ENGGINEERING PHYSICS

NOTES
BT-201
UNIT-4
LASER
Q.1. What is a laser? Give its type.
What is Laser?
LASER is an abbreviation of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation. Lasers are light beams so powerful that they can travel miles into
the sky, and they can also cut through the surfaces of metals. Theodore H
Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories was the first person to build a
practical laser in 1960. Today lasers find applications in various fields and
there are different types of lasers with numerous applications.
List of Laser Types
Lasers are classified into 6 types based on the types of medium used in
them, and they are:
• Solid-state lasers
• Gas lasers
• Liquid lasers
• Semiconductor lasers
• Chemical lasers
• Metal-vapour lasers
Q.2. Describe the principle of LASER.
Principles of working of a laser

Step-1
When atoms of ground energy state observe the photon from incident
energy. It goes from lower energy or ground energy state two to a higher
energy state but the lifetime of a high energy state is very short that
is 10−8 sec.

Step-2
The atoms cannot stay for a long time in high energy state i.e. E3 and then
the atom goes for non-radiative transition and reach to the metastable state,
where the lifetime of a metastable state is higher than excited state
i.e. 10−3 sec.

Step-3
In a metastable state, Atoms cannot go to a lower energy state or ground
energy state directly. Therefore, These atoms come from a metastable state
to a lower energy state or ground energy state by lasing transition.
Q.3. Differentiate between spontaneous and
stimulated emission.
Q. 4. Explain the construction and working of
Ruby laser with energy level diagram. Also
mention its advantages or disadvantages
Or
Explain any one solid laser.
Ruby laser definition

A ruby laser is a solid-state laser that uses the synthetic ruby crystal as its
laser medium. Ruby laser is the first successful laser developed by Maiman
in 1960.
Ruby laser is one of the few solid-state lasers that produce visible light. It
emits deep red light of wavelength 694.3 nm.

Construction of ruby laser

In a ruby laser, a single crystal of ruby (Al2O3 : Cr3+) in the form of cylinder
acts as a laser medium or active medium. The laser medium (ruby) in the
ruby laser is made of Al2O3 which is doped with small amounts of chromium
ions (Cr3+) 0.05%. The ruby has good thermal properties.

Pump source or energy source in ruby laser

In a ruby laser, population inversion is required to achieve laser emission.

Population inversion is the process of achieving the greater population of
higher energy state than the lower energy state. In order to achieve
population inversion, we need to supply energy to the laser medium (ruby).

In a ruby laser, we use Xenon gas flashtube as the energy source or pump
source. The flashtube supplies energy to the laser medium (ruby). When
lower energy state electrons in the laser medium gain sufficient energy from
the flashtube, they jump into the higher energy state or excited state. The
ends of the cylindrical ruby rod are flat and parallel. The cylindrical ruby rod
is placed between two mirrors. The optical coating is applied to both the
mirrors. At one end of the rod, the mirror is fully silvered whereas, at another
end, the mirror is partially silvered. The fully silvered mirror will completely
reflect the light whereas the partially silvered mirror will reflect most part of
the light but allows a small portion of light through it to produce output laser
light.

Working of ruby laser

The ruby laser is a three level solid-state laser. In a ruby laser, optical
pumping technique is used to supply energy to the laser medium. Optical
pumping is a technique in which light is used as energy source to raise
electrons from lower energy level to the higher energy level.

Consider a ruby laser medium consisting of three energy levels E1, E2,
E3 with N number of electrons.

We assume that the energy levels will be E1 < E2 < E3. The energy level E1 is
known as ground state or lower energy state, the energy level E 2 is known
as metastable state, and the energy level E3 is known as pump state.

Let us assume that initially most of the electrons are in the lower energy state
(E1) and only a tiny number of electrons are in the excited states (E2 and E3)
When light energy is supplied to the laser medium (ruby), the electrons in
the lower energy state or ground state (E1) gains enough energy and jumps
into the pump state (E3).

The lifetime of pump state E3 is very small (10-8 sec) so the electrons in the
pump state do not stay for long period. After a short period, they fall into the
metastable state E2 by releasing radiationless energy. The lifetime of
metastable state E2 is 10-3 sec which is much greater than the lifetime of
pump state E3. Therefore, the electrons reach E2 much faster than they leave
E2. This results in an increase in the number of electrons in the metastable
state E2 and hence population inversion is achieved.

