slightly reduced which was unity at
T = 0 K.
• In simple way one can understand that what increase in f(E) at T > 0 K
above E = EF we get is equal to reduction in f(E) below E = EF. This is
shown as below in Figure 3.
At E = EF for T > 0 K
1 1 1
f(E) = = = = 0.5
1 + e 1+1 2

Fig. 3 : Electron occupancy at T > 0K

1.2 Fermi energy level in intrinsic semiconductors
Q.1 Show that in intrinsic semiconductor Fermi Level lies half way
between conduction and valance band.
Ans.: Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductor :
In an intrinsic semiconductor, every electron moving to conduction band leaves
behind hole in valence band. The number of charge carriers per unit volume of
the material is called carrier concentration.

The density of electrons in conduction band is shown by n & it is given by

3/2 (E − E )
 2me* KT  F C

n = 2  e KT …(i)
 h2 
the density of holes in valence band is shown by p & is given by
3/2
(EV − EF )
 2mh* KT 
p = 2  e KT
…(ii)
 h2 

Intrinsic carrier density (ni)

Intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor in which each broken
bond generates an electron hole pair. The electrons and hole occur equal
in numbers.
ne = nh = ni …(iii)

(ne = n & nh = p)
or ni2 = ne nh
Intrinsic carrier density in terms band gap energy
Eg 3/2
 2me* KT 
ni = 2   e 2 KT
…(iv)
 h2 
Therefore, in an intrinsic semiconductor the density of electrons in
conduction band is equal to the density of holes in the valence band.
Hence, n = p
Substitute the values from (i) and (ii)
3/2 3/2
(EF −FC ) (EV − EF )
 2 me* KT   2mh*KT 
2  e 2KT
= 2  e KT
…(v)
 h2   h2 
KT (EF −FC ) EC −EF
* 3/2 *3/2
m e
e =m h
e KT

EF −EC
3/2
e KT  mh* 
=  * …(vi)
EV −EF m 
e KT  e *
  2EF − EC − EV 
 
e KT  = 1 …(vii)
* *
mh = me effective mass of hole and effective mass of electron are
approximately the same,
 2Ef − EC − EV 
 
e  KT 
= e0 e0 = 1
2EF − EC − EV
 =0
KT
EC + E V
 EF = …(viii)
2
Hence, the Fermi level is located exactly half way between the top of the
valence band and bottom of the conduction band. At 0K in an intrinsic
semiconductor, the valence band is completely filled and the conduction
band is completely empty. The Fermi level lies exactly midway between
the valence band and conduction band as shown in Figure.

Fig. : Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor at T = 0 K and T > 0K.

1.3 Effect of impurity concentration and temperature

On Fermi level

Q.1 Explain the effect of temperature on the Fermi level in n-type and p-
type semiconductor with diagram.
Ans.: Fermi-level in Extrinsic semiconductors
[Effect of Impurity concentration and Temperature on Fermi Level]
If a small amount of a pentavalent or trivalent impurity is introduced into
a pure germanium (or silicon) crystal, the conductivity of the crystal
increases appreciably, and the crystal becomes an extrinsic
semiconductor, i.e., either /i-type semiconductor or p-type
semiconductor.

n-type semiconductor:
In energy level diagram (Figure1), the impurity atoms introduce discrete
energy levels for such electron just below the conduction band. These are
called donor impurity levels. They are only 0.01 eV below the conduction
band in case of Ge (0.05 eV in case of Si).Therefore, at room temperature,
the fifth electrons of almost all donor atoms are thermally excited from
the donor levels into the conduction band where they move as charge
carriers when an external field is applied.

Since donor level is very close to conduction band, the effect of valence
band may be neglected. Hence, we say that the concentration of electrons
in the conduction band must be equal to the number of vacancies per
unit volume in the donor level.

Fig. 1 : Fermi level in n-type semiconductor

(a) at 0K (b) as function of temperature.

This shows that the Fermi level lies exactly half way between the donor
E +E
levels and the bottom of conduction band, i.e., EF = d c as shown in
2
Figure 1(a). But as temperature increases Fermi level falls below the donor
level as shown in Figure 1(b) and at higher temperatures the Fermi level
approaches the forbidden gap which makes an intrinsic semiconductor.
 p-type Semiconductor:

Fig. 2 : Fermi level in p-type semiconductor

(a) at 0K (b) as function of temperature.

Since in p-type semiconductor the acceptor level is very near to valence

band the effect of conduction band is neglected. The Fermi energy lies
exactly highway between the acceptor levels and the top of valence band,
D +E
i.e. EF = a V as shown in Figure 2(a). But as temperature increases, the
2
Fermi level rises as shown in Figure 2(b). At higher temperatures, the
Fermi level approaches the centre of the band gap and crosses acceptor
level which makes the substance an intrinsic semiconductor.

Effect of concentration:
• In p type semiconductor
• With the increase in the impurity concentration, the impurity atoms
interact . As a result, the acceptor level splits into acceptor band, which
gradually widens with doping level increment
• Finally, the acceptor level enters the valence band. In this process the
Fermi level shifts downwards and at high doping level it enters the
valence band.
• With the widening of the acceptor band the forbidden gap decreases as
shown in the diagram
• In n-type semiconductor
• As the impurity atoms interact, the donor electrons are shared by the
neighboring atoms.
• This results in splitting of the donor level and formation of the donor
band below the conduction band.
• With the increase in impurity concentration the width of the band
increases. At one stage it overlaps with the conduction band.
• As the donor band widens the forbidden gap decreases. In the process
the Fermi level shift upwards and finally enter the conduction band as
shown in the diagram
 1.4 Mobility, Current Density

Q.1 Define mobility.

Ans.: • The drift velocity is linearly proportional to the electric field intensity
(until drift velocity gets saturated at certain critical field intensity).
Thus,
vd    vd =  
where the symbol  is used for electric field intensity.
• The constant of proportionality is called mobility of charge carriers. It
indicates how fluently a charge carrier can sweep through the electric
field.
• It can be defined as the drift velocity acquired per unit electric field
intensity.
• Its SI unit is m2/V-sec.

Q.2 Explain conductivity and resistivity.

Ans.: • The conductivity of semiconductor is proportional to the total number
of charge carriers, i.e. number of electrons plus number of holes.
• With increasing temperature, more and more charge carriers become
free for conduction and thus conductivity of semiconductors increases
with increasing temperature (until it reaches intrinsic temperature).
Hence, semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of
resistance.
• For metals, conductivity decreases (meaning resistivity or resistance
increases) with increasing temperature.
• For intrinsic material, both types of charge carriers contribute evenly
while for extrinsic materials, one type of charge carrier dominates and
contribution of the other can be neglected. Thus,
For n-type:  = q n n
For p-type:  = q p p
For intrinsic:  = q ni (n + p)
• SI unit of conductivity is siemens/m.
1
• Resistivity is the reciprocal of conductivity. Thus,  = .

