ANALOG AND DIGITAL

COMMUNICATION

COURSE FILE

II/II B.Tech II

SEM

FACULTY-

INCHARGE Dr.
 S.KANNAN

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

AY: 2023-2024
 COURSE FILE
SUBJECT ANALOG AND DIGITAL
COMMUNICATION
ACADEMIC YEAR 2023-2024
REGULATION R18

NAME OF THE FACULTY Dr.S.KANNAN

DEPARTMENT ECE

YEAR & SECTION II & ECE

SUBJECT CODE EC403PC

S.NO TOPIC

1. PEO’S, PO’S ,PSO’S

2 Syllabus Copy

3 Class Time table & Individual Time table

4 Student Roll List

5 Lesson Plan

Unit Wise Lecture Notes

a) Notes of Units

b) Assignment Questions

c) Short and long answer question with Blooms

6
Taxonomy

d) Beyond the syllabus topics and notes

e) Objective Questions

f) PPT’S/NPTEL VIDEOS/any other

7 Student Seminar Topics

8 Previous University Question Papers to practice

9 Sample Internal Examination Question papers with key

10 Course Attendance Register

 1. PEO’S, PO’S, PSO’S

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES:

PEO Program Educational Objectives Statements
No
PEO1 To excel in different fields of electronics and communication as well as in
multidisciplinary areas. This can lead to a new era in developing a good electronic
product
PEO2 To increase the ability and confidence among the students to solve any problem in their
profession by applying mathematical, scientific and engineering methods in a better
and efficient way.
PEO3 To provide a good academic environment to the students which can lead to excellence,
and stress upon the importance of teamwork and good leadership qualities, written
ethical codes and guide lines for lifelong learning needed for a successful professional
career.
PEO4 To provide student with a solid foundation to students in all areas like mathematics,
science and engineering fundamentals required to solve engineering problems, and also
to pursue higher studies.
PEO5 To expose the student to the state of art technology so that the student would be in a
position to take up any assignment after his graduation

PROGRAM OUTCOMES

Engineering knowledge: Applytheknowledgeofmathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.

Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze

complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, naturalsciences, and engineering sciences.

Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering

problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.

Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

research methods including designofexperiments, analysis and interpretation ofdata, and
synthesis ofthe information to provide valid conclusions.
Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities withan understanding of the limitations.
 The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed bythe contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.

Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional

engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.

Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and

responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.

Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member

or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinarysettings.

Communication: Communicate effectivelyoncomplexengineering activities withthe

engineering communityand withsociety at large, suchas, being ableto comprehend
and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations,
and give and receive clear instructions.

Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the

engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinaryenvironments.

Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES:

 PSO1: The ability to absorb and apply fundamental knowledge of core Electronics and
Communication Engineering subjects in the analysis, design, and development of various
types of integrated electronic systems as well as to interpret and synthesize the experimental
data leading to valid conclusions.
 PSO2: Competence in using electronic modern IT tools (both software and hardware) for
the design and analysis of complex electronic systems in furtherance to research activities.
 PSO3: Excellent adaptability to changing work environment, good interpersonal skills as
a leader in a team in appreciation of professional ethics and societal responsibilities.
 2 Syllabus Copy

EC403PC: ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS B.Tech. II Year II Semester L T P C 3 1 0 4

Prerequisite: Probability theory and Stochastic Processes Course Objectives:

 To develop ability to analyze system requirements of analog and digital communication systems.

 To understand the generation, detection of various analog and digital modulation techniques.

 To acquire theoretical knowledge of each block in AM, FM transmitters and receivers.

 To understand the concepts of baseband transmissions.

Course Outcomes: Upon completing this course, the student will be able to

 Analyze and design of various continuous wave and angle modulation and demodulation techniques

 Understand the effect of noise present in continuous wave and angle modulation techniques.

 Attain the knowledge about AM , FM Transmitters and Receivers

 Analyze and design the various Pulse Modulation Techniques.

 Understand the concepts of Digital Modulation Techniques and Baseband transmission.

UNIT - I Amplitude Modulation: Need for modulation, Amplitude Modulation - Time and frequency domain
description, single tone modulation, power relations in AM waves, Generation of AM waves - Switching
modulator, Detection of AM Waves - Envelope detector, DSBSC modulation - time and frequency domain
description, Generation of DSBSC Waves - Balanced Modulators, Coherent detection of DSB-SC Modulated
waves, COSTAS Loop, SSB modulation - time and frequency domain description, frequency discrimination and
Phase discrimination methods for generating SSB, Demodulation of SSB Waves, principle of Vestigial side band
modulation.

UNIT - II Angle Modulation: Basic concepts of Phase Modulation, Frequency Modulation: Single tone
frequency modulation, Spectrum Analysis of Sinusoidal FM Wave using Bessel functions, Narrow band FM,
Wide band FM, Constant Average Power, Transmission bandwidth of FM Wave - Generation of FM Signal-
Armstrong Method, Detection of FM Signal: Balanced slope detector, Phase locked loop, Comparison of FM
and AM., Concept of Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis.

UNIT - III Transmitters: Classification of Transmitters, AM Transmitters, FM Transmitters Receivers: Radio

Receiver - Receiver Types - Tuned radio frequency receiver, Superhetrodyne receiver, RF section and
Characteristics - Frequency changing and tracking, Intermediate frequency, Image frequency, AGC, Amplitude
limiting, FM Receiver, Comparison of AM and FM Receivers.

UNIT - IV Pulse Modulation: Types of Pulse modulation- PAM, PWM and PPM. Comparison of FDM and TDM.
Pulse Code Modulation: PCM Generation and Reconstruction, Quantization Noise, Non-Uniform Quantization
and Companding, DPCM, Adaptive DPCM, DM and Adaptive DM, Noise in PCM and DM.
UNIT - V Digital Modulation Techniques: ASK- Modulator, Coherent ASK Detector, FSK- Modulator,
NonCoherent FSK Detector, BPSK- Modulator, Coherent BPSK Detection. Principles of QPSK, Differential PSK
and QAM. Baseband Transmission and Optimal Reception of Digital Signal: A Baseband Signal Receiver,
Probability of Error, Optimum Receiver, Coherent Reception, ISI, Eye Diagrams.

TEXTBOOKS: 1. Analog and Digital Communications – Simon Haykin, John Wiley, 2005. 2. Electronics
Communication Systems-Fundamentals through Advanced-Wayne Tomasi, 5th Edition, 2009, PHI.

REFERENCE BOOKS: 1. Principles of Communication Systems - Herbert Taub, Donald L Schilling, Goutam Saha,
3 rd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2008. 2. Electronic Communications – Dennis Roddy and John Coolean , 4th Edition ,
PEA, 2004 3. Electronics & Communication System – George Kennedy and Bernard Davis, TMH 2004 4. Analog
and Digital Communication – K. Sam Shanmugam, Willey ,2005
3 Class Time table & Individual Time table
3. Individual Time Table
4. Student List
MALLAREDDY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE
Class: II Year-II Sem B.Tech. ECE-A
Batch: 2021-2022 AY: 2022-2023

MENTOR MENTEE
SNo H.T.NO NAME OF THE STUDENT
1 21S11A0401 ABHIRAM TALLA
2 21S11A0402 AKASH BASHETTY
3 21S11A0403 AKSHAY KUMAR REDDY KUNCHANAGARI
4 21S11A0404 ANJANEYULU KAMMARI
5 21S11A0405 ANKIT RAJ
6 21S11A0406 ASAD PASHA SHAIK
7 21S11A0407 ASHWINI CHETHIPATTI
8 21S11A0408 BHARATH K
9 21S11A0409 BHEESHMA SANDI
10 21S11A0410 CHAITHANYA ANUMANCHINENI
11 21S11A0411 CHANTI BODA
12 21S11A0412 DARSHAN KUMBAM
13 21S11A0413 GANESH VANKUDOTH
14 21S11A0414 GEETA RAGHUJI REDDY
15 21S11A0415 HARIKA SATTI
16 21S11A0416 HASINI BASHETTY
17 21S11A0417 JAGADEESH SANGHISHETTY
18 21S11A0418 JAYA PRAKASH REDDY PANYALA
19 21S11A0419 JEEVANA GATLA
20 21S11A0420 KALYANI JULKAPELLI
21 21S11A0421 MANISHA MULA
22 21S11A0422 MEHAR NIKHIL MANNE
23 21S11A0423 NANDINI MANNE
24 21S11A0424 NITISH REDDY KOTHAKAPU
25 21S11A0425 PAVAN KUMAR MALLAPPAGARI
26 21S11A0426 PRAKASHAM VADAPARTHI
27 21S11A0427 RAHITH KUMAR KANDLAGUNTA
28 21S11A0428 RAJESHWAR J
29 21S11A0429 RANI ANANTHA
30 21S11A0430 REKHA MANGA
31 21S11A0431 REVATHI MEESALA
32 21S11A0432 RISHAB SAKALE
33 21S11A0433 SAI KRISHNA REDDY B
34 21S11A0434 SAI RATNA VEMULA
35 21S11A0435 SAI RITHIK SIBYALA
36 21S11A0436 SAI SRIYA PETTEM
37 21S11A0437 SAI VENKATA KRISHNA MRUDUL RAYANAPATI
38 21S11A0438 SHANKHABRATA ROY
39 21S11A0439 SHARATH CHANDRA REDDY YALLA
40 21S11A0440 SHIVA SAI REDDY SHAGAM
41 21S11A0441 SHIVA SHANKAR BADDULA
42 21S11A0442 SREENIPA NANDELLI
43 21S11A0443 SRIRAM REDDY ANANTHA
44 21S11A0444 SWATHI KASHAPAKA
 45 21S11A0445 SYED FAHAD
46 21S11A0446 TUSHWANTH KARUTURI
47 21S11A0447 VAISHNAVI DEVA
48 21S11A0449 VENKATA NAGA VARSHITHA POLISETTY
49 21S11A0450 VIJAY KUMAR KASAM
50 21S11A0451 VINAY SANGEM
51 21S11A0452 VISHNU VANGARI

MALLAREDDY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

Class: II Year-II Sem B.Tech. ECE-B
Batch: 2021-2022 AY: 2022-2023

MENTOR MENTEE
SNo H.T.NO NAME OF THE STUDENT
1 21S11A0453 AJAY KUMAR REDDY VITTA
2 21S11A0454 AKHILA BHUKYA
3 21S11A0455 AKSHAY GOUD DURGAM
4 21S11A0456 AKSHAY MIRUPALA
5 21S11A0457 ANJANEYULU B
6 21S11A0458 ARJUN VISLAVATH
7 21S11A0459 BHANU SAI NAGENDER PAPPALA
8 21S11A0460 BHARGAVI MANDHUGULA
9 21S11A0461 CHETHAN THEEGALA
10 21S11A0462 DEVI PRIYANKA NARIKALAPA
11 21S11A0463 ESHWAR BOLLAPALLI
12 21S11A0464 ESHWAR VENKATA SATYA SAI VITTANALA
13 21S11A0465 GANGADHAR REDDY CHALLA
14 21S11A0466 JAI SINGH ROTHVAN
15 21S11A0467 JEEVAMRUTHA AKARAPU
16 21S11A0468 KARTHIK KUMAR C
17 21S11A0469 KRISHNA TOLUPUNURI
18 21S11A0470 MAHESH NOMULA
19 21S11A0471 MANI VEERA NAGENDRA DASARI
20 21S11A0472 MANOJ KUMAR VELISHALA
21 21S11A0473 NAGA RAJU RAVULA
22 21S11A0474 NAGARAJU ARUGONDA
23 21S11A0475 NEETHU BOKKA
24 21S11A0476 NIKHITHA GANGALA
25 21S11A0477 PAVAN KUMAR UPUTURI
26 21S11A0478 PAVAN YALKAPALLY
27 21S11A0479 POONAM SAHU
28 21S11A0480 PRAKASH KATLA
29 21S11A0481 PREMKANTH KOMMINENI
30 21S11A0482 RAJENDER VANKUDOTH
31 21S11A0483 RAKESH KRISHNA JAKKA
32 21S11A0484 ROHITH REDDY PULAKANTI
33 21S11A0485 SAI KUMAR REDDY MANDAPATI
34 21S11A0487 SAI PRASAD REDDY AKKENAPALLY
35 21S11A0488 SAICHAND KARRA
36 21S11A0489 SAINADH TEEGALA
37 21S11A0490 SAITEJA KODHATI
38 21S11A0491 SAKETHBABU VARAGANI
39 21S11A0492 SIDDARTHA YADAV THOTLA
40 21S11A0493 SIVA KIRAN AKSHINTALA
 41 21S11A0494 SPANDANA SEEDULA
42 21S11A0495 SRIRAM SINGARAM
43 21S11A0496 SRIVANI GEDDADA
44 21S11A0497 SUDHEER KUMAR TOKALA
45 21S11A0498 TEJA SRI GURRALA
46 21S11A0499 THANU SRI REDDY MALLE
47 21S11A04A0 VAISHNAVI CHEDDE
48 21S11A04A1 VAMSHI KRISHNA AMARAGONDA
49 21S11A04A2 VIGNESH VALAGIRI
50 21S11A04A3 SYED KALEEMULLAH HUSSAIN
51 21S11A04A4 RICHA MIDDE