After some period, the electrons in the metastable state E2 falls into the lower
energy state E1 by releasing energy in the form of photons. This is called
spontaneous emission of radiation.

When the emitted photon interacts with the electron in the metastable state,
it forcefully makes that electron fall into the ground state E1. As a result, two
photons are emitted. This is called stimulated emission of radiation.

The light produced within the laser medium will bounce back and forth
between the two mirrors. This stimulates other electrons to fall into the
ground state by releasing light energy. This is called stimulated emission.
Likewise, millions of electrons are stimulated to emit light. Thus, the light gain
is achieved.

The amplified light escapes through the partially reflecting mirror at right side
of laser to produce laser light.

Advantages of Ruby laser:

Some advantages of ruby laser are mentioned below:

1. Ruby laser is very easy to construct and operate.

2. A very strong and intense laser beam.

3. Ruby crystal is hard, durable and it has good thermal conductivity and
coherence length.

4. It is chemically very stable.

Disadvantages or Drawback of Ruby laser:

1. As the limit of laser action is the ground state, it is difficult to maintain

the population inversion. This fact results in ruby laser’s low efficiency.

2. The ruby laser requires high power pumping source.

3. The laser output is not continuous but occurs in the form of pulses of
microsecond duration.

4. The defects due to crystalline imperfection are also present in ruby

laser.
Q. 5. Explain the construction and working of
Nd-YAG laser with energy level diagram.
Or
Explain any one solid laser.
Nd:YAG laser definition

Neodymium-doped Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (Nd: YAG) laser is a solid state

laser in which Nd: YAG is used as a laser medium.

Nd: YAG laser is a four-level laser system, which means that the four energy
levels are involved in laser action. Nd: YAG laser generates laser light
commonly in the near-infrared region of the spectrum at 10,600 A°

Energy source

The energy source or pump source supplies energy to the active medium to
achieve population inversion. In Nd: YAG laser, light energy sources such
as Krypton flashtube are used as energy source to supply energy to the
active medium.

Active medium

The active medium or laser medium of the Nd:YAG laser is made up

crystalline material (Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (YAG)) doped with a chemical
element (neodymium (Nd)). The lower energy state electrons of the
neodymium ions are excited to the higher energy state to provide lasing
action in the active medium.

Optical resonator

The Nd:YAG crystal is placed between two mirrors. One mirror is fully
silvered whereas, another mirror is partially silvered. The mirror, which is fully
silvered, will completely reflect the light. On the other hand, the mirror on the
right which is partially silvered will reflect most part of the light but allows a
small portion of light through it to produce the laser beam.

Working of Nd:YAG laser

Nd: YAG laser is a four-level laser system, which means that the four energy
levels are involved in laser action. The light energy sources such as Krypton
flashtubes are used to supply energy to the active medium.

In Nd:YAG laser, the lower energy state electrons in the neodymium ions are
excited to the higher energy state to achieve population inversion.

Consider a Nd:YAG crystal active medium consisting of four energy levels

E1, E2, E3, and E4 with N number of electrons. Let us assume that the energy
levels will be E1 < E2 <E3 <E4. The energy level E1 is known as ground state,
E2 is the next higher energy state or excited state, E3 is the metastable state
or excited state and E4 is the pump state or excited state. When flashtube or
laser diode supplies light energy to the active medium (Nd:YAG crystal), the
lower energy state (E1) electrons in the neodymium ions gains enough
energy and moves to the pump state or higher energy state E4.
The lifetime of pump state or higher energy state E4 is very small 10-8 sec so
the electrons in the energy state E4 do not stay for long period. After a short
period, the electrons will fall into the next lower energy state or metastable
state E3 by releasing non-radiation energy. The lifetime of metastable state
E3 is high as compared to the lifetime of pump state E4. Therefore, the
electrons reach E3 much faster than they leave E3. This results in an increase
in the number of electrons in the metastable E3 and hence population
inversion is achieved.

After some period, the electrons in the metastable state E 3 will fall into the
next lower energy state E2 by releasing photons or light. The emission of
photons in this manner is called spontaneous emission.

The lifetime of energy state E2 is very small just like the energy state E4.
Therefore, after a short period, the electrons in the energy state E 2 will fall
back to the ground state E1 by releasing radiationless energy.