• SI unit of resistivity is m.
 CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTORS
Intrinsic semiconductors :
In this case, current flow is due to the movement of electrons and holes in
opposite directions. Even if the number of electrons is equal to the number of
holes, hole mobility n is half of electron mobility e.

The total current flow is due to the sum of electrons and hole flow the relation is
given by
I = Ie + Ih
= nieVeA + peeVhA
where ni → density of free electrons in an intrinsic semiconductor
pi → density of holes in an intrinsic semiconductor.
e → charge on an electron
A → Area of cross−section of a semiconductor
ve → drift velocity of electrons
vh → drift velocity of holes

Since in case of intrinsic semiconductors

No. of electrons = No. of holes
n=p
I = nie (eE + hE) A
= nie E A (e + h)
V
= nie (e + h) . A

V
( E= . is length of intrinsic semiconductor)

AV
= nie (e + h).

V
R = =
I nie( e + h ) A
1
R =  , where  =
A nie ( e + h )
The electrical conductivity which is the reciprocal of resistivity is given by
 = nie (e + h)
I
Current density J =
A
 nie (e + h ) EA
J =
A
= nie (e + h) E
J = E
J
  =
E
Thus, conductivity of semiconductors depends upon two factors
(i) number of current carriers present per unit volume and
(ii) the mobility of current carriers.

Extrinsic Semiconductor:
Current density J = E
= (ne e + p.e.h) E
In case of an N-type semiconductor, the above expression becomes

J = e (nne + ph h) E

Where nn is the electron density

ph is the hole density
In N type semiconductor after addition of impurity (doping). The conductivity is
given by
J
 =
E
  = n.e e + peh
= e (nne + Pn h) in case of N-type
= e (npe + Pph) in case of P-type
(i) In the n-type semiconductor electrons are the majority carriers although
holes are also available as minority carriers. Since electron density in such
extrinsic semiconductor is much higher than the hole density, the expression
for the current densities
J = nneeE
 = nn ee
(ii) In P-type semiconductor, conduction is by means of holes in the valance
band which form majority carriers even though electrons are available for
conduction as minority carriers. Since in such P-type extrinsic semiconductor
holes are majority carriers.
 J = pp. ehE
  = pp. eh

(iii) Conductivity of Pure Germanium :

As already seen, the conductivity of pure germanium is given by
I = nie (e + n) = pi e (e + h)
When Ge is doped with a trivalent impurity like Boron, it becomes a p-type
semiconductor. After doping its conductivity depends on the number of
charge carriers available for conduction. The law of mass action can be used
for finding the number of such charge carriers. For acceptor impurity the law
has following form
nppp = ni2
and for donor impurity
nepe = ni2
where np → free electrons density
pp → free hole density
It means that, at constant temperature, the product of the number of
electrons carriers and the number of hole carriers is independent of the
density of acceptor atoms. In physical terms, it means that the introduction of
p-type impurity fills some of the electron levels produced by thermal action.

1.5 HALL EFFECT

Q.1 What is Hall effect? Derive an expression for Hall coefficient, Hall
voltage, Hall angle and mobility in a semiconductor.
Ans.: +V −
H

B
F
EH t
E
I H Ex I

V
+ −
If a metal or a semiconductor carrying a current ‘I’ is placed in a transverse
magnetic field ‘B’, a potential difference is produced in the direction
normal to both the current and magnetic field directions. The
phenomenon is called Hall effect in honour of E.H. Hall, the physicist who
discovered it.

Hall effect measurements showed that it is the negative charge carriers

namely electrons that are responsible for electrical conduction in metals.
It is the Hall effect measurements again which showed that there exist two
types of charge carriers in semiconductors. The importance of Hall effect
is that it helps
(i) determine the sign of charge carriers,
(ii) determine the charge carrier concentration and
(iii) determine the mobility of charge carriers if conductivity of the
material is known.

Let us consider a rectangular plate of a p−type semiconductor. When a

potential difference is applied across its ends, a current of ‘I’ flows
through it along the x−direction. If holes are the charge carriers in the
p−type semiconductors the current is given by
I = p A e vd … (1)
where p is the concentration of holes
e is the charge on a hole
A is the area of cross−section of the end face
vd is the average drift velocity of holes

The current density

I
Jx = = p e vd … (2)
A
Any plane perpendicular to the current flow direction is an equipotential
surface. Therefore, the potential difference between the front and rear
faces F and F is zero.

If a magnetic field B is applied normal to the crystal surface and also to

the current flow, a transverse potential difference is produced between
faces F and F. It is called Hall voltage, VH. The origin of Hall voltage is as
follows :
 p−type n−type
I I
FL EH I FL
EH I

(a) (b)
Before the application of magnetic field holes move in an orderly way
parallel to faces F and F. Upon the application of the magnetic field B, the
holes experience a sideway deflection due to the Lorentz force FL (fig. a).
The magnitude of the magnetic force is given by
FL = B e vd

Because of this force, holes are deflected towards the front face F and pile
up there. Initially the material is electrically neutral everywhere. However
as holes pile up on the front side, a corresponding equivalent negative
charge is left on the rear face F. As a result an electric field is produced
across the two faces F and F. The direction of electric field will be from
the front to rear face. It is such that it opposes the further filling up of
holes on the front face F. A condition at equilibrium will be reached when
the force FE due to transverse electric field EH balances the Lorentz force
FL. The transverse electric field EH is known as Hall field. Equilibrium state
is usually attained in about 10−14 sec and after that, the holes flow once
again along x−direction parallel to the faces F and F. In the equilibrium
condition
FE = FL
V 
FE = e E H = e  H  … (3)
 ω
where ‘’ is the width of the semiconductor plate.
FL = e B vd
From equation (2)
J
vd = x
pe
B Jx
 FL = … (4)
p
From (3) and (4) we get
 eVH BJ
= x
ω p
ω B Jx ωB I
 VH = =
pe pe A

If ‘t’ is the thickness of the semiconductor plate,

A = wt. and the above equation reduces to
BI
VH = … (5)
pet
Hall field unit current density per unit magnetic induction is called Hall
coefficient, RH. Thus,
E V /ω ω B Jx
RH = H = H =
Jx B Jx B ω p e Jx B
1
RH = … (6)
pe
Using (6) in (5) we obtain
BI
VH = R H … (7)
t
VH t
 RH = … (8)
BI

Hall voltage is a real voltage and it can be measured with a voltmeter.