MALLAREDDY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

Class: II Year-II Sem B.Tech. ECE-C
Batch: 2021-2022 AY: 2022-2023

MENTOR MENTEE
SNo H.T.NO NAME OF THE STUDENT
1 22S15A0401 AJAY SAMMETA
2 22S15A0402 AKHILA BODIGE
3 22S15A0403 AKHILA MANGALI
4 22S15A0404 AMULYA AMBATI
5 22S15A0405 ASHWINI KENGUVA
6 22S15A0406 BHARATH JANIGA
7 22S15A0407 BHARATH KUSAM
8 22S15A0408 CHANDU GOUD BAZARU
9 22S15A0409 DEEPAK GANGONI
10 22S15A0410 GEETHIKA KANDHI
11 22S15A0411 HARITHA KALYANI VOLETI
12 22S15A0412 JAYANTH GORINTA
13 22S15A0413 MADHAVA ERRABOINA
14 22S15A0414 MANASA ALLURI
15 22S15A0415 NAGARAJU VAKKALA
16 22S15A0416 NAVEEN KARANKOT NAGAKAR
17 22S15A0417 NIKHITH GAJAWADA
18 22S15A0418 PRAVEEN KUMAR BOLLA
19 22S15A0419 PRIYAM GOLLACHANNU
20 22S15A0420 RAJESH THOLEM
21 22S15A0421 RAJU PIDUGU
22 22S15A0422 RITHISH REDDY VAKA
23 22S15A0423 ROHITH KUMAR RANGU
24 22S15A0424 SAI BHARATH SEERA
25 22S15A0425 SAI KAMAL POLU DASARI
26 22S15A0426 SAI SRINIVAS KURAPATI
27 22S15A0427 SAI VANI TIRUPATI
28 22S15A0428 SAMPATH KAMERA
29 22S15A0429 SHIVA KUMAR MACHKURI
30 22S15A0430 SHIVA ORSU
31 22S15A0431 SHIVANI ANKENAPALLY
32 22S15A0432 SHIVANI MIRYALA
33 22S15A0433 SHIVANI PADALA
34 22S15A0434 SHRAVANI MEESALA
35 22S15A0435 SHRUTHI KADAVERGU
36 22S15A0436 SRI LEKHA KANDE
37 22S15A0437 SUBRAMANYAM KOMARTI
38 22S15A0438 SUMANTH KAVATI
39 22S15A0439 SUSHIL KUMAR SANDAVENI
40 22S15A0440 SWAPNA JANNE
41 22S15A0441 UDAY KIRAN BETHAPUDI
42 22S15A0442 VENKATESH DASARI
43 22S15A0443 VYSHNAVI GARIPELLI
44 22S15A0444 YEJNESWARA SAI SURYA KIRAN NAKKA
5. Lessson plan

LECTURE PLAN
Name of the Faculty: Dr.S.Kannan Academic Year: 2023-
2024 Course Name: Analog and Digital Communication
Program: B.Tech Branch: ECE
Year/Sem: II-II Section: A,B,C

Course Objectives:
 To develop ability to analyze system requirements of analog and digital
communication systems.
 To understand the generation, detection of various analog and digital modulation techniques.
 To acquire theoretical knowledge of each block in AM, FM transmitters and receivers.
 To understand the concepts of baseband transmissions.
Course Outcomes:
Upon completing this course, the student will be able to
CO1:Analyze and design of various continuous wave and angle modulation and demodulation
techniques
CO2:Understand the effect of noise present in continuous wave and angle modulation techniques.
CO3:Attain the knowledge about AM , FM Transmitters and Receivers
CO4:Analyze and design the various Pulse Modulation Techniques.
CO5:Understand the concepts of Digital Modulation Techniques and Baseband transmission.

No. of Course Progra Referen

Lesso Topic/ Mode of
Uni Date Perio Outco m ce
n Sub Teachin
t ds me Outcom Text
No. Topic g
No. e (PO) Books
Need BLAC
I 1.1 8.03.24 1 K T1
BOAR
for modulation
D
Amplitude BLAC
Modulation K
- Time BOAR
1.2 9.03.24 1 T1
D
and frequency CO1 PO-1
domain
description
,
single BLAC
1.3 10.03.24 1 T1
 K
tone BOAR
modulation D
BLAC
power relations K
1.4 11.03.24 1 T1
in AM waves BOAR
D
BLAC
Generation K
1.5 12.03.24 1 T1
BOAR
of AM waves D
BLACK
Switching BOARD
1.6 14.03.24 1 T
modulator
1
BLACK
Detection of BOARD
1.7 15.03.24 1 T
AM Waves
1
BLACK
Envelope BOARD
1.8 16.03.24 1 T
detector
1
DSBSC BLACK
modulation - BOARD
time and
1.9 17.03.24 1 T
frequency
1
I domain
description

Generation of BLACK
1.10 18.03.2024 1 T
DSBSC Waves BOARD
1
BLACK
Balanced BOARD
1.11 21.03.2024 1 T
Modulators
1
Coherent BLACK
detection of BOARD
1.12 22.03.2024 1 DSB-SC CO-1 PO-2 T
Modulated 1
waves
BLACK
BOARD
1.13 23.03.2024 1 COSTAS Loop T
1
SSB modulation BLACK
- time and BOARD
1.14 24.03.2024 1 frequency TI
domain
description
frequency BLACK
discrimination BOARD
and Phase
T
discrimination
1
methods for
generating SSB
 BLACK
Demodulation BOARD
1.15 25.03.2024 1 T
of SSB Waves
1

principle of BLACK
Vestigial side BOARD
1.16 28.03.2024 1 T
band
1
modulation

Assignment Test
Unit 1
Angle BLACK
Modulation: BOARD
2.2 29.03.24 1 Basic concepts T
of Phase 1
Modulation
30.03.24 Frequency BLACK
Modulation: BOARD
2.3 1 Single tone T
frequency 1
modulation
31.03.24 Spectrum BLACK
Analysis of BOARD
2.4 1 Sinusoidal FM T
II Wave using 1
Bessel functions CO-2 PO-2
01.06.24 Narrow BLACK
2.5 1 band FM BOARD T
1
02.06.24 Wide band FM BLACK
BOARD
2.6 1 T
1
05.06.24 Constant BLACK
2.7 1
Average Power BOARD T
1
06.06.24 Transmission BLACK
2.8 1 bandwidth of BOARD T
FM Wave 1
07.06.2024 Generation of BLACK
2.9 1 FM Signal BOARD T
1
08.06.2024 Armstrong BLACK
2.10 1 Method BOARD T
1
09.06.2024 Detection of BLACK
2.11 1 FM Signal BOARD T
1
10.06.2024 Balanced slope BLACK
2.12 1 detector BOARD T
1
 13.06.2024 Phase locked BLACK
2.13 1 loop BOARD T1

14.06.2024 Comparison of BLACK

2.14 1 FM and AM BOARD T1

15.06.2024 Concept of Pre- BLACK

2.15 1 emphasis and BOARD T1
de-emphasis

Assignment Test Unit 2

16.06.24 Transmitters: BLACK
3.1 1 Classification of BOARD T1
Transmitters
17.06.24 AM BLACK
3.2 1
Transmitters T1
III BOARD
20.06.24 FM BLACK
3.3 1
Transmitters BOARD T1
21.06.24 Receivers: BLACK
Radio Receiver BOARD
3.4 1 T1
- Receiver
Types
22.06.24 Tuned radio BLACK PO-1
3.5 1 frequency BOARD T1
receiver
23.06.24 Superhetrodyne BLACK
receiver, RF BOARD
3.6 1 CO-3 T1
section and
Characteristics
24.06.24 Frequency BLACK
3.7 1 changing and BOARD T1
tracking
27.06.24 Intermediate BLACK
3.8 1 T1
frequency BOARD
28.06.24 AGC BLACK
3.9 1 T1
BOARD
29.06.24 Amplitude BLACK
3.10 1 T1
limiting BOARD
30.06.24 FM Receiver BLACK
3.11 1 T1
BOARD
03.07.24 Comparison of BLACK
3.12 1 AM and FM BOARD T1
Receivers
 BLACK
BOARD

Assignment Test Unit 3

Pulse BLACK
Modulation: BOARD
4.2 04.07.24 1 Types of Pulse T1
modulation

05.07.24 PAM, BLACK

4.3 1 T1
BOARD
06.07.24 PWM and PPM. BLACK
4.4 1 BOARD T1

07.07.24 Comparison of BLACK

4.5 1 FDM and TDM. BOARD T1
PO-6
08.07.24 Pulse Code BLACK
IV Modulation: BOARD CO-4
PCM
4.6 1 T1
Generation and
Reconstruction

10.07.24 Quantization BLACK

Noise, Non- BOARD
4.7 1 Uniform T1
Quantization

11.07.24 Companding BLACK

4.8 1 T1
BOARD
12.07.24 DPCM BLACK
4.9 1
BOARD T1
13.07.24 Adaptive BLACK
4.10 1 DPCM BOARD T1
 14.07.24 DM and BLACK
4.11 1 Adaptive DM, BOARD CO-4 PO-1 T1
DM
25.07.24 Noise in PCM BLACK
4.12 1
and BOARD T1
 Assignment Test Unit 4

Digital BLACK
Modulation BOARD
Techniques:
5.1 01.08.24 1 ASK- T1
Modulator,
Coherent ASK
Detector,
FSK- BLACK
Modulator, BOARD
5.2 02.08.24 1 Non- T1
Coherent FSK
Detector,
BPSK- BLACK PO-3
V
Modulator, BOARD
5.3 03.08.24 1 T1
Coherent BPSK
Detection.
Principles of BLACK
QPSK, BOARD
5.4 04.08.24 1 T1

Differential BLACK
5.5 05.08.24 1 PSK and QAM. BOARD CO-5 T1

Baseband BLACK
Transmission BOARD
and Optimal
Reception of
5.6 08.08.24 1 T1
Digital Signal:
A Baseband
Signal Receiver,

09.08.24 Probability of BLACK

5.7 1 Error, BOARD T1
10.08.24 Optimum BLACK
5.8 1 T1
Receiver, BOARD
11.08.24 Coherent BLACK
5.9 1 T1
Reception, BOARD
16.08.24 ISI, BLACK
5.10 1 T1
BOARD
 25.08.24 Eye Diagrams. BLACK
5.11 1 T1
BOARD
01.09.24 Revision BLACK
5.12 1 T1
BOARD
Assignment Test Unit 5

TEXTBOOKS:
1. Analog and Digital Communications – Simon Haykin, John Wiley, 2005.
2. Electronics Communication Systems-Fundamentals through Advanced-Wayne Tomasi,
5th Edition, 2009, PHI.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Principles of Communication Systems - Herbert Taub, Donald L Schilling, Goutam Saha,
3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2008.
2. Electronic Communications – Dennis Roddy and John Coolean , 4th Edition , PEA, 2004
3. Electronics & Communication System – George Kennedy and Bernard Davis, TMH 2004
4. Analog and Digital Communication – K. Sam Shanmugam, Willey ,2005
6. a)Lecture notes

ANALOG AND
DIGITAL
COMMUNICATIONS

LECTURE NOTES

B.TECH
(II YEAR – II
SEM) (2023-
2024)

Prepared by
Dr.S.KANNAN
(ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR)
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
B.Tech (Electronics & Communication Engineering) R-18

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

II Year B.Tech. ECE- II Sem L/T/P/C
ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
1) To analyze and design various continuous wave Amplitude modulation and
demodulationtechniques.
2) To understand the concept of Angle modulation and demodulation, and the effect of
noiseon it.
3) To attain the knowledge about the functioning of different AM, FM Transmitters
andReceivers.
4) To analyze and design the various Pulse Modulation Techniques (Analog and Digital
Pulse modulation)
5) To understand the concepts of Digital Modulation Technique, Baseband transmission
andOptimum Receiver.

UNIT – I
Amplitude Modulation: Need for modulation, Amplitude Modulation -
Time and frequency domain description, single tone modulation, power
relations in AM waves, Generation of AMwaves -Switching modulator,
Detection of AM Waves - Envelope detector, DSBSC modulation - time
and frequency domain description, Generation of DSBSC Waves -
Balanced Modulators, Coherent detection of DSB-SC Modulated waves,
COSTAS Loop, SSB modulation - time and frequency domain description,
frequency discrimination and Phase discrimination methods for
generating SSB, Demodulation of SSB Waves, Vestigial side band
modulation.

UNIT - II
Angle Modulation: Basic concepts of Phase Modulation, Frequency
Modulation: Single tone Frequency modulation, Narrow band FM, Wide
band FM, Spectrum Analysis of Sinusoidal FM Wave using Bessel
functions, Constant Average Power, Transmission bandwidth of FM Wave
- Generation of FM Signal- Armstrong Method, Direct method- Reactance
Modulator, Detection of FM Signal: Balanced slope detector, Phase
locked loop, Comparison of FM and AM., Concept of Pre-emphasis and
de-emphasis.
UNIT - III
Transmitters: Classification of Transmitters, AM Transmitters, FM
Transmitters Receivers: Radio Receiver - Receiver Types - Tuned radio
frequency receiver, Superhetrodyne receiver, RF section and
Characteristics - Frequency changing and tracking, Intermediate
frequency, Image frequency, AGC, Amplitude limiting, FM Receiver,
Comparison of AM and FM Receivers.

UNIT - IV
Pulse Modulation: Types of Pulse modulation- PAM, PWM and PPM.
Comparison of FDM with TDM.
Pulse Code Modulation: PCM Generation and Reconstruction,
Quantization Noise, Non- Uniform Quantization and Companding, DPCM,
DM and Adaptive DM, Noise in PCM and DM.
UNIT - V
Digital Modulation Techniques: ASK- Modulator, Coherent ASK
Detector, FSK- Modulator and Non-Coherent FSK Detector, FSK
detection using PLL BPSK- Modulator, Coherent BPSK Detection,
Principles of QPSK, Differential PSK and QAM. Baseband Transmission and
Optimal Reception of Digital Signal: A Baseband Signal Receiver, Probability of Error,
Optimum Receiver, ISI, Eye Diagrams

TEXTBOOKS:
1) Analog and Digital Communications – Simon Haykin, John Wiley, 2005.
2) Electronics Communication Systems-Fundamentals through Advanced-Wayne Tomasi,
5th Edition, 2009, PHI.
3) Communication Systems-Simon Haykin, 2nd Edition.