When photon emitted due to spontaneous emission is interacted with the

other metastable state electron, it stimulates that electron and makes it fall
into the lower energy state by releasing the photon. As a result, two photons
are released. The emission of photons in this manner is called stimulated
emission of radiation.
When these two photons again interacted with the metastable state
electrons, four photons are released. Likewise, millions of photons are
emitted. Thus, optical gain is achieved.
Advantages of Nd:YAG laser
• Low power consumption
• Nd:YAG laser offers high gain.
• Nd:YAG laser has good thermal properties.
• Nd:YAG laser has good mechanical properties.
• The efficiency of Nd:YAG laser is very high as compared to the ruby
laser.
Applications of Nd:YAG laser
Military
Nd:YAG lasers are used in laser rangefinders which uses a laser light to
determine the distance to an object.
Medicine
Nd:YAG lasers are used to remove skin cancers.
Manufacturing
Nd:YAG lasers are used for making a variety of plastics and metals.
Nd:YAG lasers are used for cutting and welding steel.
Q. 6. Explain the construction and working of
He-Ne laser with energy level diagram.
Or
Explain any one gas laser.
Helium-Neon laser definition

Helium-Neon laser is a type of gas laser in which a mixture of helium and

neon gas is used as a gain medium. Helium-Neon laser is also known as He-
Ne laser.

What is helium-neon laser?

The helium-neon laser was the first continuous wave (CW) laser ever
constructed. It was built in 1961 by Ali Javan, at Bell Telephone Laboratories.

Helium-neon lasers are the most widely used gas lasers. These lasers have
many industrial and scientific uses and are often used in laboratory
demonstrations of optics.

The excitation of electrons in the He-Ne gas active medium is achieved by

passing an electric current through the gas.

The helium-neon laser operates at a wavelength of 6328 𝐴°, in the red

portion of the visible spectrum.

Helium-neon laser construction

In ruby lasers and Nd:YAG lasers, the light energy sources such as
flashtubes or laser diodes are used as the pump source. However, in helium-
neon lasers, light energy is not used as the pump source. In helium-neon
lasers, a high voltage DC power supply is used as the pump source. A
high voltage DC supplies electric current through the gas mixture of helium
and neon.
Gain medium (discharge glass tube or glass envelope)

The gain medium of a helium-neon laser is made up of the mixture of

helium and neon gas contained in a glass tube at low pressure. The gas
mixture is mostly comprised of helium gas. Therefore, in order to achieve
population inversion, we need to excite primarily the lower energy state
electrons of the helium atoms.

In He-Ne laser, neon atoms are the active centers and have energy levels
suitable for laser transitions while helium atoms help in exciting neon
atoms.

Electrodes (anode and cathode) are provided in the glass tube to send the
electric current through the gas mixture. These electrodes are connected to
a DC power supply.

Working of helium-neon laser

In order to achieve population inversion, we need to supply energy to the

gain medium. In helium-neon lasers, we use high voltage DC as the pump
source. A high voltage DC produces energetic electrons that travel through
the gas mixture.

The gas mixture in helium-neon laser is mostly comprised of helium atoms.

Therefore, helium atoms observe most of the energy supplied by the high
voltage DC.

When the power is switched on, a high voltage of about 10 kV is applied

across the gas mixture. This power is enough to excite the electrons in the
gas mixture. The electrons produced in the process of discharge are
accelerated between the electrodes (cathode and anode) through the gas
mixture.

In the process of flowing through the gas, the energetic electrons transfer
some of their energy to the helium atoms in the gas. As a result, the lower
energy state electrons of the helium atoms gain enough energy and jumps
into the excited states or metastable states.

The metastable state electrons of the helium atoms cannot return to ground
state by spontaneous emission. However, they can return to ground state
by transferring their energy to the lower energy state electrons of the neon
atoms.

Unlike the solid, a gas can move or flow between the electrodes. Hence,
when the excited electrons of the helium atoms collide with the lower
energy state electrons of the neon atoms, they transfer their energy to the
neon atoms. As a result, the lower energy state electrons of the neon
atoms gain enough energy from the helium atoms and jumps into the
higher energy states or metastable states (E3 and E5) whereas the excited
electrons of the helium atoms will fall into the ground state. Thus, helium
atoms help neon atoms in achieving population inversion.
Likewise, millions of ground state electrons of neon atoms are excited to
the metastable states. The metastable states have the longer lifetime.
Therefore, a large number of electrons will remain in the metastable states
and hence population inversion is achieved.

Advantages of helium-neon laser

• Helium-neon laser emits laser light in the visible portion of the

spectrum.