With the directions of the magnetic field and the current as shown in
diagram. The sign of the Hall voltage is positive. For an n−type
semiconductor, the Hall voltage will be negative when the directions of B
and I are kept same as shown in figure. Therefore, knowing the sign of
Hall voltage the type of the semiconductor and hence the sign of majority
charge carrier will be known.

Knowing the thickness of the semiconductor plate and by measuring the

Hall voltage for a given current and with a known magnetic field, the Hall
coefficient RH can be determined using the relation (8). Depending upon
the polarity of the Hall voltage, the Hall coefficient will be either positive
or negative.

Knowing the Hall coefficient, the concentration of charge carriers can be

determined using the relation (6). Depending upon the polarity of the Hall
voltage, the Hall coefficient will be either positive or negative.
Knowing the Hall coefficient, the concentration of charge carriers can be
determined using the relation (6). From (6) the carrier concentration is
given by
1
p = … (9)
R He
In case of an n−type semiconductor
1
RH = − … (10)
ne
1
and n = − … (11)
RH e
The Hall effect measurements in metals over a wide temperature range
established that the Hall coefficient in metal does not depend on
temperature. Consequently, the free carrier concentration and hence the
Hall coefficient in metal are independent of the temperature.

In case of semiconductors, the Hall coefficient drops sharply with a rise in

temperature, indicating that the concentration of free electrons increases
with the temperature.

The net electric field E in the semiconductor is a vector sum of Ex and EH. It
acts at an angle H to the x−axis. H is called the Hall angle.
From the figure
E
tan H = H … (12)
Ex
VH B Jx
From (3) EH = = … (13)
ω pe
Also Ex = ρ Jx … (14)
Using (13) and (14) in (12) we get
B
tan H = … (15)
peρ
 tan H =  RH B

The product  RH is designated as the mobility of holes.

tan H = h . B … (16)
 H = tan−1 (h . B) … (17)
where h =  RH … (18)
 By determining the conductivity of the crystal through a separate experiment
and determining the value of RH from Hall effect measurement, the carrier
mobility can be calculated using the relation (18).

1.6 Fermi Level diagram for p-n junction (unbiased,

forward bias, reverse bias)

ENERGY BAND STRUCTURE OF PN-JUNCTION AT EQUILIBRIUM. FORMATION OF

DEPLETION REGION, SIGNIFICANCE OF DEPLETION LAYER WIDTH

Let us understand the formation of pn-junction from the point of view of energy
band structure.
Fermi level in a solid is 1 2 1 2
analogous to the water level in a
container. The levels tend to
equalize when two containers are
filled to different are connected
together.
A. Energy band diagram of p−type and n−type semiconductors
E p−type E n−type
conduction conduction
band band

EFn

EFp

valence valence
band band
(a)
E Metallurgical
Junction
conduction
band

electron EFn
current
Jen
EFp hole current
Jhp
Valence
band
(b)
Fig. 13
(b) Energy band diagram at the instant of joining which illustrates the position of
Fermi levels on each side and consequent carrier migration across the
junction.
E Depletion
Region pn junction
2
Conduction Hill
(Eg + eV0)
eV0 Conduction Band

Electron energy decreases

Electron energy increases
Hole energy decreases

Hole energy increases

1 Eg

EF Fermi level EF

Valence Band
Valence Hill 4
p n
Energy band diagram of pn junction at equilibrium

When two semiconductors are in contact, equilibrium is attained only when there
is no net current flow. It can happen when the probability of occupancy of a
given energy level is the same in both the semiconductor regions. It implies that
the reference energy level namely Fermi level EF must be the same through the
two semiconductors regions under thermal equilibrium. If it is not so, the
different probability of occupancy in neighbouring regions will lead to carrier
migration and current flow which would be a non equilibrium state. Fermi level is
similar to the liquid level in a container temperature of body etc. Their equality
throughout a medium ensure no−flow−condition and equilibrium state. In the
same way, an energy band structure having equailsed Fermi level in both the
regions is characteristic of thermal equilibrium of a pn−junction.

The equalisation of Fermi levels in two different regions can be understood

clearly wih the help of the following analogy. Let us consider two containers (1)
and (2) which are interconnected through a valve. Initially the valve is closed and
the containers are filled with water to different levels as shown in diagram. When
the valve is opened, water flows from container (2) into container (1). The water
level in container (1) rises and in (2) falls down till the levels in both the
containers are equalised.

The energy band diagrams of the individual p and n−semiconductors are shown.
The Fermi levels EFp and EFn are at different levels. At the instant of joining the
levels EFp and EFn in the two semiconductor region are not aligned the probability
of occupancy of energy levels in the conduction band on n−side is high while it is
low on p−side. Therefore, the electrons occupying the levels in the conduction
band on n−side tend to move into the conduction band levels on p−side.
Similarly, the probability of occupancy of valance band levels by holes on p−side
is high whereas it is low on n−side. As a result, holes tend to migrate into the
valence band levels on n−side. Current flows due to such migration of carriers. As
high energy electrons have n−region the Fermi level EFn, which represents the
average energy of electrons, move downward. Since the Fermi level is fixed
relative to the band structure of the region, its movement causes downward shift
in the entire band structure of the n−region. On the p−side holes having higher
energy have the region. As the direction of decrease in hole energy is upward,
the Fermi level EFp shifts upward. Along with EFp the entire band structure of
p−region shifts upward. The shifting of energy band continues till the energy
levels EFp and EFn are equalised. When they come to the same level the carrier
migration ceases and equilibrium condition is attained.

The mutual displacement of the energy levels on both the sides causes a bending
of the energy bands in the region around the metallurgical junction as shown in
diagram.

Each side takes up a different electrostatic potential. It results in potential barrier

V0 or an energy hill at height eV0. Electrons in the conduction band of n−region
face a rising energy hill which may be called a conduction hill. As the direction of
increasing energy is downward for holes, the holes in the valence band of
p−region encounter an energy hill which may be called a valence hill.

Many of the electrons from n−region move towards the junction region but
cannot surmount the conduction hill and return back to the n−region. For e.g. the
electron marked (1) fails to climb conduction hill. Occasionally, a few of the
electrons which have extra energy succeed in overcoming the conduction hill and
go into p−region. On the other hand, the electrons in p−region can roll down the
conduction hill effortlessly and pass into n−region. For example, the electron
marked (2) rolls down the conduction hill. The two current components due to
such migration of electrons are in opposite direction and balance each other.
Similarly, the holes moving from p−region towards the junction encounter the
valence hill and return back.