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1) Principles of Communication Systems - Herbert Taub, Donald L Schilling, Goutam Saha,
3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2008.
2) Analog and Digital Communication – K. Sam Shanmugam, Willey, 2005.
COURSE OUTCOMES:
Upon completing this course, the student will be able to
1) Analyze and Design various continuous wave Amplitude modulation and
demodulationtechniques.
2) Understand the concept of Angle modulation and demodulation, and the effect of noise
onit.
3) Attain the knowledge about the functioning of different AM, FM Transmitters and
Receivers.
4) Analyze and design the various Pulse Modulation Techniques (Analog and Digital Pulse
modulation)
5) Understand the concepts of Digital Modulation Technique, Baseband transmission
andOptimum Receiver.
 UNIT-I AMPLITUDE
MODULATION

Introduction to Communication System

Communication is the process by which information is exchanged

between individualsthrough a medium.

Communication can also be defined as the transfer of information from

one point in spaceand time to another point.

The basic block diagram of a communication system is as follows.

 Transmitter: Couples the message into the channel using high frequency signals.
 Channel: The medium used for transmission of signals
 Modulation: It is the process of shifting the frequency spectrum of a signal to
afrequency range in which more efficient transmission can be achieved.
 Receiver: Restores the signal to its original form.
 Demodulation: It is the process of shifting the frequency spectrum back to the
original baseband frequency range and reconstructing the original form.
Modulation:

Modulation is a process that causes a shift in the range of frequencies in a

signal.

• Signals that occupy the same range of frequencies can be separated.

 • Modulation helps in noise immunity, attenuation - depends on the

physical medium.The below figure shows the different kinds of analog modulation

schemes that are available

Modulation is operation performed at the transmitter to achieve efficient and

reliableinformation transmission.

For analog modulation, it is frequency translation method caused by

changing the appropriatequantity in a carrier signal.

It involves two waveforms:

 A modulating signal/baseband signal – represents the message.

 A carrier signal – depends on type of modulation.

• Once thisinformation is received, the low frequency information must be removed from
thehigh frequency carrier. •This process is known as “Demodulation”.

Need for Modulation:

 Baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission over the medium so,
modulation is used to convey (baseband) signals from one place to another.
 Allows frequency translation:
o Frequency Multiplexing
o Reduce the antenna height
o Avoids mixing of signals
o Narrowbanding
  Efficient transmission
 Reduced noise and interference

Types of Modulation:

Three main types of modulations:

Analog Modulation

 Amplitude modulation
Example: Double sideband with carrier (DSB-WC), Double-
sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC), Single sideband suppressed
carrier (SSB-SC), vestigial sideband (VSB)
 Angle modulation (frequency modulation & phase modulation)
Example: Narrow band frequency modulation (NBFM),
Wideband frequency modulation (WBFM), Narrowband phase
modulation (NBPM), Wideband phase modulation (NBPM)

Pulse Modulation

 Carrier is a train of pulses

 Example: Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM), Pulse width modulation (PWM) ,
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

Digital Modulation

 Modulating signal is analog

o Example: Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), Delta Modulation (DM), Adaptive
Delta Modulation (ADM), Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM),
Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation (ADPCM) etc.
 Modulating signal is digital (binary modulation)
o Example: Amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency Shift Keying (FSK), Phase
Shift Keying (PSK) etc

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Amplitude Modulation is the process of changing the amplitude of a
relatively high frequency carrier signal in accordance with the amplitude
of the modulating signal (Information).

The carrier amplitude varied linearly by the modulating signal which

usually consists of a range of audio frequencies. The frequency of the
carrier is not affected.

 Application of AM - Radio broadcasting, TV pictures (video), facsimile transmission

 Frequency range for AM - 535 kHz – 1600 kHz
 Bandwidth - 10 kHz

Various forms of Amplitude Modulation

• Conventional Amplitude Modulation (Alternatively known as Full AM or Double

Sideband Large carrier modulation (DSBLC) /Double Sideband Full Carrier
(DSBFC)

• Double Sideband Suppressed carrier (DSBSC) modulation

• Single Sideband (SSB) modulation

• Vestigial Sideband (VSB) modulation

Time Domain and Frequency Domain Description

It is the process where, the amplitude of the carrier is varied

proportional to that of themessage signal.

Let m (t) be the base-band signal, m (t) ←→ M (ω) and c (t) be the carrier,
c(t)
= Ac cos(ωct). fc is chosen such that fc >> W, where W is the maximum
frequency component of m(t). The amplitude modulated signal is given by

s(t) = Ac [1 + kam(t)]

cos(ωct) Fourier Transform on both sides of the

above equation

S(ω) = π Ac/2 (δ(ω − ωc) + δ(ω + ωc)) + kaAc/ 2 (M(ω − ωc) +

M(ω + ωc)) ka is a constant called amplitude sensitivity.

kam(t) < 1 and it indicates

percentage modulation.

Amplitude modulation in time and frequency domain

Single Tone Modulation:

Consider a modulating wave m(t ) that consists of a single tone or single
frequency component given by
Expanding the equation (2), we get
Frequency Domain characteristics of single tone AM
Power relations in AM waves:

Consider the expression for single tone/sinusoidal AM wave

The ratio of total side band power to the total power in the modulated wave is given
by
 This ratio is called the efficiency of AM system

Generation of AM waves:

Two basic amplitude modulation principles are discussed. They are

square law modulationand switching modulator.

Switching Modulator

Switching
ModulatorThe total input for the diode at any

instant is given by
When the peak amplitude of c(t) is maintained more than that
of information signal, the operation is assumed to be dependent on
only c(t) irrespective of m(t).
When c(t) is positive, v2=v1since the diode is forward biased.
Similarly, whenc(t) is negative, v2=0 since diode is reverse biased.
Based upon above operation, switching response of the diode is
periodic rectangular wave with an amplitude unity and is given by
 The required AM signal centred at fc can be separated using
band pass filter. The lower cut off-frequency for the band pass filter
should be between w and fc-w and the upper cut-off frequency
between fc+w and 2fc. The filter output is given by the equation
Detection of AM waves

Demodulation is the process of recovering the information signal

(base band) from theincoming modulated signal at the receiver. There
are two methods, they are Square law Detector and Envelope Detector

Envelope Detector

It is a simple and highly effective system. This method is used in

most of the commercial AMradio receivers. An envelope detector
is as shown below.
 Envelope Detector

During the positive half cycles of the input signals, the diode D is
forward biased andthe capacitor C charges up rapidly to the peak of the
input signal. When the input signal falls
 below this value, the diode becomes reverse biased and the capacitor C
discharges throughthe load resistor RL.

The discharge process continues until the next positive half cycle.
When the input signal becomes greater than the voltage across the
capacitor, the diode conducts again and theprocess is repeated.

The charge time constant (rf+Rs)C must be short compared with

the carrier period, the capacitor charges rapidly and there by follows the
applied voltage up to the positive peak when the diode is conducting.That
is the charging time constant shall satisfy the condition,

Where ‘W’ is band width of the message signal. The result is that the
capacitor voltage ordetector output is nearly the same as the envelope of
AM wave.

Advantages and Disadvantages of AM:

Advantages of AM:
 Generation and demodulation of AM wave are easy.
 AM systems are cost effective and easy to build.

Disadvantages:
 AM contains unwanted carrier component, hence it requires
moretransmission power.
 The transmission bandwidth is equal to twice the
messagebandwidth.

To overcome these limitations, the conventional AM system is

modified at the cost of increased system complexity. Therefore, three
types of modified AM systems are discussed.

DSBSC (Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier) modulation:

In DSBC modulation, the modulated wave consists of only the upper
and lower
side bands. Transmitted power is saved through the suppression of the
carrier wave, but the channel bandwidth requirement is the same as
before.
SSBSC (Single Side Band Suppressed Carrier) modulation: The
SSBSC modulated wave consists of only the upper side band or lower
side band. SSBSC is suited for transmission of voice signals. It is an
optimum form of modulation in that it requires the minimum transmission
power and minimum channel band width. Disadvantage is increased cost
and complexity.

VSB (Vestigial Side Band) modulation: In VSB, one side band is

completely passedand just a trace or vestige of the other side band is
retained. The required channel bandwidth is therefore in excess of the
message bandwidth by an amount equal to the width of the vestigial side
band. This method is suitable for the transmission of wide band signals.

DSB-SC MODULATION

DSB-SC Time domain and Frequency domain Description:

DSBSC modulators make use of the multiplying action in which

the modulating signal multiplies the carrier wave. In this system, the
carrier component is eliminated and both upper and lower side bands
are transmitted. As the carrier component is suppressed, thepower
required for transmission is less than that of AM.

Consequently, the modulated signal s(t) under goes a phase reversal , whenever
the messagesignal m(t) crosses zero as shown below.
 Fig.1. (a) DSB-SC waveform (b) DSB-SC Frequency Spectrum

The envelope of a DSBSC modulated signal is therefore different

from the messagesignal and the Fourier transform of s(t) is given by
Generation of DSBSC Waves:

Balanced Modulator (Product Modulator)

A balanced modulator consists of two standard amplitude

modulators arranged ina balanced configuration so as to suppress the
carrier wave as shown in the following block diagram. It is assumed that
the AM modulators are identical, except for the sign reversal of the
modulating wave applied to the input of one of them. Thus, the output
ofthe two modulators may be expressed as,

Hence, except for the scaling factor 2ka, the balanced modulator
output is equal tothe product of the modulating wave and the
carrier.

Ring Modulator

Ring modulator is the most widely used product modulator for

generating DSBSC wave andis shown below.
 The four diodes form a ring in which they all point in the same
direction. The diodes are controlled by square wave carrier c(t) of
frequency fc, which is applied longitudinally by means of two center-
tapped transformers. Assuming the diodes are ideal, when the carrier is
positive, the outer diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased whereas the
inner diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased, so that the modulator
multiplies the base band signal m(t) by c(t). When the carrier is negative,
the diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased and D3 and D4 are forward, and
the modulator multiplies the base band signal –m(t) by c(t).

Thus the ring modulator in its ideal form is a product modulator

for square wave carrier and the base band signal m(t). The square wave
carrier can be expanded using Fourier series as

From the above equation it is clear that output from the modulator
consists entirely of modulation products. If the message signal m(t) is
band limited to the frequency band − w < f < w, the output spectrum
consists of side bands centred at fc.

Detection of DSB-SC waves:

Coherent Detection:

The message signal m(t) can be uniquely recovered from a DSBSC

wave s(t) byfirst multiplying s(t) with a locally generated sinusoidal wave
and then low pass filtering the product as shown.
 It is assumed that the local oscillator signal is exactly coherent or
synchronized, in both frequency and phase, with the carrier wave c(t)
used in the product modulator to generate s(t). This method of
demodulation is known as coherent detection or synchronous detection.

Fig.6.Spectrum of output of the product modulator

From the spectrum, it is clear that the unwanted component (first

term in the expression) can be removed by the low-pass filter, provided
that the cut-off frequency of the filter is greater than W but less than
2fc-W. The filter output is given by

The demodulated signal vo(t) is therefore proportional to m(t) when the

phase error ϕ
is constant.

Costas Receiver (Costas Loop):

Costas receiver is a synchronous receiver system, suitable for

demodulating DSBSCwaves. It consists of two coherent detectors
supplied with the same input signal,
 Fig.7. Costas Receiver

The frequency of the local oscillator is adjusted to be the same as

the carrier frequency fc. The detector in the upper path is referred to as
the in-phase coherent detector or I-channel, and that in the lower path is
referred to as the quadrature-phase coherent detector or Q-channel.

These two detector are coupled together to form a negative

feedback system designed in such a way as to maintain the local
oscillator synchronous with the carrier wave. Suppose the local
oscillator signal is of the same phase as the carrier
c(t) = Accos(2πfct) wave used to generate the incoming DSBSC wave.
Then we find that the I-channel output contains the desired demodulated
signal m(t), where as the Q-channel output is zero due to quadrature null
effect of the Q- channel. Suppose that the local oscillator phase drifts
from its proper value by a small angle ϕ radians. The I-channel output
will remain essentially unchanged, but there will be some signal
appearing at the Q-channel output, which is proportional to
sin(𝜙) ≈ 𝜙 for small ϕ .

This Q-channel output will have same polarity as the I-channel

output for one direction of local oscillator phase drift and opposite
polarity for the opposite direction of localoscillator phase drift. Thus by
combining the I-channel and Q-channel outputs in a phase discriminator
(which consists of a multiplier followed by a LPF), a dc control signal is
obtained that automatically corrects for the local phase errors in the
voltage- controlled oscillator.
Introduction of SSB-SC

Standard AM and DSBSC require transmission bandwidth equal to

twice the message bandwidth. In both the cases spectrum contains
two side bands of width W Hz, each. But the upper and lower sides are
uniquely related to each other by the virtue of their symmetry about the
carrier frequency. That is, given the amplitude and phase spectra of
either side band, the other can be uniquely determined. Thus if only one
side band is transmitted, and if both the carrier and the other side band
are suppressed at the transmitter, no information is lost. This kind of
modulation is called SSBSC and spectral comparison between DSBSC
and SSBSC is shown in the figures 1 and 2.