• High stability

• Low cost

• Operates without damage at higher temperatures

Disadvantages of helium-neon laser
• Low efficiency

• Low gain

• Helium-neon lasers are limited to low power tasks

Applications of helium-neon lasers
• Helium-neon lasers are used in industries.

• Helium-neon lasers are used in scientific instruments.

• Helium-neon lasers are used in the college laboratories.

Q.7. Explain the construction and working of
Co2 laser with energy level diagram.
Or
Explain any one gas laser.
In a molecular gas laser, laser action is achieved by transitions between
vibrational and rotational levels of molecules. Its construction is simple and
the output of this laser is continuous.
In the Co2 molecular gas laser, the transition takes place between the
vibrational states of Carbon dioxide molecules.
Carbon Dioxide Laser: Definition, Principle

Definition

In carbon dioxide laser, Co2 gas molecules are used as the active medium
and population inversion is achieved by the electrical pumping method.

Principle

The active medium is a gas mixture of CO2, N2 and He. The laser transition
takes place between the vibrational states of CO2 molecules.
Energy states of CO2 molecules
Carbon dioxide (Co2) is a symmetric molecule (O=C=O) and it has three
modes of vibration:
• Symmetric stretching.
• Bending.
• Antisymmetric stretching is shown in the figure.
Symmetric stretching mode

In this mode of vibration, carbon atoms are at rest and both oxygen atoms
vibrate simultaneously along the axis of the molecule departing or
approaching the fixed carbon atoms.

Bending mode

In this mode of vibration, oxygen atoms and carbon atoms vibrate

perpendicular to molecular axis.

Asymmetric stretching mode

In this mode of vibration, oxygen atoms and carbon atoms vibrate

asymmetrically, i.e., oxygen atoms move in one direction while carbon atoms
in the other direction.

Construction of Carbon Dioxide Laser

It consists of a tube 260 mm long and 1.5 mm2 in area of cross-section. The
discharge is produced by DC power supply. Tube is filled with CO2, Nitrogen
and Helium gas with the ratio of 1:2:3. The tube is covered with the flow of
water to reduce the heat produced during the laser action.
The maximum power of this laser is about 50 – 60 w/m. CO2 lasers are
widely used in the industries.

Working of Carbon Dioxide Laser

To have a CO2 laser, a mixture of Co2 and N2 in the ratio of about 1:2 is filled
in a gas discharge tube. Also, helium is part of the mixture. Helium is more
than N2 in the mixture. Co2 molecule act as an active or laser medium and N2
molecule help in achieving the population inversion in the same way as
helium is used in He-Ne laser.
When an electric discharge is passed through the tube, the number of
electrons is emitted, which pumps nitrogen molecules to V = 1 state.
In CO2 laser, the energy difference between the vibrational energy levels of
Nitrogen and carbon dioxide is very small ( i.e. about 0.3 eV ) and hence
there are a large number of electrons in the gas discharge tube having the
energy of more than 0.3 eV. The energy levels of CO2 molecules are
shown in the figure.
The vibrational state for N2 is a metastable state. Therefore, it provides a
longer time for the collision between the excited N2 molecules and atom
molecule of Co2 in the ground state.
As a result of this, the Co2 molecules are excited to the energy state E (0,0,1).
Hence, population inversion is achieved as the number of CO 2 molecules in
the energy state E (0,0,1) are much more than the Co 2 molecules in other
vibrational states like E (1,0,0), E (0,0,2), and E (0,1,0).
Transition through stimulated emission process from energy level E (0,0,1)
to the energy level E (1,0,0)and E (0,2,0) give rise to infrared Photons of
wavelength 10.6 µm and 9.6 µm respectively.
The function of adding Helium in the mixture of Co2 and N2 is that Helium
has high thermal conductivity and so helps to conduct heat away to the walls
of the tube keeping CO2 cold.

Advantages of Carbon Dioxide Laser

• The construction of CO2 laser is simple.
• The output of this laser is continuous.
• It has high efficiency.
• It has very high output power.
• The output power can be increased by extending the length of the gas
tube.

Disadvantages of Carbon Dioxide Laser

• The operating temperature plays an important role in determining the
output power of laser.
• Accidental exposure may damage our eyes since it is invisible (infrared
region) to our eyes.