For example, the hole marked (3) fails to surmount the valence hill. However, a
few energetic holes succeed in going into n−region. The holes in the n−region
readily float up the valence hill regardless of the energy of the p−region. For e.g.,
the hole marked (4) in diagram float up the valence hill. The two current
components due to opposite flow of holes balance each other. The net current
across the junction is therefore zero, which is characteristics of the junction at
equilibrium.

B. Energy Band Structure of Forward Biased PN−Junction

The steady state situation of the energy band structures under forward bias
condition is shown below.
E
Depletion
p−type region n−type

Jen

e(V0 − V)
Energy band diagram
 of a pn−junction
Jep under forward bias−
EFp Fermi level EFn Note : the decrease
in barrier height.
eV
Forward
biased
Jhn

Jhp

The negative terminal of the external source causes an increase in electron energy and
hence an upward shift of all energy levels on the n−side. Similarly, the positive terminal
connected to the p−side causes an increase in hole energy and hence a lowering of all
levels on p−side. As the displacement of the energy levels occur in opposite directions.
The Fermi levels EFn and EFp separated by a value eV. And also the bending of the
bands near the depletion region is reduced. In other words, the heights of the
conduction hill and valence hill are reduced by an amount of energy eV. Due to the
reduction in barrier heights the movements of the majority carriers is promoted. As a
result, the components Jhp and Jen increases.

In case of minority carrier, the reduction in height of the barrier does not play
much role. As usual those carriers which are near the depletion region are in a
favourable position to cross the junction. Electrons slide down the conduction hill
from p−side to n−side, while holes float up the valence hill from n−side to p−side.
The small drift current component Jep and Jhn due to minority carriers are not
significantly modified by the forward bias.

Therefore in case of forward bias, a net current flows through the junction which
is determined by the diffusion of majority carriers.

C. Energy Band Structure of Reverse Biased PN Junction

The energy band diagram for a pn junction under reverse bias condition is shown
below. The positive terminal of the external source connected to the n−side
reduces the energy of the electrons in general. Therefore, the energy levels on
n−side are pulled down. The negative terminal connected to p−side reduces the
energy of holes in p−region and hence the energy levels are pushed up on
p−side. Due to such displacement of energy levels no both sides, the Fermi levels
EFp and EFn get separated by an amount eV.
The barriers height increases to a value of e(V0 + V). The conduction hill and the
valence hill suffer similar change in height. As the barrier hills are now large, the
majority carriers cannot climb up the hill to go into the opposite regions. Hence
there will not be diffusion current due to majority carriers. However, for minority
carries an opposite situation prevails. The electrons generated near the depletion
layer edge of p−side can easily slide down the conduction hill and the holes
generated near the depletion layer edge of n−side can easily float up the valence
hill. Thus, the minority carriers can cross the junction and can cause the flow of
drift current. This current is independent of the height of the potential hill, as the
minority carriers are only falling from a higher energy region into region of lower
energy. The current across the junction is given by
J = (Jhn + Jep) = −J0
 E
p−type Depletio n−type
n region

Jep
e(V0 + V) Energy band diagram of a
pn−junction under reverse
EFp bias.
eV Note : the increase in barrier
Revers EFn height.
Jhn e
biased

1.7 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

SOLAR CELL
Q.1 Explain construction and working of a solar cell.
Ans.: A solar cell is basically a p-n junction that can generate electrical power,
when illuminated. Solar cells are usually large area devices typically
illuminated with sunlight and are intended to convert the solar energy
into electrical energy.

Fig. 1
The schematic of a solar cell is shown in Figure 1(a). It consists of a p-type
chip on which a thin layer of n-type material is grown. When the solar
radiation is incident on the cell, electron-hole pairs are generated in the n
and p regions. The majority of them cannot recombine in the regions.
They reach the depletion region at the junction where an electric-field due
to the space charge separates them. Electrons in the p-region are drawn
into the n-region and holes in the n-region are drawn into the p-region. It
results in accumulation of charge on the two sides of the junction and
produces a potential difference called photo emf. Its magnitude is of the
order of 0.5 V. The overall power-conversion efficiency of single-
crystalline solar cells ranges from 10 to 30 % yielding 10 to 30 mW/cm2. If
a load is connected across the cell a current flows through it. The sign
convention of the current and voltage is shown in Figure 1(b). It considers
a current coming out of the cell to be positive as it leads to electrical
power generation. The power generated depends on the solar cell itself
and the load connected to it.

The I-V characteristic of a solar cell is shown in Fig.2. We identify the

open-circuit voltage, Voc, as the voltage across the illuminated cell at zero
current. The short-circuit current, Isc, is the current through the illuminated
cell if the voltage across the cell is zero. The short-circuit current is close
to the photocurrent while the open-circuit voltage is close to the turn-on
voltage of the diode as measured on a current scale similar to that of the
photocurrent. The power equals the product of the diode voltage and
current and at first increases linearly with the diode voltage but then
rapidly goes to zero around the turn-on voltage of the diode. The
maximum power is obtained at a voltage labeled as Vm with Im being the
current at that voltage.

Solar cells can be connected in

parallel or series into solar panels,
which can deliver power output of
several kilowatts. Solar panels are
used in numerous applications in
remote locations and in space. Solar
cells of all kinds are used in different
consumer products - from watches

Fig. 2
 and calculators to power supplies for
laptop computers.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

Q.2 What is LED? State the principle of LED.
Ans.: A light emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode that gives off light
when it is forward biased. LEDs are generally fabricated using III-IV
compound semiconductors, such as GaAs, which have a direct band gap.

Principle : When a p-n junction is forward biased, minority carriers flow in

large numbers into regions where they can recombine with majority
carriers producing light in the visible or infra-red region. The wavelength
of light is given by
hc 1.24
 = = m …(1)
Eg Eg (eV)

This effect is known as injection electroluminescence. A significant light

output is obtained only when there is large number of electro-hole
recombinations occurring per second. To ensure this, the p and n regions
are heavily doped.

Q.3 Explain the working of LED using energy band diagram.

Ans.: Theory :

The circuit symbol of LED and a simple circuit to illustrate the working of an LED
are shown in Figure 1.