Frequency Domain Description

 side band is transmitted; the resulting SSB modulated wave has the spectrum
shown in figure
6. Similarly, the lower side band is represented in duplicate by the
frequencies below fc and those above -fc and when only the lower side
band is transmitted, the spectrum of the corresponding SSB modulated
wave shown in figure 5.Thus the essential function of the SSB modulation
is to translate the spectrum of the modulating wave, either with or
without inversion, to a new location in the frequency domain. The
advantage of SSB modulation is reduced bandwidth and the
elimination of high power carrier wave. The main disadvantage is the
cost and complexity of its implementation.

Generation of SSB wave:

Frequency discrimination method

Consider the generation of SSB modulated signal containing the

upper side band only. From a practical point of view, the most severe
requirement of SSB generation arises from the unwanted sideband, the
nearest component of which is separated from the desired side band by
twice the lowest frequency component of the message signal. It implies
that, for the generation of an SSB wave to be possible, the message
spectrum must have an energy gap centered at the origin as shown in
figure 7. This requirementis naturally satisfied by voice signals, whose
energy gap is about 600Hz wide.
 The frequency discrimination or filter method of SSB generation
consists of a product modulator, which produces DSBSC signal and a
band-pass filter to extract the desired side band and reject the other and
is shown in the figure 8.

Application of this method requires that the message signal satisfies two
conditions:
1. The message signal m(t) has no low-frequency content. Example: speech, audio, music.
2. The highest frequency component W of the message signal m(t) is much less than the
carrier frequency fc.

Then, under these conditions, the desired side band will appear in a
non- overlapping interval in the spectrum in such a way that it may be
selected by an appropriate filter.

In designing the band pass filter, the following requirements should be

satisfied:1.The pass band of the filter occupies the same frequency
range as the spectrum of the
desired SSB modulated wave.

2. The width of the guard band of the filter, separating the pass
band from the stop band, where the unwanted sideband of the filter
input lies, is twice the lowest frequency component of the message
signal.
 When it is necessary to generate an SSB modulated wave
occupying a frequency bandthat is much higher than that of the message
signal, it becomes very difficult to design an appropriate filter that will
pass the desired side band and reject the other.
In such a situationit is necessary to resort to a multiple-modulation
process so as to ease the filtering
 requirement. This approach is illustrated in the following figure 9 involving two
stages of modulation.

The SSB modulated wave at the first filter output is used as the
modulating wave for the second product modulator, which produces a
DSBSC modulated wave with a spectrum that is symmetrically spaced
about the second carrier frequency f2. The frequency separation
between the side bands of this DSBSC modulated wave is effectively
twice the first carrier frequency f1, thereby permitting the second filter
to remove the unwanted side band.

Time Domain Description:

The time domain description of an SSB wave s(t) in the

canonical form is givenby the equation 1.
 Following the same procedure, we can find the canonical representation
for an SSB
wave
s(t) obtained by transmitting only the lower side band is given by

Phase discrimination method for generating SSB wave:

Time domain description of SSB modulation leads to another

method of SSB generation using the equations 9 or 10. The block
diagram of phase discriminatoris as shown in figure 15.
 The phase discriminator consists of two product modulators I and
Q, supplied with carrier waves in-phase quadrature to each other. The
incoming base band signal m(t) is applied to product modulator I,
producing a DSBSC modulated wave that contains reference phase
sidebands symmetrically spaced about carrier frequency fc.

The Hilbert transform mˆ (t) of m (t) is applied to product

modulator Q, producing a DSBSC modulated that contains side bands
having identical amplitude spectra to those of modulator I, but with
phase spectra such that vector addition or subtraction of the two
modulator outputs results in cancellation of one set of side bands and
reinforcement of the other set.

The use of a plus sign at the summing junction yields an SSB

wave with only the lower side band, whereas the use of a minus sign
yields an SSB wave with only the upper side band. This modulator circuit
is called Hartley modulator.

Demodulation of SSB Waves:

Introduction to Vestigial Side Band Modulation

Vestigial sideband is a type of Amplitude modulation in which one

side band is completely passed along with trace or tail or vestige of the
other side band. VSB is a compromise between SSB and DSBSC
modulation. In SSB, we send only one side band, the Bandwidth required
to send SSB wave is w. SSB is not appropriate way of modulation when
the message signal contains significant components at extremely low
frequencies. To overcome this VSB is used.

Vestigial Side Band (VSB) modulation is another form of an

amplitude- modulated signal in which a part of the unwanted sideband
(called as vestige, hence the name vestigial sideband) is allowed to
appear at the output of VSB transmission system.

The AM signal is passed through a sideband filter before the

transmission of SSB signal. The design of sideband filter can be
simplified to a greater extent if a part of the other sideband is also passed
through it. However, in this process the bandwidth of VSB system is
slightly increased.

Generation of VSB Modulated Signal

VSB signal is generated by first generating a DSB-SC signal and

then passing it through a sideband filter which will pass the wanted
sideband and a part of unwanted sideband. Thus, VSB is so called
because a vestige is added to SSB spectrum.

The below figure depicts functional block diagram of generating VSB

modulated
signal

Figure: Generation of VSB Modulated Signal

A VSB-modulated signal is generated using the frequency

discrimination method, in which firstly a DSB-SC modulated signal is
generated and then passed through a sideband- suppression filter. This
type of filter is a specially-designed bandpass filter that distinguishes
VSB modulation from SSB modulation.the cutoff portion of the frequency
response of this filter around the carrier frequency exhibits odd
symmetry, that is, (fc-fv)≤|f|≤(fc+fv).

Accordingly the bandwidth of the VSB signal is given as

BW=(fm+fv) Hz
 Where fm is the bandwidth of the modulating signal or USB, and fv is
the bandwidth ofvestigial sideband (VSB)

Time domain description of VSB Signal

Mathematically, the VSB modulated signal can be described in

the time- domain as s(t)= m(t) Ac cos(2πfct) ±

mQ(t) Ac sin(2πfct)

where m(t) is the modulating signal, m Q(t) is the component of m(t)

obtained by passing the message signal through a vestigial filter, Ac
cos(2πfct) is the carrier signal, and Ac sin(2πfct) is the 90o phase shift
version of the carrier signal.

The ± sign in the expression corresponds to the transmission of a vestige

of the upper- sideband and lower-sideband respectively. The Quadrature
component is required to partially reduce power in one of the sidebands
of the modulated wave s(t) and retain a vestige of the other sideband as
required.

Frequency domain representation of VSB Signal

Since VSB modulated signal includes a vestige (or trace) of the second
sideband, only a part of the second sideband is retained instead of
completely eliminating it. Therefore, VSB signalcan be generated from
DSB signal followed by VSB filter which is a practical filter.

The below figure shows the DSB signal spectrum, the VSB filter
characteristics, and the resulting output VSB modulated signal spectrum.
Bandwidth Consideration in TV Signals

An important application of VSB modulation technique is in broadcast

television. In commercial TV broadcasting system, there is a basic need
to conserve bandwidth.

 The upper-sideband of the video carrier signal is transmitted upto 4MHz without any
attenuation.
 The lower-sideband of the video carrier signal is transmitted without any attenuation
over the range 0.75 MHz (Double side band transmission) and is entirely attenuated
at1.25MHz (single sideband transmission) and the transition is made from one o
another between 0.75MHz and 1.25 MHz (thus the name vestige sideband)
 The audio signal which accompanies the video signal is transmitted by frequency
modulation method using a carrier signal located 4.5 MHz above the video-carrier
signal.
 The audio signal is frequency modulated on a separate carrier signal with a
frequency deviation of 25 KHz. With an audio bandwidth of 10 KHz, the deviation
ratio is 2.5 and an FM bandwidth of approximately 70 KHz.
 The frequency range of 100 KHz is allowed on each side of the audio-carrier signal
for the audio sidebands.
 One sideband of the video-modulated signal is attenuated so that it does not
interfere with the lower- sideband of the audio carrier.

Advantages of VSB Modulation

VSB transmission system has several advantages which include

 Use of simple filter design

 Less bandwidth as compared to that of DSBSC signal
 As efficient as SSB
 Possibility of transmission of low frequency components of modulating signals

Facts to Know

VSB is mainly used as a standard modulation technique for transmission

of video signals in TV signals in commercial television broadcasting
because the modulating video signal has large bandwidth and high speed
data transmission
Envelope detection of a VSB Wave plus Carrier
 Comparison of AM Techniques:

Applications of different AM systems:

 Amplitude Modulation: AM radio, Short wave radio broadcast

 DSB-SC: Data Modems, Color TV’s color signals.
 SSB: Telephone
 VSB: TV picture signals
 UNIT-II

Introduction
, NGLE
MODULATION

There are two forms of angle modulation that may be distinguished –

phase modulation and frequency modulation

Basic Definitions: Phase Modulation (PM) and Frequency Modulation (FM)

Let θi(t) denote the angle of modulated sinusoidal carrier, which is a

function of the message. The resulting angle-modulated wave is
expressed as

𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒔[𝜽𝒊(𝒕)] … … … … … (𝟏)

Where Ac is the carrier amplitude. A complete oscillation occurs

whenever θi(t) changes by 2π radians. If θi(t) increases monotonically
with time, the average frequency in Hz, over an interval from t to t+∆t, is
given by

𝜽𝒊(𝒕 + ∆𝒕) − 𝜽𝒊(𝒕)

𝒇∆𝒕 (𝒕) = 𝟐𝝅∆𝒕 … … … … … (𝟐)

Thus the instantaneous frequency of the angle-modulated wave s(t) is defined as

𝒇𝒊(𝒕) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇∆𝒕(𝒕)
∆𝒕→𝟎

𝜽𝒊(𝒕 + ∆𝒕) − 𝜽𝒊(𝒕)

𝒇 (𝒕𝒊) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 [
∆𝒕→𝟎 𝟐𝝅∆𝒕 ]
𝟏 𝒅𝜽𝒊(𝒕)
𝒇 (𝒕) = … … … … … . (𝟑)
𝒊 𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝒕
Thus, according to equation (1), the angle modulated wave s(t) is
interpreted as a rotating Phasor of length Ac and angle θi(t). The angular
velocity of such a Phasor is dθi(t)/dt, in accordance with equ (3).In the
simple case of an unmodulated carrier, the angle θi(t) is

𝜽𝒊(𝒕) = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄𝒕 + ∅𝒄
And the corresponding Phasor rotates with a constant angular velocity equal

2πfc.The constant ϕ c is the value of 𝜃𝑖(𝑡) at t=0.

to
There are an infinite number of ways in which the angle 𝜃𝑖(𝑡) may be
varied in some manner with the baseband signal.

But the 2 commonly used methods are Phase modulation and Frequency modulation.

𝜃 𝑖 ( 𝑡)
Phase Modulation (PM) is that form of angle modulation in which the angle

is varied linearly with the baseband signal m(t), as shown by

 𝜽𝒊(𝒕) = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄𝒕 + 𝒌𝒑𝒎(𝒕) … … … … … … . . (𝟒)

The term 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄𝒕 represents the angle of the unmodulated carrier, and the
constant 𝒌𝒑
represents the phase sensitivity of the modulator,

expressed in radians per volt.The phase-modulated wave

s(t) is thus described in time domain by

𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄𝐜𝐨 𝐬[𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄𝒕 + 𝒌𝒑𝒎(𝒕)] … … … … … (𝟓)

Frequency Modulation (FM) is that form of angle modulation in which the instantaneous
frequency fi(t) is varied linearly with the baseband signal m(t), as shown by

𝒇𝒊(𝒕) = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒌𝒇𝒎(𝒕) … … … … … … . (𝟔)

The term fc represents the frequency of the unmodulated carrier, and the
constant
kf
represents the frequency sensitivity of the modulator,

expressed in hertz per volt.Integrating equ.(6) with respect to

time and multiplying the result by 2π, we get

𝒕

𝜽𝒊(𝒕) = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄𝒕 + 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 ∫ 𝒎(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕 … … … … … . (𝟕)

𝟎

Where, for convenience it is assumed that the angle of the unmodulated

carrier wave is zeroat t=0. The frequency modulated wave is therefore
described in the time domain by
𝒕

𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 [ 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄𝒕 + 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 ∫ 𝒎(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕] … … … … … … . . (𝟖)

𝟎

Relationship between PM and FM

Comparing equ (5) with (8) reveals that an FM wave may be regarded as a PM
𝑡
𝑚(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 in place of m(t).
wave in which
∫
the modulating
wave
is 0
A PM wave can be generated by first differentiating m(t) and
then using the result as theinput to a frequency modulator.
 Thus the properties of PM wave can be deduced from those of FM waves and
vice versa

Single tone Frequency modulation

Consider a sinusoidal modulating wave defined by

𝒎(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒎𝐜𝐨 𝐬(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎𝒕) … … … … … (𝟏)

The instantaneous frequency of the resulting FM wave is

𝒇𝒊(𝒕) = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒌𝒇𝑨𝒎𝐜𝐨 𝐬(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎𝒕)

𝒇𝒊(𝒕) = 𝒇𝒄 + ∆𝒇𝐜𝐨 𝐬(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎𝒕) … … … … . . (𝟐)

Where ∆𝒇 = 𝒌𝒇𝑨𝒎................................................(𝟑)

The quantity ∆f is called the frequency deviation, representing the maximum

departure of theinstantaneous frequency of the FM wave from the carrier
frequency fc.

Fundamental characteristic of an FM wave is that the frequency

deviation ∆f is proportionalto the amplitude of the modulating wave,
and is independent of the modulation frequency.