Application of Co2 laser

• Due to the high power of CO 2 laser, it has frequently used in industrial
areas such as for cutting and welding.
• it is used for soft tissue surgery.
• it is used in fabricating.
• used in skin care problems.
Q.8. Discuss the applications of Laser.
Applications of Lasers
Laser is an optical device that generates intense beam of coherent
monochromatic light by stimulated emission of radiation.
Laser light is different from an ordinary light. It has various unique
properties such as coherence, monochromacity, directionality, and high
intensity. Because of these unique properties, lasers are used in various
applications.
The most significant applications of lasers include:

• Lasers in medicine

• Lasers in communications

• Lasers in industries

• Lasers in science and technology

• Lasers in military
Lasers in Medicine
1. Lasers are used to destroy kidney stones.
2. Lasers are used in cancer treatment.
3. Lasers are used for eye treatment.
4. Lasers are used to remove the caries or decayed portion of the teeth.
5. Lasers are used in cosmetic treatments such as skin treatment, hair
removal etc.
Lasers in Communications
1. Laser light is used in optical fiber communications to send information
over large distances with low loss.

2. Laser light is used in underwater communication networks.

3. Lasers are used in space communication, radars and satellites.
Lasers in Industries
1. Lasers are used to cut glass and metal sheets.
2. Lasers are used in electronic industries for trimming the components
of Integrated Circuits (ICs).

3. Lasers are used for heat treatment in the automotive industry.

Lasers in Science and Technology
1. With the help of a laser, it is possible to count the number of atoms in
a substance.

2. Lasers are used to store large amount of information or data in CD-

ROM.

3. Lasers are used to measure the pollutant gases and other

contaminants of the atmosphere.

4. Lasers are used in computer printers.

5. Lasers are used for producing three-dimensional pictures in space
without the use of lens.

6. Lasers are used for detecting earthquakes and underwater nuclear

blasts.

7. Lasers are used for barcode reader in supermarkets.

Lasers in Military
1. Laser range finders are used to determine the distance to an object.
2. Lasers can be used for bomb detector.
3. Lasers are used to damage the missile of enemy.
4. Laser light is used to send signals.
5. Laser is used to calculate the depth of the water.
Q.9. Discuss the Characteristics of Laser.
Characteristics of Laser
Laser light has four unique characteristics that differentiate
it from ordinary light: these are

• Coherence
• Directionality
• Monochromatic
• High intensity
Coherence

The photons emitted from ordinary light sources have

different energies, frequencies, wavelengths, or colors.
Hence, the light waves of ordinary light sources have
many wavelengths. Therefore, photons emitted by an
ordinary light source are out of phase. This light is called
Incoherent light.
In laser, the electron transition occurs in specific time. All
the photons emitted in laser have the same energy,
frequency, or wavelength. Hence, the light waves of laser
light have single wavelength or color. Therefore, the laser
light is called coherent light

The light generated by laser is highly coherent.

Directionality

In conventional light sources (lamp, sodium lamp and

torchlight), photons will travel in random direction.
Therefore, these light sources emit light in all directions.
On the other hand, in laser, all photons will travel in same
direction. Therefore, laser emits light only in one direction.
This is called directionality of laser light. The width of a
laser beam is extremely narrow. Hence, a laser beam can
travel to long distances without spreading.
Monochromatic

Monochromatic light means a light containing a single

color or wavelength. The photons emitted from ordinary
light sources have different energies, frequencies,
wavelengths, or colors. Hence, the light waves of ordinary
light sources have many wavelengths or colors. Therefore,
ordinary light is a mixture of waves having different
frequencies or wavelengths.
On the other hand, in laser, all the emitted photons have
the same energy, frequency, or wavelength. Hence, the
light waves of laser have single wavelength or color.
Therefore, laser light covers a very narrow range of
frequencies or wavelengths.
High Intensity

The laser light has greater intensity when compared to the

ordinary light.
Q.10. What is optical fiber?
An Optical Fiber is a cylindrical fiber of glass which is hair thin size or
any transparent dielectric medium. The fiber which is used for optical
communication is waveguides made of transparent dielectrics.