LED is always forward biased. The forward voltage across an LED is considerably
greater than an ordinary diode. Typically, the maximum forward voltage for LED
is between 1.2 V and 3.2 V depending on the device. The LED emits light in
response to a sufficient forward current. The amount of light emitted is directly
proportional to the forward current, as shown in Fig. 1(c). The reverse
breakdown voltage of LED is of the order of 3 V and an LED is never reverse
biased.
 Fig. 1
Energy Band Diagram

The energy band diagram of a heavily doped p-n junction is shown in Fig. above
There is a large concentration of electrons in the conduction band of n-region
and a large concentration of holes in the valence band of p-region. When
forward bias is applied the electrons push into the depletion region and occupy
energy levels in the conduction band. Similarly, holes push forward into the
depletion region and occupy energy levels in the valence band. The electrons in
the conduction band are directly above the holes at the edge of the valence
band. The situation is highly conducive for direct recombination of electrons and
holes. When an electron from the conduction band jumps into the hole in the
valence band, recombination occurs, and the excess energy is emitted in the form
of a light photon.
 The colour of the emitted light depends on the type of material used :
Material used Colour of the emitted light
1. Gallium Arsenide, GaAs Infrared
2. Gallium Arsenide-phosphide, GaAsP Red or Yellow
3. Gallium Phosphide, GaP Red or Green

Fig. 2: Energy band diagram of an LED : (a) without bias

(b) under forward bias

Q.4 What are the applications and advantages of LED?

Ans.: Applications:

• Discrete LEDs are used as light sources in fiber-optic communications.

• The LEDs are arranged in the form of a seven-segment to make a
digital display.
• ON-OFF switches in most electrical devices are made of LEDs.
• Infrared LEDs are generally used in remote control devices.
• A number of LEDs are grouped to form monitor display.
• They are arranged in the form of a 5 x 7 matrix to generate a decimal
number or alphabetical character.

ADVANTAGES OF LED:

• Very light weight

• Power consumption is very low.
• Intensity and color can be varied as per the applications.
• Lifetime is more as compare to other lighting devices.
 PHOTODETECTORS
Q.5 What is photoconductive effect?
Ans.: Photoconductive Effect :
When light is incident on an intrinsic semiconductor, electrons arc excited
from the valence band to the conduction band. Such electrons leave
behind holes in the valence band. Thus, free electrons and holes are
generated in the material; but they do not leave the material. Therefore,
an increase of free charge carrier concentration occurs within the
semiconductor. This is known as internal photoelectric effect. An electron
gets excited to the conduction band from the valence band by a light
photon provided the photon energy, hv is greater than the band gap
energy, Eg. That is, hv  Eg. It means that the frequency of the photon
should satisfy the following condition.
Eg
v
h
We can express the above condition in terms of wavelength as,
hc

Eg
The largest wavelength that can cause the electron transition is therefore
given by
1.24
g = m …(1)
Eg ( eV )
An increase in free charge carriers leads to an increase in the conductivity
of the semiconductor. The light-induced increase in the electrical
conductivity called photoconductive effect or simply photoconductivity.
The application of an electric field to the semiconductor causes the
drifting of electrons and holes through the material and as a result, an
electric current flows in the circuit.

Photodetectors are devices that absorb optical energy and convert it to

electrical energy. The operation of photoelectric detectors is based on the
internal photoelectric effect.

There are three main types of photodetectors, namely, photodiodes, pin

diodes and avalanche photodiodes, which are widely used in optical
communication systems.
 PHOTODIODE
Q.6 What are photodiode?
Ans.: Photodiodes are essentially the same as the p-n junction diodes. During
the fabrication of the p-n diode, a depletion layer forms at the junction
region by immobile negatively charged acceptor atoms in the p type
material and immobile positively charged donor ions in the n type
material. The electric field due to these ions stops the motion of majority
carriers but accelerates minority carriers across the junction.

Q.7 What is the principal of photodiode?

Ans.: When a photon is incident on the device, an electron-hole pairs are
generated. In case of electron-hole pairs generated within the depletion
region, the electric field acting across the region causes the pair to
separate as shown in Figure. This charge separation can be utilized in two
ways.
If the diode is short-circuited externally,
a current flows between p and n regions.
It is known as the photoconductive
mode of operation. The diode is reverse
biased for photoconductive operation.
On the other hand, if the diode is left on
open-circuit, an externally measurable
voltage appears between p and n
regions. This is known as photovoltaic
Fig. : Motion of photo-generated
mode of operation. This mode of
carriers in a p-n photodiode
operation is used in solar cells.

Q.8 Explain the I-V characteristics of a photodiode.

Ans.: A semiconductor photodiode is a reverse biased p-n junction. The
structure of a photodiode is shown in Fig. 1(a).When a reverse bias is
applied across the junction (Fig. 1(b)), the depletion layer widens as
mobile carriers are swept to their respective majority sides. The motion of
minority carriers causes the reverse leakage current of the diode. Thus,
even when no light radiation is present (zero light), a small leakage
current exists. Thin leakage current is called dark current. The amount of
dark current depends on the reverse bias voltage, the series resistance
and the ambient temperature.
Fig. 1 : A photo diode (a) Side view (b) A reverse biased pn-junction

When the diode is illuminated by light, photons are absorbed mainly in

the depletion layer and also in the neutral regions. A photon of energy hv
 Eg incident in or near the depletion layer of the diode will excite an
electron from the valence band to the conduction band. This process
generates a hole in the valence band. Thus an electron-hole pair is
generated by the optical photon. These are known as photocarriers. The
electron-hole pairs generated in the depletion layer separate and drift in
opposite directions under the action of the electric field. Such a transport
process induces an electric current in the external circuit in excess of the
already existing dark current (reverse leakage current). The photocurrent
created in the external circuit is always in the reverse direction, i.e., from
the n to the p region. Increasing the level of illumination increases the
reverse current flowing. The light incident in the neutral region, on either
side of the depletion layer, also produces electron-hole pairs. Electrons
and holes generated within a diffusion length of the depletion layer will
move randomly and slowly diffuse into the depletion region and are
accelerated by the bias, thereby contributing to the photocurrent. Thus,
optical excitation leads to an increase in the reverse-biased current. It is
desirable that the depletion region be sufficiently wide so that a large
fraction of incident light can be absorbed. Therefore, the diode can be
used as a photodetector—using a reverse bias voltage—as the measured
photocurrent is proportional to the incident light intensity.
 Fig. 2 : I-V characteristic of a photodiode

Q.9 What are the disadvantages of a p-n Photodiode?

Ans.: • The depletion region is a relatively small portion of the total volume of
the diode. Hence, only those few photons, which are absorbed in the
depletion region, cause current in the circuit whereas many of the
photons absorbed in the bulk of the diode do not result in current.
• To increase the width of the depletion region, the reverse bias applied
across the junction has to be increased; which may not be possible
beyond a certain value.
• The electrons and holes generated by the photons in the bulk of the
diode recombine before they cause current in the circuit.

Q.10 Distinguishes between Photodiode and Solar Cell.