Using equation (2), the angle 𝜃𝑖(𝑡) of the FM wave is obtained as

𝒕

𝜽𝒊(𝒕) = 𝟐𝝅 ∫ 𝒇𝒊(𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝟎

∆𝒇
𝜽 (𝒕) =𝒊 𝟐𝝅𝒇 𝒕 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎𝒕) … … … … … … … (𝟒)
𝒇𝒎
𝒄

The ratio of the frequency deviation ∆f to the modulation frequency fm

is commonly calledthe modulation index of the FM wave.
Modulation index is denoted by β and is given as
∆
𝖰 𝒇 … … … … … … … . (𝟓)
=
And 𝒇
𝒎

𝜽𝒊(𝒕) = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄𝒕 + 𝖰𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎𝒕) … … … … … … … (𝟔)

the FM wave, that is, themaximum departure of the angle 𝜃𝑖(𝑡) from
In equation (6) the parameter β represents the phase deviation of

the angle 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄𝒕 of the unmodulated carrier.

The FM wave itself is given by

 𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬[𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄𝒕 + 𝖰𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎𝒕)] … … … … … … . . (𝟕)

Depending on the value of modulation index β, we may distinguish

two cases of frequency modulation. Narrow-band FM for which β is
small and Wide-band FM for which βis large, both compared to one
radian.
Narrow-Band Frequency modulation

Consider the Single tone FM wave

𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬[𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄𝒕 + 𝖰𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎𝒕)] … … … … . (𝟏)

Expanding this relation we get

Wide band frequency Modulation

The spectrum of the signle-tone FM wave of equation

𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬[𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄𝒕 + 𝖰𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎𝒕)] … … … … . (𝟏)

For an arbitrary vale of the modulation index 𝖰 is to be determined.

An FM wave produced by a sinusoidal modulating wave as in equation (1)

is by itself nonperiodic, unless the carrier frequency fc is an integral
multiple of the modualtion frequency fm. Rewriting the equation in the
form

𝑠˜(𝑡) is periodic function of time,with a fundamental frequency equal to

the modulation frequency fm. 𝑠˜(𝑡) in the form of complex Fourier series
is as follows
Bessel Function of thefirst kind and argument 𝖰. This function is
The integral on the RHS of equation (7) is recognizedasthe nth order

commonly denoted by the symbol Jn(𝖰), that is

an arbitraryvalue of 𝖰.
Equ. (12) is the Fourier series representation of the single-tone FM wave s(t) for

The discrete spectrum of s(t) is obtained by taking the Fourier

transform of both sides ofequation (12); thus

modulation index 𝖰
In the figure below, we have plotted the Bessel function Jn(𝖰) versus the

for different positive integer value of n.

Properties of Bessel Function

Thus using equations (13) through (16) and the curves in the above figure,
following observations are made
Spectrum Analysis of Sinusoidal FM Wave using Bessel functions
 The above figure shows the Discrete amplitude spectra of an FM signal,
normalized with respect to the carrier amplitude, for the case of
sinusoidal modulation of varying frequency and fixed amplitude. Only the
spectra for positive frequencies are shown.

Transmission Bandwidth of FM waves

This relation is known as Carson’s rule.

Generation of FM Signal Direct
methods for FM generation

Reactance modulator:
Indirect Method for WBFM Generation (ARMSTRONG’S Method):
 Effect of frequency multiplication on a NBFM signal

Detection of FM

Signal Balanced

Slope Detector
Phase Locked Loop
PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS NETWORKS

In FM, the noise increases linearly with frequency. By this, the

higher frequency components of message signal are badly affected by
the noise. To solve this problem, we can use a pre-emphasis filter of
transfer function Hp(ƒ) at the transmitter to boost the higherfrequency
components before modulation. Similarly, at the receiver, the de-
emphasis filter of transfer function Hd(ƒ)can be used after demodulator
to attenuate the higher frequency components thereby restoring the
original message signal.
The pre-emphasis network and its frequency response are shown in
Figure (a) and
(b) respectively. Similarly, the counter part for de-emphasis network is shown in Figure
below.
 Figure (a) Pre-emphasis network. (b) Frequency response of pre-emphasis network.

Figure (a) De-emphasis network. (b) Frequency response of De-

emphasis network.

Comparison of AM and FM

S.NO AMPLITUDE MODULATION FREQUENCY MODULATION

1. Band width is very small which is one It requires much wider channel (7 to 15
of the biggest advantage times) as compared to AM.
2. The amplitude of AM signal The amplitude of FM signal is constant
varies depending on modulation and independent of depth of the
index. modulation.
3. Area of reception is large The area of reception is small since it is
limited to line of sight.
4. Transmitters are relatively simple Transmitters are complex and
& cheap. hence expensive.
5. The average power in modulated wave The average power in frequency
is greater than carrier power. This added modulated wave is same as contained
power is provided by modulating source. in un-modulated wave.
6. More susceptible to noise interference Noise can be easily minimized
and has low signal to noise ratio, it is amplitude variations can be eliminated
more difficult to eliminate effects of by using limiter.
noise.
7. It is not possible to operate It is possible to operate several
without interference. independent transmitters on
same frequency.
8. The maximum value of modulation index No restriction is placed on
= 1, otherwise over-modulation modulation index.
would result in distortions.
 UNIT-III
TRANSMITTERS
AND RECEIVERS

Radio Transmitters

There are two approaches in generating an AM signal. These are

known as low and high level modulation. They're easy to identify: A low
level AM transmitter performs the process of modulation near the
beginning of the transmitter. A high level transmitter performsthe
modulation step last, at the last or "final" amplifier stage in the
transmitter. Each method has advantages and disadvantages, and both
are in common use.

Low-Level AM Transmitter:

Fig.1. Low-Level AM Transmitter Block Diagram

There are two signal paths in the transmitter, audio frequency (AF)
and radio frequency (RF). The RF signal is created in the RF carrier
oscillator. At test point A the oscillator's output signal is present. The
output of the carrier oscillator is a fairly small AC voltage, perhaps 200 to
400 mV RMS. The oscillator is a critical stage in any transmitter. It must
produce an accurate and steady frequency. Every radio station is
assigned a different carrier frequency. The dial (or display) of a receiver
displays the carrier frequency. If the oscillator drifts off frequency, the
receiver will be unable to receive the transmitted signal without being
readjusted. Worse yet, if the oscillator drifts onto the frequency being
used by another radio station, interference will occur. Two circuit
techniques are commonly used to stabilize the oscillator, buffering and
voltage regulation.

The buffer amplifier has something to do with buffering or

protecting the oscillator. An oscillator is a little like an engine (with the
speed of the engine being similar to the oscillator's frequency). If the
load on the engine is increased (the engine is asked to do more work),
the engine will respond by slowing down. An oscillator acts in a very
similar fashion. If the current drawn from the oscillator's output is
increased or decreased, the oscillator may speed up or slow down
slightly.
 Buffer amplifier is a relatively low-gain amplifier that follows the
oscillator. It has a constant input impedance (resistance). Therefore, it
always draws the same amount of currentfrom the oscillator. This helps
to prevent "pulling" of the oscillator frequency. The buffer amplifier is
needed because of what's happening "downstream" of the oscillator.
Right after this stage is the modulator. Because the modulator is a
nonlinear amplifier, it may not have a constant input resistance --
especially when information is passing into it. But since there is a buffer
amplifier between the oscillator and modulator, the oscillator sees a
steady load resistance, regardless of what the modulator stage is doing.

Voltage Regulation: An oscillator can also be pulled off frequency

if its power supply voltage isn't held constant. In most transmitters, the
supply voltage to the oscillator is regulated at a constant value. The
regulated voltage value is often between 5 and 9 volts; zener diodes and
three-terminal regulator ICs are commonly used voltage regulators.
Voltage regulation is especially important when a transmitter is being
powered by batteries or an automobile's electrical system. As a battery
discharges, its terminal voltage falls. The DC supply voltage in a car can
be anywhere between 12 and 16 volts, depending on engine RPM and
other electrical load conditions within the vehicle.

Modulator: The stabilized RF carrier signal feeds one input of the

modulator stage. The modulator is a variable-gain (nonlinear) amplifier.
To work, it must have an RF carrier signal and an AF information signal.
In a low-level transmitter, the power levels are low in the oscillator,
buffer, and modulator stages; typically, the modulator output is around
10 mW (700 mV RMS into 50 ohms) or less.

AF Voltage Amplifier: In order for the modulator to function, it

needs an information signal. A microphone is one way of developing the
intelligence signal, however, it only produces a few millivolts of signal.
This simply isn't enough to operate the modulator, so a voltage amplifier
is used to boost the microphone's signal. The signal level at the output of
the AF voltage amplifier is usually at least 1 volt RMS; it is highly
dependent upon the transmitter's design. Notice that the AF amplifier in
the transmitter is only providing a voltage gain, and not necessarily a
current gain for the microphone's signal. The power levels are quite
small at the output of this amplifier; a few mW at best.

RF Power Amplifier: At test point D the modulator has created an

AM signal by impressing the information signal from test point C onto the
stabilized carrier signal from testpoint B at the buffer amplifier output.
This signal (test point D) is a complete AM signal, but has only a few
milliwatts of power. The RF power amplifier is normally built with several
stages. These stages increase both the voltage and current of the AM
signal. We say that power amplification occurs when a circuit provides a
current gain. In order to accurately amplify the tiny AM signal from the
modulator, the RF power amplifier stages must be linear. You might
recall that amplifiers are divided up into "classes," according to the
conduction angle of the active device within. Class A and class B
amplifiers are considered tobe linear amplifiers, so the RF power
amplifier
stages will normally be constructed using one or both of these type of
amplifiers. Therefore, the signal at test point E looks just like that of test
point D; it's just much bigger in voltage and current.
 Antenna Coupler: The antenna coupler is usually part of the last
or final RF power amplifier, and as such, is not really a separate active
stage. It performs no amplification, and has no active devices. It performs
two important jobs: Impedance matching and filtering. For an RF power
amplifier to function correctly, it must be supplied with a load resistance
equal to that for which it was designed.

The antenna coupler also acts as a low-pass filter. This filtering

reduces the amplitudeof harmonic energies that may be present in the
power amplifier's output. (All amplifiers generate harmonic distortion,
even "linear" ones.) For example, the transmitter may be tuned to
operate on 1000 kHz. Because of small nonlinearities in the amplifiers of
the transmitter, the transmitter will also produce harmonic energies on
2000 kHz (2nd harmonic), 3000 kHz (3rd harmonic), and so on. Because
a low- pass filter passes the fundamental frequency (1000 kHz) and
rejects the harmonics, we say that harmonic attenuation has taken place.

High-Level AM Transmitter:

Fig.2. High-Level AM Transmitter Block Diagram

The high-level transmitter of Figure 9 is very similar to the low-

level unit. The RF section begins just like the low-level transmitter; there
is an oscillator and buffer amplifier. The difference in the high level
transmitter is where the modulation takes place. Instead of adding
modulation immediately after buffering, this type of transmitter amplifies
the unmodulated RF carrier signal first. Thus, the signals at points A, B,
and D in Figure 9 all look like unmodulated RF carrier waves. The only
difference is that they become bigger in voltage and current as they
approach test point D.

The modulation process in a high-level transmitter takes place in

the last or final power amplifier. Because of this, an additional audio
amplifier section is needed. In order to modulate an amplifier that is
running at power levels of several watts (or more), comparable power
levels of information are required. Thus, an audio power amplifier is
required. The final power amplifier does double-duty in a high-level
transmitter. First, it provides power gain for the RF carrier signal, just
like the RF
power amplifier did in the low-level transmitter. In addition to
providing power gain, the final PA also performs the task of
 modulation. The final power amplifier in a high-level transmitter usually
operates in class C,which is a highly nonlinear amplifier class.

Comparison:

Low Level Transmitters

 Can produce any kind of modulation; AM, FM, or PM.

 Require linear RF power amplifiers, which reduce DC efficiency and increases
production costs.

High Level Transmitters

 Have better DC efficiency than low-level transmitters, and are very well suited
forbattery operation.
 Are restricted to generating AM modulation only.

FM Transmitter
The FM transmitter is a single transistor circuit. In the
telecommunication, the frequency modulation (FM)transfers the
information by varying the frequency of carrier wave according to the
message signal. Generally, the FM transmitter uses VHF radio
frequencies of 87.5 to 108.0 MHz to transmit & receive the FM signal.
This transmitter accomplishes the most excellent range with less power.
The performance and working of the wireless audio transmitter circuit is
depends on the induction coil & variable capacitor. This article will
explain about the working of the FM transmitter circuit with its
applications.
The FM transmitter is a low power transmitter and it uses FM
waves for transmitting the sound, this transmitter transmits the audio
signals through the carrier wave by the difference of frequency. The
carrier wave frequency is equivalent to the audio signal of the amplitude
and the FM transmitter produce VHF band of 88 to 108MHZ.Plese follow
the below link for: Know all About Power Amplifiers for FM Transmitter
Working of FM Transmitter Circuit

The following circuit diagram shows the FM transmitter circuit and the required electrical
and electronic components for this circuit is the power supply of 9V, resistor, capacitor, trimmer
capacitor, inductor, mic, transmitter, and antenna. Let us consider the microphone to understand
the sound signals and inside the mic there is a presence of capacitive sensor. It produces according
to the vibration to the change of air pressure and the AC signal.

The formation of the oscillating tank circuit can be done through the
transistor of 2N3904 by using the inductor and variable capacitor. The
transistor used in this circuit is an NPN transistor used for general
purpose amplification. If the current is passed at the inductor L1 and
variable capacitor then the tank circuit will oscillate at the resonant
carrier frequency of the FM modulation. The negative feedback will be
the capacitor C2 to the oscillating tank circuit.