Main element of Fiber Optics

• Core: It is the central tube of very thin size made of optically
transparent dielectric medium and carries the light transmitter to
receiver and the core diameter may vary from about 5 to 100 micro
meters.
• Cladding: It is outer optical material surrounding the core having
reflecting index lower than core and cladding helps to keep the light
within the core throughout the phenomena of total internal reflection.
Diameter may vary from about 5 to 100 micro meters.
• Sheath or Jacket or or buffer coating: It is a plastic coating that
protects the fiber made of silicon rubber. The typical diameter of the
fiber after the coating is 250-300 micro meter.
•
Q.11. Explain principle and working of a optical
fiber.
Working Principle
The fiber optic works on the principle of total internal reflection. When a Ray
of light is incident on the core of the optical fiber at a small angle, it suffers
refraction and strikes the core cladding interface. As the diameter of the fiber is
very small hence the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle.
Therefore, the ray suffers total internal reflection at the core cladding interface
and strikes the opposite interface. At this interface also the angle of incidence
is greater than the critical angle, so it again suffers total internal reflection.
Thus, the Ray of light reaches the other end of the fiber after suffering repeated
total internal reflection along the length of the fiber. At the other end, the ray
suffers refraction and emerge out the optical fiber without loosing energy.
n2 < n1

Q.12. Explain the types of optical fiber.

Types of Fiber optics
On the basis of the Number of Modes:
• Single-mode fiber: In single-mode fiber, only one type of ray
of light can propagate through the fiber. This type of fiber has
a small core diameter (5um) and high cladding diameter
(70um) and the difference between the refractive index of core
and cladding is very small. There is no dispersion i.e. no
degradation of the signal during traveling through the fiber.
The light is passed through it through a laser diode.

• Multi-mode fiber: Multimode fiber allows a large number of

modes for the light ray traveling through it. The core diameter
is generally (40um) and that of cladding is (70um). The relative
refractive index difference is also greater than single mode
fiber. There is signal degradation due to multimode dispersion.
It is not suitable for long-distance communication due to large
dispersion and attenuation of the signal. There are two
categories on the basis of Multi-mode fiber i.e. Step Index
Fiber and Graded Index Fiber. Basically these are categories
under the types of optical fiber on the basis of Refractive Index
On the basis of Refractive Index:
• Step-index optical fiber: The refractive index of core is
constant. The refractive index of the cladding is also constant.
The rays of light propagate through it in the form of meridional
rays which cross the fiber axis during every reflection at the
core-cladding boundary.

• Graded index optical fiber: In this type of fiber, the core has
a non-uniform refractive index that gradually decreases from
the centre towards the core-cladding interface. The cladding
has a uniform refractive index. The light rays propagate
through it in the form of skew rays or helical rays. it is not cross
the fiber axis at any time.

On the basis of Material Used:

• Plastic Optical Fibres: For transmission of light,
polymethylmethacrylate is used as core material
• Glass Fibres: It is an extremely fine glass fibres, core and
cladding of the optical fibre is made of plastic.

Q.13. State the necessary condition for

stimulated emission and explain the Einstein’s
A and B coefficients.
Q.14. Derive expression for numerical aperture
of an optical fibre.
Consider an optical fibre having a core of refractive index n1 and
cladding of refractive index n2. let the incident light makes an angle
i with the core axis as shown in figure (3). Then the light gets
refracted at an angle θ and fall on the core-cladding interface at an
angle where,
---------------------- (1)

By Snell’s law at the point of entrance of light in to the optical fiber

we get,

-------------------- (2)

Where n0 is refractive index of medium outside the fiber. For air

n0 =1.
When light travels from core to cladding it moves from denser to
rarer medium and so it may be totally reflected back to the core
medium if θ' exceeds the critical angle θ'c. The critical angle is that
angle of incidence in denser medium (n1) for which angle of
refraction become 90°. Using Snell’s laws at core cladding
interface,

or

----------------------- (3)
Therefore, for light to be propagated within the core of optical fiber
as guided wave, the angle of incidence at core-cladding interface
should be greater than θ'c. As i increases, θ increases and
so θ' decreases. Therefore, there is maximum value of angle of
incidence beyond which, it does not propagate rather it is refracted
in to cladding medium ( fig: 3(b)). This maximum value of i say
im is called maximum angle of acceptance and n0 sin im is termed
as the numerical aperture (NA).
From equation(2),

From equation (2)

Therefore,

The significance of NA is that light entering in the cone of semi

vertical angle im only propagate through the fibre. The higher the
value of im or NA more is the light collected for propagation in the
fibre. Numerical aperture is thus considered as a light gathering
capacity of an optical fibre.
Numerical Aperture is defined as the Sine of half of the angle of
fibre’s light acceptance cone. i.e. NA= Sin θa where θa, is called
acceptance cone angle.

Q.15. Write short note on V-number.