Ans.:
Photodiode Solar Cell
1. It is a photoconductive device. It is a photovoltaic device.
2. It converts light into electric It converts light into electric
current. potential difference.
3. It is normally reverse biased. It is kept unbiased.
4. It is used in opto-detector It is used in electric power
instruments. generation.
1.8 SUMMARY
• A semiconductor is characterised by two energy bands, namely, a valence
band and a conduction band. The energy bands are separated by an energy
gap, Eg.
• When a covalent bond is broken, an electron vacates an energy level in the
valence band. The vacancy may be treated as a particle. It is called a hole.
Thus, an electron-hole pair is generated whenever a covalent bond is
ruptured.
• As electrons and holes are simultaneously generated, in an intrinsic
semiconductor their concentrations will be equal. Thus, n = p = ni
• Thermal process is the only process that generates carriers in an intrinsic
semiconductor.
• Electrons move in conduction band and holes move in the valence band. Both
of them contribute to electrical conduction in the material. The electrical
conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by  = e ni (e + h)
• Semiconductors doped with pentavalent (donor) impurities become n-type
semiconductors. Semiconductors doped with trivalent (acceptor) impurities
are known as p-type semiconductors.
• The motion of electrons and holes in a solid does not occur freely. The
particle mass is to be replaced by an effective mass for their proper
description.
• The electron concentration in a semiconductor is given by
3/2
 2me* kT  − (E −E ) / kT
n = 2 2
 e C F
 h 
• The hole concentration is given by
3/2
 2mh* kT  −(E −E ) / kT
p =  2 2
 e F v
 h 
• In n-type semiconductors, donor levels form near the edge of conduction
band. Donor impurities donate electrons to the conduction band. The Fermi
level in n-type semiconductor at 0 K lies between donor level and conduction
band bottom edge.
• In p-type semiconductors, acceptor levels form near the edge of valence
band. Acceptor impurities accept electrons from the valence band. It causes
generation of holes in the valence band. The Fermi level in p-type
semiconductors at 0K lies between the acceptor level and top edge of the
valence band.
• In extrinsic semiconductors, charge carriers are produced through two
processes. They are: (i) due to impurities and (ii) due to thermal (intrinsic)
process.
• Electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers in an n-type
material. Holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers in a p-
type semiconductor.
• In metals conduction takes place only due to drift of electrons in an externally
applied electric field. In semiconductors conduction takes place due to drift
and also without the help of electric field. Whenever a carrier concentration
gradient occurs in semiconductors, conduction takes place through the
process of diffusion of carriers.
• Excess free carriers generated (or introduced) in a region tend to diffuse into
regions of lower concentration.
• When a semiconductor carries a current and a magnetic field applied normal
to the current direction generates a voltage in a direction perpendicular to
both the magnetic field and current directions. This is called Hall effect.
1
• The Hall coefficient RH = −
ne
• The Hall angle is given by  = tan−1 (hB) or  = tan−1 (eB)
• The mobility is given by h =  RH or e =  RH
• Hall effect measurements help us in identifying the type of majority carrier, in
determining carrier concentration and carrier mobility.
• The occupancy of energy levels in conductors is described by Fermi-Dirac
Distribution function.
• Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor is located exactly halfway between
valence and conduction band.
• Fermi energy for n-type semiconductor lies halfway between the donor levels
and the bottom of conduction band.
• Fermi energy for p-type semiconductor lies halfway between the acceptor
levels and the top of valence band.
• The concentration of immobile negative and positive ions on either side of
the junction is called depletion layer.
• The phenomenon of flow of charge carriers from region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration is called diffusion.
• The total current density in p-n junction is combination of drift current
density and diffusion current density.
• Light emitting diode is a junction diode which emits light when it is forward
biased.
• The devices making use of photovoltaic effect to convert solar energy into
electrical energy are known as solar cells.

1.9 IMPORTANT FORMULAE

1. Conductivity for intrinsic semiconductor  :
 = ni  e  (e + h)
where ni is intrinsic density e is charge on electron (hole)
e is mobility of electron h is mobility hole
 is conductivity
1
2. Resistivity,  =

3. Conductivity of n-type semiconductor:
n = Nd  e  e
where Nd is the concentration of donor atoms
4. Conductivity of p-type semiconductor:
p = Na  e  h
where Na is the concentration of acceptor atoms
5. Hall voltage:
JBW BI
VH = =
ne net
where VH is Hall voltage J is current density
B is strength of magnetic field n is concentration of charge carrier
w is width of specimen t is thickness of specimen
I is current
6. Hall coefficient:
1 
RH = =
ne 
7. Hall angle:
tan H = hB
8. Carrier concentration:
−1 −BI
n = =
eR H VH  t  e
1 BI
p = =
eR H VH  t  e
V t
9. Mobility : e = RH =   H 
 BI 
10. Density of electrons in conduction band in intrinsic semiconductor:
 3/2
(EF − EC )
 2me* KT 
n = 2  e KT
 h2 
11. Density of holes in valence ban in intrinsic semiconductor:
3/2
(EF − EV )
 2mh* KT 
p = 2  e KT
 h2 
12. Intrinsic carrier density in terms of band gap energy:
3/2 Eg
 2me* KT 
ni = 2  e 2KT
where Eg is band gap energy.
 h2 

13. Drift current density:

Jdrift = nevd = neeE
where vd is drift velocity of electrons E is applied electric field.

1.10 SOLVED PROBLEMS

Ex.1 The intrinsic carrier density at room temperature in Ge is 2.37 

1019/m3. If the electron and hole mobilities are 0.38 and 0.18 m2V−1s−1
respectively, calculate its resistivity.
Ans.: Given Data: ni = 2.37  1019 m−3;
e = 0.38 m2 V−1 s−1; h = 0.18 m2 V−1s−1;
=?

Formula: i = nie(e + h)

1
  =
nie ( e + h )
1
 =
2.37  10  1.6  10 −19 (0.38 + 0.18)
19

1
=
2.37  10  1.6  10 −19  0.56
19

1
=
2.1232

  = 0.4709 m
Ex.2 The resistivity of intrinsic germanium at 27C is equal to 0.47 m.
Calculate the intrinsic carrier density ni at 27C (Electron mobility =
0.38 m2 / V sec and hole mobility = 0.18 m2/V sec.)
m2 m2
Ans.: Given Data : e = 0.38 ,h= 0.18 ,
V V
 = 0.47 m
Formula:  = nie(e + h)

ni =
e (  e + h )
1
=
  e  (  e + h )
1
=
0.47  1.6  10 −19  0.56
ni = 2.375  1019 /m3