To generate the radio frequency carrier waves the FM transmitter

circuit requires anoscillator. The tank circuit is derived from the LC
circuit to store the energy for oscillations.The input audio signal from the
mic penetrated to the base of the transistor, which modulatesthe LC
tank circuit carrier frequency in FM format. The variable capacitor is
used to changethe resonant frequency for fine modification to the FM
frequency band. The modulated signalfrom the antenna is radiated as
radio waves at the FM frequency band and the antenna isnothing but
copper wire of 20cm long and 24 gauge. In this circuit the length of the
antenna should be significant and here you can use the 25-27 inches long
copper wire of the antenna. Application of FM Transmitter
 The FM transmitters are used in the homes like sound systems in halls to fill the
 soundwith the audio source.
 These are also used in the cars and fitness centres.
 The correctional facilities have used in the FM transmitters to reduce the prison noise
incommon areas.
 Advantages of the FM Transmitters

 The FM transmitters are easy to use and the price is low

 The efficiency of the transmitter is very high
 It has a large operating range
 This transmitter will reject the noise signal from an amplitude variation.

Receivers
Introduction to Radio Receivers:

In radio communications, a radio receiver (receiver or simply

radio) is an electronicdevice that receives radio waves and converts the
information carried by them to a usable form.

Types of Receivers:

Tuned Radio Frequency Receiver:

Problems in TRF Receivers:
Fig.2. Block diagram of Super heterodyne Receiver.
Characteristics of Radio Receiver:
Fig.3. Typical Fidelity curve
Blocks in Super heterodyne Receiver:

 Basic principle
o Mixing
o Intermediate frequency of 455 KHz
o Ganged tuning
 RF section
o Tuning circuits – reject interference and reduce noise figure
o Wide band RF amplifier
 Local Oscillator
o 995 KHz to 2105 KHz
o Tracking
 IF amplifier
o Very narrow band width Class A amplifier – selects 455 KHz only
o Provides much of the gain
o Double tuned circuits
 Detector
o RF is filtered to ground
1. RF Amplifier:
 2. Mixer

Separately Excited Mixer:

Fig.5 Separately Excited FET Mixer

Self Excited Mixer:

Fig.6. Self Excited Mixer

3. Tracking
4. Local Oscillator

5. IF Amplifier

Fig.7 Two Stage IF Amplifier

Choice of Intermediate Frequency:

6. Automatic Gain Control

Fig.8. Simple AGC circuit

 Fig.9. Delayed AGC circuit

Fig.10. Response of receiver with various AGC circuits.

FM Receiver:

Fig.11. FM Receiver Block diagram

Comparisons with AM Receivers
Amplitude Limiter:
 UNIT-IV

Introduction:
PULSE
Pulse Modulation
MODULATION

 Carrier is a train of pulses

 Example: Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM), Pulse width modulation (PWM) ,
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

Types of Pulse Modulation:

⚫ The immediate result of sampling is a pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM) signal

⚫ PAM is an analog scheme in which the amplitude of the pulse is proportional to

theamplitude of the signal at the instant of sampling

⚫ Another analog pulse-forming technique is known as pulse-duration modulation

(PDM). This is also known as pulse-width modulation (PWM)

⚫ Pulse-position modulation is closely related to PDM

Pulse Amplitude Modulation:

In PAM, amplitude of pulses is varied in accordance with

instantaneous value of modulating signal.

PAM Generation:

The carrier is in the form of narrow pulses having frequency fc. The
uniform sampling takes place in multiplier to generate PAM signal.
Samples are placed Ts sec away from each other.
 Figure PAM Modulator

⚫ The circuit is simple emitter follower.

⚫ In the absence of the clock signal, the output follows input.
⚫ The modulating signal is applied as the input signal.
⚫ Another input to the base of the transistor is the clock signal.
⚫ The frequency of the clock signal is made equal to the desired carrier pulse train
frequency.
⚫ The amplitude of the clock signal is chosen the high level is at ground level(0v) and
low level at some negative voltage sufficient to bring the transistor in cutoff region.
⚫ When clock is high, circuit operates as emitter follower and the output follows in the
input modulating signal.
⚫ When clock signal is low, transistor is cutoff and output is zero.
⚫ Thus the output is the desired PAM signal.

PAM Demodulator:
⚫ The PAM demodulator circuit which is just an envelope detector followed by a
second order op-amp low pass filter (to have good filtering characteristics) is as
shown below

Figure PAM Demodulator

Pulse Width Modulation:
⚫ In this type, the amplitude is maintained constant but the width of each pulse is
variedin accordance with instantaneous value of the analog signal.

⚫ In PWM information is contained in width variation. This is similar to FM.

⚫ In pulse width modulation (PWM), the width of each pulse is made directly
proportional to the amplitude of the information signal.

Pulse Position Modulation:

⚫ In this type, the sampled waveform has fixed amplitude and width whereas the
position of each pulse is varied as per instantaneous value of the analog signal.

⚫ PPM signal is further modification of a PWM signal.

PPM & PWM Modulator:

Figure PWM & PPM Modulator

• The PPM signal can be generated from PWM signal.

• The PWM pulses obtained at the comparator output are applied to a mono stable
multivibrator which is negative edge triggered.
 • Hence for each trailing edge of PWM signal, the monostable output goes
high. Itremains high for a fixed time decided by its RC components.

• Thus as the trailing edges of the PWM signal keeps shifting in proportion with
themodulating signal, the PPM pulses also keep shifting.

• Therefore all the PPM pulses have the same amplitude and width. The
information isconveyed via changing position of pulses.

Figure PWM & PPM Modulation waveforms

PWM Demodulator:

Figure PWM Demodulator

 ⚫ Transistor T1 works as an inverter.

⚫ During time interval A-B when the PWM signal is high the input to transistor T2 is
low.

⚫ Therefore, during this time interval T2 is cut-off and capacitor C is charged through
an R-C combination.

⚫ During time interval B-C when PWM signal is low, the input to transistor T2 is high,
and it gets saturated.

⚫ The capacitor C discharges rapidly through T2. The collector voltage of T2 during B-C
is low.

⚫ Thus, the waveform at the collector of T2is similar to saw-tooth waveform

whoseenvelope is the modulating signal.

⚫ Passing it through 2nd order op-amp Low Pass Filter, gives demodulated signal.

PPM Demodulator:

Figure PPM Demodulator

⚫ The gaps between the pulses of a PPM signal contain the information regarding
themodulating signal.

⚫ During gap A-B between the pulses the transistor is cut-off and the capacitor C
getscharged through R-C combination.

⚫ During the pulse duration B-C the capacitor discharges through transistor and
thecollector voltage becomes low.

⚫ Thus, waveform across collector is saw-tooth waveform whose envelope is the

modulating signal.

⚫ Passing it through 2nd order op-amp Low Pass Filter, gives demodulated signal.
Multiplexing

Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission

of multiplesignals across a single common communications channel.

Multiplexing is the transmission of analog or digital information from one

or more sources toone or more destination over the same transmission
link.

Although transmissions occur on the same transmitting medium, they do not

necessarilyoccupy the same bandwidth or even occur at the same time.

Frequency Division Multiplexing

Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is a technique of

multiplexing which means combining more than one signal over a shared
medium. In FDM, signals of different frequencies are combined for
concurrent transmission.

In FDM, the total bandwidth is divided to a set of frequency bands

that do not overlap. Each of these bands is a carrier of a different signal
that is generated and modulated by one of the sending devices. The
frequency bands are separated from one another by strips of unused
frequencies called the guard bands, to prevent overlapping of signals.

The modulated signals are combined together using a multiplexer

(MUX) in the sending end. The combined signal is transmitted over the
communication channel, thus allowing multiple independent data streams
to be transmitted simultaneously. At the receiving end, the individual
signals are extracted from the combined signal by the process
ofdemultiplexing (DEMUX).

FDM system Transmitter

 Analog or digital inputs: mi (t); i = 1,2,.....n

 Each input modulates a subcarrier of frequency fi; i=1, 2,....n
 Signals are summed to produce a composite baseband signal denoted as mb(t)
 fi is chosen such that there is no overlap.
Spectrum of composite baseband modulating signal

FDM system Receiver

 The Composite base band signal mb(t) is passed through n band pass
filters withresponse centred on fi
 Each si(t) component is demodulated to recover the original analog/digital data.
Time Division Multiplexing

TDM technique combines time-domain samples from different message

signals (sampled at same rate) and transmits them together across the
same channel.

The multiplexing is performed using a commutator (switch). At the

receiver a decommutator (switch) is used in synchronism with the
commutator to demultiplex the data.

The input signals, all band limited to fm (max) by the LPFs are
sequentially sampled at the transmitter by a commutator.

The Switch makes one complete revolution in Ts,(1/fs) extracting one

sample from each input. Hence the output is a PAM waveform containing
the individual message sampled periodically interlaced in time.

A set of pulses consisting of one sample from each input signal is called a frame.

At the receiver the de-commutator separates the samples and distributes

them to a bank of LPFs, which in turn reconstruct the original messages.

Synchronizing is provided to keep the de-commutator in step with the

commutator.
Elements of Digital Communication Systems

Figure Elements of Digital Communication Systems

1. Information Source and Input Transducer:

The source of information can be analog or digital, e.g.
analog: audio or video signal, digital: like teletype signal. In digital
communication the signal produced by this source is converted into
digital signal which consists of 1′s and 0′s. For this we need a
source encoder.
2. Source Encoder:
In digital communication we convert the signal from source
into digital signal as mentioned above. The point to remember is we
should like to use as few binary digits as possible to represent the
signal. In such a way this efficient representation of the source
output results in little or no redundancy. This sequence of binary
digits is called information sequence.

Source Encoding or Data Compression: the process of efficiently converting

the output of whether analog or digital source into a sequence of binary digits is
known as source encoding.

3. Channel Encoder:
The information sequence is passed through the channel
encoder. The purpose of the channel encoder is to introduce, in
controlled manner, some redundancy in the binary information
sequence that can be used at the receiver to overcome the effects
of noise and interference encountered in the transmission on the
signal through the channel.
For example take k bits of the information sequence and map that k
bits
to unique n bit sequence called code word. The amount of
redundancy introduced is
 measured by the ratio n/k and the reciprocal of this ratio (k/n) is known as rate of
code or code rate.
4. Digital Modulator:
The binary sequence is passed to digital modulator which in
turns convert the sequence into electric signals so that we can
transmit them on channel (we will see channel later). The digital
modulator maps the binary sequences into signal wave forms , for
example if we represent 1 by sin x and 0 by cos x then we will
transmit sinx for 1 and cos x for 0. ( a case similar to BPSK)
5. Channel:
The communication channel is the physical medium that is
used for transmitting signals from transmitter to receiver. In
wireless system, this channel consists of atmosphere , for
traditional telephony, this channel is wired
, there are optical channels, under water acoustic channels etc.We
further discriminate this channels on the basis of their property and
characteristics, like AWGN channel etc.
6. Digital Demodulator:
The digital demodulator processes the channel corrupted
transmitted waveform and reduces the waveform to the sequence
of numbers that represents estimates of the transmitted data
symbols.
7. Channel Decoder:
This sequence of numbers then passed through the channel
decoder which attempts to reconstruct the original information
sequence from the knowledge of the code used by the channel
encoder and the redundancy contained in the received data

Note: The average probability of a bit error at the output of the decoder is
ameasure of the performance of the demodulator – decoder combination.

8. Source Decoder:
At the end, if an analog signal is desired then source decoder
tries to decode the sequence from the knowledge of the encoding
algorithm. And which results in the approximate replica of the
input at the transmitter end.

9. Output Transducer:
Finally we get the desired signal in desired format analog or digital.

Advantages of digital communication

 Can withstand channel noise and distortion much better as long as the noise and
thedistortion are within limits.
 Regenerative repeaters prevent accumulation of noise along the path.
 Digital hardware implementation is flexible.
 Digital signals can be coded to yield extremely low error rates, high fidelity andwell
 as privacy.
 Digital communication is inherently more efficient than analog in realizing the
exchange of SNR for bandwidth.
 It is easier and more efficient to multiplex several digital signals.
  Digital signal storage is relatively easy and inexpensive.
 Reproduction with digital messages is extremely reliable without deterioation.
 The cost of digital hardware continues to halve every two or three years while
performance or capacity doubles over the same time period.

Disadvantages

 TDM digital transmission is not compatible with FDM

 A Digital system requires large bandwidth.

Elements of PCM System

Sampling:

 Process of converting analog signal into discrete signal.

 Sampling is common in all pulse modulation techniques
 The signal is sampled at regular intervals such that each sample is proportional

Analog signal is sampled every 𝑇𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑠, called sampling interval. 𝑓𝑠=1/𝑇𝑆 is

toamplitude of signal at that instant

called sampling rate or sampling frequency.
 𝑓𝑠=2𝑓𝑚 is Min. sampling rate called Nyquist rate. Sampled spectrum (𝜔) is
repeating periodically without overlapping.
Original spectrum is centered at 𝜔=0 and having bandwidth of 𝜔𝑚. Spectrum
can berecovered by passing through low pass filter with cut-off 𝜔𝑚.


 For 𝑓𝑠<2𝑓𝑚 sampled spectrum will overlap and cannot be recovered back. This
is called aliasing.
Sampling methods:

 Ideal – An impulse at each sampling instant.

 Natural – A pulse of Short width with varying amplitude.
 Flat Top – Uses sample and hold, like natural but with single amplitude value.

Fig. 4 Types of Sampling

Sampling of band-pass Signals:

 A band-pass signal of bandwidth 2fm can be completely recovered from

its samples.Min. sampling rate =2×𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

=2×2𝑓𝑚=4𝑓𝑚

 Range of minimum sampling frequencies is in the range of 2×𝐵𝑊 𝑡𝑜 4×𝐵𝑊

Instantaneous Sampling or Impulse Sampling:

 Sampling function is train of spectrum remains constant impulses throughout

frequency range. It is not practical.