The V-number, represented by V, is a dimensionless parameter used in
optical fiber and waveguide technology. It is calculated as the ratio
between the core radius of an optical fiber and its numerical aperture
(NA). The V-number provides valuable information about the fiber's
ability to capture and transmit light efficiently.
The V-number is also called a "normalized frequency" because it
represents the frequency of light propagating through an optical fiber or
waveguide in a normalized or dimensionless form. The V-number, or a
normalized frequency, can be calculated using the formula:
where NA represents the numerical aperture and a denotes the radius

Q.16. Write short note on on pulsed dispersion.

Dispersion in Optical Fibers
There are three types of dispersion: modal, chromatic, and
material.

Modal Dispersion
Modal dispersion refers to the path taken by a ray of light. Many
transmitters emit multiple mode types. Some of the light rays
travel through the fiber while others reflect off of the fiber core’s
boundary, instead traveling along an indirect path on the
waveguide. These constitute the two types of modes: high-
order modes and low-order modes.
• High-order modes enter the fiber at acute or obtuse angles,
and take significantly longer to pass through fiber than low-
order modes.
• Low-order modes enter the fiber directly and pass through it
more quickly.
Modal dispersion can be eliminated by using a single-mode
fiber. These fibers only transmit one mode of light, so the signal
won’t be spread through modal dispersion.

Chromatic Dispersion
Chromatic dispersion results from the emitter’s spectral width,
which determines the number of wavelengths that are
emitted—the smaller the spectral width, the fewer wavelengths.
Longer wavelengths move faster than shorter ones, so they
arrive at the end of the fiber quicker to spread out the signal.
Chromatic dispersion may be decreased by narrowing the
transmitter’s spectral width. A monochromatic emitter has just
a single wavelength, so it does not contribute to chromatic
dispersion.
Chromatic dispersion is important to researchers who design
optical equipment, including cameras, optical microscopes,
and telescopes. The system in such equipment must be
carefully planned—which includes using a combination of
lenses made of different materials with different indices of
refraction—so that the chromatic aberrations are minimized,
resulting in an optimal image.

Material Dispersion
 Material dispersion occurs when the wavelength depends on
the refractive index of the fiber core material. Material
dispersion is a contributing factor to a number of phenomena,
including:
• Waveguide delay dispersion
• Chromatic aberrations in lenses
• Group delay distortion
• Color separation in prisms
• Multimode group delay spread
• Differential mode delay
Metrology manufacturers rely on glass prisms to disperse light
in precision equipment, such as spectrometers.

Q.17. Discuss the uses of optical fiber

The application and uses of optical fibre can be seen in:
• Medical Industry
• Communication
• Defence
• Industries
• Broadcasting
• Lighting and Decorations
• Mechanical Inspections
The application of optical fibres in various fields is given below:
Optical Fibres uses in Medical industry
Because of its extremely thin and flexible nature, it is used in various
instruments to view internal body parts by inserting into hollow spaces
in the body. It is used as lasers during surgeries, endoscopy,
microscopy and biomedical research.
Optical Fibres used in Communication
In the communication system, telecommunication has major uses of
optical fibre cables for transmitting and receiving purposes. It is used in
various networking fields and even increases the speed and accuracy
of the transmission data. Compared to copper wires, fibre optics cables
are lighter, more flexible and carry more data.

Optical Fibres used in Defence Purpose

Fibre optics are used for data transmission in high-level data security
fields of military and aerospace applications. These are used in wirings
in aircraft, hydrophones for SONARs applications.

Optical Fibres are used in Industries

These fibres are used for imaging in hard-to-reach places such as they
are used for safety measures and lighting purposes in automobiles both
in the interior and exterior. They transmit information at lightning speed
and are used in airbags and traction control. They are also used for
research and testing purposes in industries.

Optical Fibres used for Broadcasting

These cables are used to transmit high-definition television signals
which have greater bandwidth and speed. Optical Fibre is cheaper
compared to the same quantity of copper wires. Broadcasting
companies use optical fibres for wiring HDTV, CATV, video-on-demand
and many applications.

Optical Fibre for Lightening and Decorations

By now, we got a fair idea of what is optical fibre and it also gives an
attractive, economical and easy way to illuminate the area and that is
why it is widely used in decorations and Christmas trees.
Optical Fibres used in Mechanical
Inspections
On-site inspection engineers use optical fibres to detect damages and
faults which are at hard-to-reach places. Even plumbers use optical
fibres for the inspection of pipes.