Ex.3 The mobilities of electrons and holes in a sample of intrinsic Ge at

m2
room temperature are 0.38 and 0.17 respectively. If the electron
Vs
and hole densities are each equal to 2.5  1019 / m3, calculate the
electrical conductivity and resistivity of germanium.
Ans.: Given Data : e = 0.38 m2/vs h = 0.17 m2/vs
ni = 2.5  1019 / m3
 =? =?
Formula:  = nie(e + h)
= 2.5  1019 (0.38 + 0.17)
 C / m
= 2.2   volt-sec = .c
 V sec 
= 2.12 / m
1 1
 = = = 0.4545 m
 2.2

Ex.4 The energy gap of silicon is 1.1 eV. Its electron and hole mobilities at
room temperature are 0.48 and 0.13 m2V−1s−1. Evaluate its
conductivity.
Ans: Given Data: Eg = 1.1 eV = 1.1  1.6  10−19 J; e = 0.48 m2 V−1 s−1;
 = 0.13 m2 V−1s−1; i = ?
Formula : i = nie(e + h)
But, ni has to be calculated. Hence,
 3  −Eg 
 2me* kB T  2  2kB T 
ni = 2   e 
 h2 
* *
Assuming me = mh = m0
3  1.1  1.6  10−19 
 2  3.14  9.11  10 −31  1.38  10 −23  300  2 − 2 1.38  10−23  300 
 ni = 2  
 (6.625  10 −34 )2 
3/2
= 2  (5.3964  1016 )  e( ) −21.25

= 2  1.25359  1025  5.90530  10−10

ni = 1.48056  1016 m−3
 i = 1.4805  1016  1.6  10−19 (0.48 + 0.13)
= 1.4805  1016  1.6  10−19  0.61
or i = 1.4449  10−3 −1 m−1

Ex.5 Find the resistance of an intrinsic Ge rod 1 cm long, 1 mm wide and 1

mm thick at 300 K. For Ge, ni = 2.5  1019/m3, e = 0.39 m2 V−1 s−1 and
h = 0.19 m2 V−1 s−1.
Ans.: Given Data : l = 1  10−2 m; breadth = 1  10−3 m;
thickness = 1  10−3 m;
T = 300 K e = 0.39 m2 V−1 s−1; h = 0.19 m2 V−1 s−1;
R=?
Formula : i = nie(e + h)
= 2.5  1019  1.6  10−19 (0.39 + 0.19)
= 2.5  1019  1.6  10−19  0.58
 i = 2.32 −1 m−1
We know resistance,

R =
A
R =
A
1  10 −2
=
2.32  (1  10 −3  1  10 −3 )
[ Area = Breadth  Thickness]
−2
1  10
=
2.32  10−6
R = 4310 
Ex.6 A silicon plate of thickness 1 mm, breadth 10 mm and length 100 mm
is placed in a magnetic field of 0.5 wb/m2 acting perpendicular to its
thickness. If 10−2 A current flows along its length, calculate the Hall
coefficient, if Hall voltage developed is 1.83 mV.
Ans.: Given Data : t = 1 mm = 1  10−3 m, b = 10 mm = 10  10−3 m
= 100 mm = 100  10−3 m, B = 0.5 wb/m2
= 10−2A; VH = 1.83 mV = 1.83  10−3 V
Formula :
Vt 1.83  10−3  1  10−3
RH = H =
IB 10−2  0.5
RH = 3.66  10− m3 C−1
4

Ex.7 The Hall coefficient of certain silicon specimen was found to be −

7.35  10−5 m2 C−1 from 100 to 400 K. Determine the nature of the
semiconductor if the conductivity was found to be 200 −1 m−1.
Calculate the density and mobility of the charge carrier.
Ans.: Given Data : RH = −7.35  10−5 m3 C−1;  = 200 −1 m−1; ne = ? and e = ?
The negative sign of the hall coefficient indicates that the nature of the
semiconductor is n-type.

Formula :
1 1
ne = =
R He 7.35  10  1.6  10 −19
−5

ne = 8.503  1022 electrons/m3

 200
Mobility, e = =
ne e 8.503  1022  1.6  10 −19
e = 14.7006  10−3 m2 V−1 s−1
or e =  RH = 200  7.35  10−5
e = 14.7  10−3 m2 V−1 s−1

Ex.8 If a sample of silicon is doped with 3  1023 arsenic atoms and

5  1023 atoms of boron, determine the electron concentration if the
intrinsic charge carriers are 2  1016 /m3.
Ans.: Given Data: ni = 2  1016 m−3; Na = 5  1023 atoms; Nd = 3  1023 atoms.
ni2
Formula: ne =
nh
From charge neutrality equation
 1/2
Na − Nd  (Na − Nd ) + ni2 
nh =  
2  4 
Since ni is very small compared to Na and Nd,
N − Nd Na − Nd
nh = a +
2 2
 nh = Na − Nd = 5  1023 − 3  1023
23 3
nh = 2  10 / m
2
( 2  1016 )
 Density of electrons ne =
2  1023
or ne = 2  109 electrons/m3

Ex.9 What is the probability of an electron being thermally excited to

conduction band in silicon at 27C. The band gap energy is 1.12 eV.
1
Ans.: f(Ec) =
1 + exp (EC − EV ) / KT 
Remember, K = Boltzman constant = 1.38  10−23 J/K

In eV it is given by
1.38  10−23
K(in eV) = −19
= 86.25  10−6 eV
1.6  10

Also for intrinsic semiconductor

EC − EV = Eg / 2
1.12
 EC − EV = = 0.56 eV
2
EC − E V 0.56
= = 0.02588
KT 86.25  10−6  (27 + 273)
1
 f(EC) =
1 + e0.02588
 f(EC) = 0.494

Ex.10 In an intrinsic semiconductor the energy gap Eg of an intrinsic

semiconductor is 1.2 eV. Its hole mobility is very much smaller than
electron mobility and is independent of temperature. What is the
ratio between conductivity at 600K and that at 300K. Comment on
the result.
Ans.: Since e >> h, for intrinsic semiconductor Equation (4.11) can be
rewritten as,
i = ni  e  e (as ni = ne = nh)
 ne = N exp [− Eg / 2 KT]
 i = e  e  N exp [− Eg / 2KT]
All the pre-exponential terms are independent of temperature, we can put
a constant
0 = e  e  N
 −Eg 
 i = o exp  
 2 KT 
 −1.2 
Now, II, (600K) = 0 exp  
 2  K  600 
 −1.2 
(300K) = o exp  
 2  K  300 
Taking K, the Boltzman constant in eV as K = 8.62  10−5 eV/K and solving
we get
(600K)
= 1  105
(300K)
Comment : The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is greatly
influenced by temperature.