Natural sampling:

 The spectrum is weighted by a sinc function.

 Amplitude of high frequency components reduces.

Flat top sampling:

 Here top of the samples remains constant.

 In the spectrum high frequency components are attenuated due sinc pulse roll
off.This is known as Aperture effect.
 If pulse width increases aperture effect is more i.e. more attenuation of high
frequencycomponents.
PCM Generator
Transmission BW in PCM
PCM Receiver

Quantization

 The quantizing of an analog signal is done by discretizing the signal with a number of
quantization levels.
  Quantization is representing the sampled values of the amplitude by a finite set of
levels, which means converting a continuous-amplitude sample into a discrete-time
signal
 Both sampling and quantization result in the loss of information.
 The quality of a Quantizer output depends upon the number of quantization levels
used.
 The discrete amplitudes of the quantized output are called as representation levels or
reconstruction levels.
 The spacing between the two adjacent representation levels is called a quantum or
step-size.
 There are two types of Quantization
o Uniform Quantization
o Non-uniform Quantization.
 The type of quantization in which the quantization levels are uniformly spaced
istermed as a Uniform Quantization.
 The type of quantization in which the quantization levels are unequal and mostly
therelation between them is logarithmic, is termed as a Non-uniform
Quantization.

Uniform Quantization:

• There are two types of uniform quantization.

– Mid-Rise type
– Mid-Tread type.
• The following figures represent the two types of uniform quantization.

• The Mid-Rise type is so called because the origin lies in the middle of a raising part
of the stair-case like graph. The quantization levels in this type are even in number.
• The Mid-tread type is so called because the origin lies in the middle of a tread of
thestair-case like graph. The quantization levels in this type are odd in number.
• Both the mid-rise and mid-tread type of uniform quantizer is symmetric about
theorigin.
Quantization Noise and Signal to Noise ratio in PCM System
Derivation of Maximum Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio for Linear Quantization:
Non-Uniform Quantization:

In non-uniform quantization, the step size is not fixed. It varies

according to certain law or as per input signal amplitude. The following
fig shows the characteristics of Non uniform quantizer.
Companding PCM System

• Non-uniform quantizers are difficult to make and expensive.

• An alternative is to first pass the speech signal through nonlinearity before
quantizingwith a uniform quantizer.
• The nonlinearity causes the signal amplitude to be compressed.
– The input to the quantizer will have a more uniform distribution.
• At the receiver, the signal is expanded by an inverse to the nonlinearity.
• The process of compressing and expanding is called Companding.
Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)

Redundant Information in PCM

Introduction to Delta Modulation
Condition for Slope overload distortion occurrence

Slope overload distortion will occur if

Expression for Signal to Quantization Noise power ratio for Delta Modulation
 UNIT-V
DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES
Introduction

⚫ There are basically two types of transmission of Digital Signals

⚫ Baseband data transmission

⚫ The digital data is transmitted over the channel directly. There is no carrier
orany modulation. Suitable for transmission over short distances.

⚫ Pass band data transmission

⚫ The digital data modulates high frequency sinusoidal carrier. Suitable for
transmission over longer distances.

Types of Pass band Modulation

⚫ The digital data can modulate phase, frequency or amplitude of carrier. This
gives riseto three basic techniques:

⚫ Phase Shift Keying (PSK): The digital data modulates the phase of the carrier.

⚫ Frequency Shift Keying(FSK): The digital data modulates the frequency of the
carrier.

⚫ Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): The digital modulates the amplitude of the carrier.
Digital Modulation Techniques
 Types of Reception for Pass band Transmission

⚫ Two Types of methods for detection of pass band signals

⚫ Coherent (Synchronous) Detection: The local carrier generated at the receiver is

phase locked with the carrier at the transmitter. Hence called Synchronous
Detection.

⚫ Non Coherent (Envelope) Detection: The receiver carrier need not be phase locked
with the transmitter carrier. It is called Envelope detection. It is simple but it has
higher probability of error.

Requirements of Pass band Transmission Scheme

⚫ Maximum Data transmission rate

⚫ Minimum Probability of symbol error

⚫ Minimum Transmitted power

⚫ Minimum Channel Bandwidth

⚫ Maximum resistance to interfering signals

⚫ Minimum circuit complexity

Advantages of Pass band Transmission over Baseband transmission

⚫ Long Distance Transmission

⚫ Analog Channels, can be used for Transmission

⚫ Multiplexing techniques can be used for BW conservation.

⚫ Problems such as ISI and crosstalk are absent

⚫ Pass band transmission can take place over wireless channels also.

Introduction

⚫ In digital modulation, an analog carrier signal is modulated by a discrete signal.

⚫ Digital modulation can be considered as digital-to-analog and the corresponding

demodulation is considered as analog-to-digital conversion.

⚫ In Digital communications, the modulating wave consists of binary data and the
carrier is sinusoidal wave.
Amplitude Shift Keying (On-Off Keying)

⚫ In this there is only one unit energy carrier and it is switched on or off
dependingupon the Binary sequence.

ASK waveform may be represented as

⚫ Signal s(t) contains some complete cycles of carrier frequency (fc).

⚫ Hence the ASK waveform looks like an On-Off of the signal. Therefore it is also
known as the On-Off Keying(OOK)

Generation of ASK Signal

⚫ ASK signal may be generated by simply applying the incoming binary data and the
sinusoidal carrier to the 2 inputs of a product modulator.

⚫ The resulting output will be the ASK waveform.

⚫ Modulation causes the shift of the baseband signal spectrum.
Power Spectral Density (PSD) of Unipolar NRZ:

⚫ The PSD of Unipolar NRZ is given by equ

⚫ PSD of Unipolar NRZ is as shown below

Power Spectral Density (PSD) of ASK

⚫ The PSD of ASK signal is same as that of a baseband on-off signal but shifted in the
frequency domain by ± fc

⚫ It may be noted that 2 impulses occur at ± fc

⚫ The spectrum of ASK shows that it has infinite bandwidth.

⚫ Bandwidth is defined as the BW of an ideal band pass filter centred at fc whose

outputcontains about 95% of the total average power content of the ASK
signal.
⚫ According to this criterion the Bandwidth of ASK signal is approximately 3/T b .
Demodulation of ASK

Coherent Detection of ASK (Integrate and Dump):

⚫ The input to the receiver consists of an ASK signal that is corrupted by AWGN.

⚫ The receiver integrates the product of the signal plus noise & a copy of the noise
free signal over one signal interval.

⚫ Assume that the local signal

is carefully synchronized with the frequency & phase of the carrier

received.

⚫ Output of integrator is compared against a set threshold and at the end of each
signalling interval the receiver makes the decision about which of the 2 signals s1(t)
or s2(t) was present at its input during the signalling interval.

⚫ Errors might occur in the demodulation process because of noise.

⚫ Assume

⚫ The signalling components of the receiver output at the end of the signalling interval
are
⚫ The optimum threshold setting in the receiver is
 ⚫ The receiver decodes the kth transmitted bit as 1 if the output at the kth signalling
interval is greater than Vth , as a ‘0’ otherwise.

Non Coherent ASK detection

This scheme involves detection in the form of ‘rectifier’ & ‘low pass filter’.

⚫ Input to the receiver is

Where

⚫ ni(t) represents represents AWGN with zero mean at the receiver input.

Now if the BPF is assumed to have BW of 2/T b centred at fc , then it passes

the signalcomponent without much distortion.

⚫ The filter output will be

⚫ Where Ak=A when the kth transmitted bit bk=1, and Ak=0, when bk=0
⚫ The above equ can be written in envelope and phase form as
Where nc(t) and ns(t) are the quadrature components of narrow band noise
 Advantages and Disadvantages of ASK

⚫ Advantages

⚫ Simple to design, easy to generate and detect.

⚫ Requires low Bandwidth

⚫ Requires less energy to transmit the binary data.

⚫ Disadvantages

⚫ Susceptible to sudden amplitude variations due to noise and interference.

Applications of ASK

⚫ Mostly used for very low-speed data rate (upto 1200bps) requirements on voice
gradelines in telemetry applications.

⚫ Used to transmit digital data over optical fibre for LED –based optical transmitters.

⚫ Wireless infrared transmissions using a directed beam or diffuse light in

wirelessLANs applications.

Frequency Shift Keying

⚫ In Binary FSK, the frequency of the carrier is shifted according to the binary symbol.
Phase unaffected.

⚫ That is there are 2 different frequency signals according to binary symbols.

⚫ Let there be a frequency shift by Ω.

⚫ If b(t)=1, then

b(t)=0, then

⚫ Hence there is increase or decrease in frequency

by Ω.Conversion table for BFSK representation

 ⚫ FSK equ can be written as

⚫ Hence if symbol ‘1’ is to be transmitted then the carrier frequency will be

⚫ If the symbol ‘0’ is to be transmitted then the carrier frequency will be

⚫ Thus

Generation of BFSK

⚫ PH(t) is same as b(t) and PL(t) is inverted version of b(t)

⚫ PH(t) and PL(t) are Unipolar signals.

⚫ The level shifter converts ‘+1’ to √𝑃𝑠𝑇𝑏 and the zero level is unaffected.
⚫ Further there are product modulators after the level shifters.
 ⚫ The two carrier signals φ1(t) or φ2(t) are used which are orthogonal to each other. fH-
fL=2fb

⚫ The adder then adds the 2 signals coming from the multipliers, but outputs from the
multipliers are not possible at the same time. This is because P H(t) and PL(t) are
complementary to each other.

PSD of BFSK Signal

⚫ BFSK signal s(t) can be written as

⚫ Let us convert those coefficients in bipolar form as follows

⚫ Here 𝑃′ (𝑡) and 𝑃′ (𝑡) will be bipolar, alternating between +1 and -1, and
𝐻 𝐿

complementary.

⚫ Now s(t) can be written as

⚫ The below equation is used to find the PSD of BFSK Signal

PSD and BW of BFSK Signal

Coherent Detection of BFSK Signal

The incoming FSK signal is multiplied by a recovered carrier signal

that has the exact same frequency and phase as the transmitter
reference. However, the two transmitted frequencies (the mark and
space frequencies) are not generally continuous; it is not practical to
reproduce a local reference that is coherent with both of them.
Consequently, coherent FSK detection is seldom used.

Non-coherent Detection of BFSK Signal

The FSK input signal is simultaneously applied to the inputs of both

band pass filters (BPFs) through a power splitter. The respective filter
passes only the mark or only the space frequency on to its respective
envelope detector. The envelope detectors, in turn, indicate the total
power in each pass band, and the comparator responds to the larger of
the two powers. This type of FSK detection is referred to as non coherent
detection.
Detection of BFSK signal using PLL
 Advantages and Disadvantages of FSK

⚫ Advantages

⚫ It is less susceptible to errors than ASK.

⚫ Better noise immunity than ASK.

⚫ Peak frequency offset is constant and always at its maximum.

⚫ The highest fundamental frequency is equal to half the information bit rate.

⚫ Relatively easy to implement.

⚫ Disadvantages

⚫ Not efficient in terms of transmission bandwidth requirement

⚫ It has poorer error performance than PSK or QAM.

Applications of FSK

⚫ Used in low-speed modems (up to 1200bps) over analog voice-band telephone lines.

⚫ Finds applications in pager systems, HF radio tele-type transmission systems,

andLANs using coaxial cables.

Binary Phase Shift Keying

⚫ Principle of BPSK

⚫ In BPSK the binary symbol ‘1’ and ‘0’ modulate the phase of the carrier.

Let the carrier be

‘A’ represents peak of the sinusoidal carrier

When the symbol is changed, then phase of the carrier is changed by

180o Consider, for symbol ‘1’

 ⚫ For symbol ‘0’

⚫ Therefore

⚫ Which implies

Where b(t)=+1; for

symbol ‘1’ b(t)=-1;

for symbol ‘0’

Generation of BPSK

Coherent Reception of BPSK Signal

Operation of the receiver

⚫ Phase shift in the received signal:
 ⚫ The signal undergoes the phase change depending upon the time delay
fromtransmitter to receiver. Let the phase shift be

⚫ Square Law device:

⚫ From the received signal carrier is separated. Since it is coherent detection.

⚫ The output of square law device

⚫ Band Pass Filter:

⚫ The signal is passed through band pass filter with centre frequency 2fc.

⚫ BPF removes DC level and its output is

⚫ Frequency Divider:

⚫ The signal is passed through a frequency divider by 2.

⚫ Therefore at the output of the frequency divider we get the carrier

signalwhose frequency is fc i.e.,

⚫ Synchronous Demodulator:

⚫ The synchronous demodulator multiplies the input signal & the recovered
carrier.

⚫ Therefore at the output of multiplier we get

⚫ Bit synchronizer and integrator:

⚫ The above signal is applied to the bit synchronizer & integrator.

⚫ The integrator integrates the signal over one bit period. The bit
synchronizertakes care of starting and end times of a bit.
⚫ At the end of the bit duration the bit synchronizer closes switch s2
temporarilyconnecting the output of integrator to the decision
device.
 ⚫ Synchronizer then opens s2 and closes s1 temporarily to reset the integrator.
⚫ Output of integrator: In the kth bit interval the output can be written as
The signal is then given to the decision device, which decides whether
transmitted symbolwas zero or one.
PSD of BPSK

⚫ PSD of polar NRZ baseband signal b(t)=+1 or -1

Power spectral density of BPSK signal

Inter channel interference and ISI

⚫ Inter channel interference avoided by filtering.

⚫ Because of filtering phase distortion takes place resulting in ISI.