Ex.11 Calculate the potential barrier for Ge p-n junction at room

temperature, if p and regions are dopped equally to the extent of
one atom per 106 Ge atoms. Given that number of atoms in Ge
crystal = 4.4  1028 m−3 and intrinsic carrier concentration ni = 4.4 
1028 m−3.
Ans.: ni = 2.4  1019 m−3
4.4  1028
N D = NA = 6
= 4.4  1022 m−3
10
Formula :
KT  NA  ND  1.38  10 −23  300 (4.4  1022 )2
Vo = n = n
e  n2  1.6  10 −19 (2.4  1019 )2
 i 
V0 = 0.42 Volts

Ex.12 Explain the concept of Fermi level. What is the probability of an

electron being thermally excited to conduction band in silicon at
20C. The band gap energy is 1.12 eV. Given Boltzman constant 1.38
 1023 J/k.
 1
Ans.: f(E) =
1 + exp (EC − EV ) / KT 
 
−23
1.38  10
K(in eV) = −19
= 86.25  10−6 eV
1.6  10
For intrinsic semiconductor,
1.12
EC − EV = Eg/2 = = 0.56 eV
2
1 1
 f(EC) = =
 0.56   0.56 
1 + exp   1 + exp 
−6
 86.25  10  (20 + 273)   22.15956 
1
= = 0.4936
1 + e0.0253

Ex.13 Calculate the bandgap of GaAs at room temperature given Nc = 4.7 

1017/cm3 and Nv = 7  1018/cm3 at room temperature. Intrinsic
concentration is ni = 2.25  106 / cm3. Find position of Fermi level. Is
it at the centre?
Ans.: For pure of intrinsic GaAs at room temperature
−Eg /2kT
ni = NcNv  e
at room temperature, kT = 0.026 eV.
 NN 
 Eg = 2kT n  c v

 = 1.42 eV
 n i 
Further we have,
−(Ec − EF ) / kT
n = ni = Nc e
N 
 EC − EF = kT n  c  = 0.678 eV
 ni 
We can see that Eg = Ec − Ev is nearly double to this value. Hence, the
Fermi level is located at the centre of bandgap.
 1.11 QUESTIONS
1. What are Direct and Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors.

2. Explain the effect of temperature and concentration on Fermi Level.

3. Explain in brief what do you understand by Hall Effect? Derive an

expression for (a)Hall voltage (b) Hall coefficient (c) Hall angle (d)Hall
mobility.

4. Explain based on energy band diagram, the forward and reversed biased
p-n junction diode.

5. Explain variation of Fermi level with temperature on an extrinsic

semiconductor.

6. Write Fermi-Dirac distribution function and explain the terms used.

7. Explain the construction and working of LED.

8. Explain Principle, construction and working of Solar cell.

9. Explain the construction and working of Photo Diode.

1.12 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQ)

1. In what way Ge is better than Si.
(a) An atom of germanium has more electrons than that in silicon.
(b) The dielectric constant of Ge is less than that of Si
(c) Germanium has purified relatively well and crystallized early
(d) Germanium is a trivalent metal while silicon is a tetravalent element.

2. The net charge of a doped semiconductor is

(a) infinity (b) 2
(c) sum of the electrons and holes (d) zero

3. A semiconductor exhibits negative temperature of coefficient of resistivity.

(a) true (b) false
4. p-type semiconductor is formed by adding impurity of valency.
(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 6

5. The conductivity of a semiconductor

(a) increases with purification (b) remains constant
(c) decreases with purification (d) all are false

6. In a p-type semiconductor at high and low concentration of acceptor

impurities, the density of holes will be
(a) equal to the density of electrons
(b) equal to the density of acceptor atoms
(c) equal to the square root of acceptor atoms
(d) all are false

7. The strong dependence of resistance of a semiconductor is used in a device.

(a) photocell (b) emergency light
(c) p-n junction (d) thermistors

8. Which of the following is/are true for an increase in temperature of p-n

junction.
(a) it makes available less minority carriers in both regions of a p-n diode.
(b) in forward bias region, it takes less voltage to produce the same current at
100C than 25C.
(c) the forward voltage needed to cause the current to flow is reduced.
(d) in the reverse bias region the reverse leakage current is much higher at
100C than at 25C

9. The diffusion current is proportional to

(a) applied electric field
(b) concentration gradient of charge carriers
(c) square of the applied field
(d) root of the applied field.

10. A depletion layer in the p-n junction is caused by

(a) diffusion of carriers (b) drift of electrons
(c) drift of holes (d) migration of impurity ions.

11. A diode can be used for

 (a) modulation (b) amplification (c) rectification (d) detection

12. The resistivity of semiconductors

(a) is independent of temperature
(b) varies directly as temperature
(c) increases with decrease of temperature
(d) increases first and then decreases

13. In an npn transistor the emitter current is

(a) slightly more than collector current
(b) slightly less than the collector current
(c) equal to the collector current
(d) equal to the base current

14. A hole in a p-type semiconductor is

(a) an excess of electron (b) a missing electron
(c) a missing atom (d) a donor level

15. The current through a p-n junction is negligible when the junction is
(a) forward biased (b) reversed biased
(c) positively biased (d) negatively biased

16. In an n-type semiconductor, the position of the Fermi level.

(a) is lower than the centre of the energy gap
(b) is at the centre of energy gap
(c) is higher than the centre of energy gap
(d) can be anywhere depending upon the concentration

17. Depletion region has

(a) only free electron (b) only free holes
(c) both free electrons and holes (d) none of the free electrons and holes
18. A p-n junction is reverse bias, acts as
(a) off-switch (b) very high resistance
(c) zener diode (d) all the above

19. What happens when forward bias is applied to a junction diode?

(a) potential barrier is decreased
(b) potential barrier is increased
 (c) majority current is reduced to zero
(d) minority current is reduced to zero

MCQ's Answer Key

1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (a)

5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (b), (c),(d)
9. (b) 10. (a) 11. (c) 12. (c)
13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (c)
17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (a)

1.13 REFERENCE BOOKS

1. A textbook of Engineering Physics-Avadhanulu & Kshirsagar, S. Chand
2. A textbook of Engineering Physics-Gaur and Gupta, Dhanpat Rai
Publications
3. Solid State Electronic Devices- B. G. Streetman, Prentice Hall
Publisher
4. Modern Engineering Physics – Vasudeva, S.Chand
5. Physics of Semiconductor Devices S.M. Sze
1.14 WEB LINKS
1. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/disfd.html
2. https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_1.html.
3. https://www.electrical4u.com/conductivity-of-semiconductor/
4. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/Hall.html
5. https://www.elprocus.com/semiconductor-devices-types-and-
applications/
6. https://www.electronicshub.org/types-of-semiconductor-devices/

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