⚫ ISI can be reduced to some extent by using equalizers at the receiver.

⚫ Equalizers have reverse effect to the filters adverse effects.

Differential Phase Shift Keying

⚫ DPSK is an alternative form of digital modulation where the binary input information
is contained in the difference between two successive signalling elements rather
than the absolute phase.
⚫ With DPSK, it is not necessary to recover a phase coherent carrier.

⚫ Instead a received signalling element is delayed by one signalling element time slot
and then compared with the next received signalling element.
 ⚫ The difference in phase of two signalling elements determines the logic condition
ofthe data.

DPSK Transmitter

The figure (a) below shows a simplified block diagram of a

differential binary phase- shift keying (DBPSK) transmitter. An incoming
information bit is XNORed with the preceding bit prior to entering the
BPSK modulator (balanced modulator).
For the first data bit, there is no preceding bit with which to
compare it. Therefore, an initial reference bit is assumed. Figure (b)
shows the relationship between the input data, the XNOR output data,
and the phase at the output of the balanced modulator. If the initial
reference bit is assumed logic 1, the output from the XNOR circuit is
simply the complement of that shown.
In Figure b, the first data bit is XNORed with the reference bit. If
they are the same, the XNOR output is logic 1; if they are different, the
XNOR output is logic 0. The balanced modulator operates the same as a
conventional BPSK modulator; a logic I produces +sin ωct at the output,
and A logic 0 produces –sin ωct at the output.

DPSK Receiver

The figure below shows the block diagram and timing sequence for
a DBPSK receiver. The received signal is delayed by one bit time,
then compared with the next signalling element in the balanced
modulator. If they are the same, a logic 1(+ voltage) isgenerated. If
they are different, a logic 0 (- voltage) is generated.

If the reference phase is incorrectly assumed, only the first

demodulated bit is in error.Differential encoding can be implemented
with higher-than-binary digital modulation schemes, although the
differential algorithms are much more complicated than for DBPSK.
 Advantages

⚫ Simplicity of circuit.

⚫ No carrier recovery circuit needed.

⚫ BW requirement of DPSK (fb) is reduced compared to that of BPSK (2fb).

Disadvantages

 Disadvantage of DBPSK is, that it requires between 1 dB and 3 dB more signal-to-

noise ratio to achieve the same bit error rate as that of absolute PSK.

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)

This is the phase shift keying technique, in which the sine wave
carrier takes four phase reversals such as 45°, 135°, -45°, and -135°.
If these kinds of techniques are further extended, PSK can be done
by eight or sixteen values also, depending upon the requirement. The
following figure represents the QPSK waveform for two bits input, which
shows the modulated result for different instances of binary inputs.
QPSK transmitter

A block diagram of a QPSK modulator is shown in Figure below.

Two bits (a dibit) are clocked into the bit splitter. After both bits have
been serially inputted, they are simultaneously parallel outputted.
The I bit modulates a carrier that is in phase with the reference
oscillator (hence the name "I" for "in phase" channel), and the Q bit
modulate, a carrier that is 90° out of phase. For a logic 1 = + 1 V and a
logic 0= - 1 V, two phases are possible at the output of the I balanced
modulator (+sin ωct and - sin ωct), and two phases are possible at the
output of the Q balanced modulator (+cos ωct), and (-cos ωct).
When the linear summer combines the two quadrature (90° out of
phase) signals, there are four possible resultant phasors given by these
expressions: + sin ωct
+ cos ωct, + sinωct - cos ωct, -sin ωct + cos ωct, and -sin ωct - cos ωct.

Exampl
e: For the QPSK modulator shown in the above figure, construct the truth
table,
Phasordiagram, and constellation diagram.
Solution:
For a binary data input of Q = 0 and I= 0, the two inputs to the I
balanced modulatorare -1 and sin ωct, and the two inputs to the Q
balanced modulator are -1 and cos ωct.

Consequently, the outputs are

I balanced modulator =(-1)(sin ωct) = -1 sin ωct
Q balanced modulator =(-1)(cos ωct) = -1 cos ωct and the output of the linear
summer is
-1 cos ωct - 1 sin ωct = 1.414 sin (ωct - 135°)
For the remaining dibit codes (01, 10, and 11), the procedure is the
same. The results are shown in figure below.

Figure QPSK modulator: (a) truth table; (b) Phasor diagram; (c) constellation
diagram

In above figures b and c, it can be seen that with QPSK each of the
four possible outputs Phasor has exactly the same amplitude. Therefore,
the binary information must be encoded entirely in the phase of the
output signal

In figure b, it can be seen that the angular separation between any two
adjacent Phasor in QPSK is 90°.Therefore, a QPSK signal can undergo
almost a+45° or -45° shift in phase during transmission and still retain
the correct encoded information when demodulated at the receiver.
The figure below shows the output phase-versus-time relationship
for a QPSK modulator.
QPSK Receiver:

The power splitter directs the input QPSK signal to the I and Q
product detectors and the carrier recovery circuit. The carrier recovery
circuit reproduces the original transmit carrier oscillator signal.
The recovered carrier must be frequency and phase coherent with
the transmit reference carrier. The QPSK signal is demodulated in I and
Q product detectors, which generate the original I and Q data bits. The
outputs of the product detectors are fed to the bit combining circuit,
where they are converted from parallel I and Q data channels to a single
binary output data stream.
The incoming QPSK signal may be any one of the four possible
output phases shown in above figures.

To illustrate the demodulation process, let the incoming QPSK

signal is -sin ωct
+ cosωct. Mathematically, the demodulation process is
as follows.
 The received QPSK signal (-sin ωct + cos ωct) is one of the inputs
to I product detector. The other input is the recovered carrier (sin ωct).
The output of the I product detector is
 Again, the received QPSK signal (-sin ωct + cos ωct) is one of the
inputs to the Q product detector. The other input is the recovered carrier
shifted 90° in phase (cos ωct). The output of the Q product detector is
The demodulated I and Q bits (0 and 1, respectively) correspond to the
constellation diagramand truth table for the QPSK modulator shown in Figure.
 Power spectral Density of QPSK

OPTIMAL RECEPTION OF DIGITAL

SIGNALS
Introduction

⚫ Digital data can be transmitted directly or as is usually the case, by modulating a

carrier.

⚫ The received signal is corrupted by noise and hence there is a finite probability that
the receiver will make an error in determining within each time interval, whether a 1
or 0 is transmitted.

Therefore, an optimal receiver design with an objective to reduce error

probability inreception is must.

Baseband Signal Receiver

⚫ Consider that a binary encoded signal consists of a time sequence of voltage levels
+V or –V

⚫ With noise present, the received signal and noise together will yield sample values
generally different from ± V.

⚫ Assumption: Noise is Gaussian and therefore the noise voltage has probability
density which is entirely symmetrical with respect to zero volts.

⚫ Probability that noise has increased the sample value is same as the probability that
the noise has decreased the sample value.

⚫ If sample value is positive the transmitted level was +V, and if the sample value is
 negative the transmitted level was –V.

⚫ It is possible that at the sampling time the noise voltage may be of magnitude larger
than V and of a polarity opposite to the polarity assigned to the transmitted bit.
 ⚫ The probability of error can be reduced by processing the received signal plus noise
in such a manner that we are then able to find sample time where the sample
voltage dueto the signal is emphasized relative to the sample voltage due to the
noise.

Operation of Baseband signal Receiver

⚫ The operation of the receiver during each bit interval is independent of the
waveform during past and future bit intervals.

⚫ Signal s(t) and white Gaussian noise n(t) of PSD η/2 is presented to an integrator.

⚫ At time t=0+ we require that capacitor C be uncharged which is ensured by a brief

closing of the switch sw1 at time t=0-, thus relieving C of any charge it may have
acquired during the previous interval.
⚫ Sample is taken at the output of the integrator by closing this sampling switch sw2.

⚫ This sample is taken at the end of the bit interval at t=T.

⚫ Signal processing is described by the phrase integrate and dump.

⚫ Dump- refers to the abrupt discharge of the capacitor after each sampling.
Peak Signal to RMS Noise output Voltage Ratio

⚫ The integrator yields an output which is the integral of its input multiplied by 1/RC.
Using τ=RC, we have

⚫ no(T) has a gaussian probability density.

⚫ The output of the integrator, before the sampling switch is

𝒗𝒐(𝒕) = 𝒔𝒐(𝒕) + 𝒏𝒐(𝒕)

The signal output so(t) is a ramp, in each bit interval of duration T.

At the end of the interval the ramp attains the voltage s o(T) which
is +VT/τ or VT/τ, depending on whether the bit is 1 or 0
⚫ At the end of each interval the switch SW1 closes momentarily to discharge
thecapacitor so that so(t) drops to zero.
 ⚫ The noise no(t) also starts each interval with no(0)=0 and has the random value no(T)
at the end of each interval.

⚫ The sampling switch SW2 closes briefly just before the closing of SW1 and hence
reads the voltage

𝒗𝒐(𝑻) = 𝒔𝒐(𝑻) + 𝒏𝒐(𝑻)

⚫ The output signal voltage to be as large as possible in comparison with the noise
voltage.

⚫ Hence a figure of merit of interest is the signal-to-noise ratio

⚫ SNR increases with increasing bit duration T and it depends on V 2T which is the
normalized energy of the bit signal.

⚫ The integrator filters the signal and noise such that the signal voltage increases
linearly with time, while the standard deviation (rms value) of the noise increases
more slowly, as .

⚫ Thus the integrator enhances the signal relative to the noise, and this enhancement
increases with time.

Probability of Error (Pe) of Integrate-and-dump receiver

⚫ Function of a receiver: To distinguish the bit 1 from the bit 0 in the presence of noise.

⚫ A most important characteristic is the probability that an error will be made in such
a determination.

⚫ The probability density of the noise sample no(T) is Gaussian and hence appears as
follows
⚫ The density is therefore given by
⚫ Where 𝝈 𝟐 , the variance, is 𝝈 𝟐 =
̅𝒏̅𝟐̅(𝑻̅̅ ̅)̅ given by equ.

𝒐 𝒐
𝒐
⚫ Suppose that during some bit interval the input signal voltage is held at, say –V.

⚫ Then, at the sample time, the signal sample voltage is

while the noise sample is no(T)

 If no (T) is positive and larger in magnitude than VT/τ, the total sample voltage

𝒗𝒐(𝑻) = 𝒔𝒐(𝑻) + 𝒏𝒐(𝑻)

will be positive. Such a positive sample voltage will result in an error.

 The probability of such a misinterpretation, that is, the probability that

is given by the area of the shaded region in the figure.

⚫ The probability of error is given by

𝒏𝒐(𝑻)
Defining, 𝒙 ≡
⁄√𝟐𝝈𝒐
⚫ , and using above equ.

⚫ In which Es=V2T, is the signal energy of a bit.

⚫ If the signal voltage were held instead at +V during some bit interval, then it is clear
from the symmetry of the situation that the probability of error would again be
givenby Pe in the above equ.
 ⚫ The probability of error Pe is plotted below

⚫ Pe decreases rapidly as Es/η increases. The maximum value of Pe is ½.

⚫ Thus, even if the signal is entirely lost in the noise so that any determination of the
receiver is a sheer guess, the receiver cannot be wrong more than half the time on
the average.

Optimum Receiver for both Baseband and Pass band

⚫ Assume that the received signal is a binary waveform.

⚫ One binary bit is represented by a signal waveform s1(t) which persists for time T,
while the other bit is represented by the waveform s2(t)which also lasts for an
interval.

⚫ In the case of transmission of baseband, s1(t)=+V, while s2(t)=-V.

⚫ For other modulation systems, different waveforms are

transmitted. Example:PSK signalling: s1(t) = A cos

(ωct)

s2(t) = - A cos (ωct)

FSK signalling: s1(t)= A cos (ωc+Ω)t

s2(t)= A cos(ωc-Ω)t

⚫ As shown in the above figure, the input, which s1(t) or s 2(t), is corrupted by the
addition of noise n(t).
⚫ The noise is Gaussian and has a spectral density G(f).
⚫ The signal & noise are filtered and then sampled at the end of each bit interval.

⚫ The output sample is either Vo(T)=s01(T)+n0(T)

(or)

Vo(T)=s02(T)

+n0( T)

⚫ Assumption: Immediately after each sample, every energy storing element in the
filter will be discharged.

⚫ In the absence of noise the output sample would be V0(T)=s01 (T) or s02(T).
⚫ When noise is present to minimize the probability of error one should assume that
s1(t) has been transmitted if V0(T) is closer to s01(T) than to s02(T), similarly it is
assumed s2(t) has been transmitted if V0 (T) is closer to s02(T).

⚫ Decision boundary is midway between s01(T) and s02(T).

⚫ Example: For the Integrate and Dump system, where

dthe decision boundary is

Vo(T)=0.

⚫ Decision boundary is

⚫ Example: Suppose that s01(T) > s02(T) and that s2(t) was transmitted.

⚫ If at the sampling time, the noise n0(T) is positive and larger in magnitude than the
voltage difference,

an error will have been made .

⚫ That is , an error will result if

⚫ Hence the probability of error is

 𝒏𝒐(𝑻)
Substituting, 𝒙 ≡
⁄
√𝟐𝝈𝒐
, then

⚫ The complimentary error function is monotonically decreasing function of its

argument.

⚫ Pe decreases as the difference s01(T)-s02(T) becomes larger and as the rms

noisevoltage σo becomes smaller.

⚫ The optimum filter, then, is the filter which maximizes the ratio

Eye Diagrams/Eye Patterns

The quality of digital transmission systems are evaluated using the bit
error rate. Degradation of quality occurs in each process modulation,
transmission, and detection.

The eye pattern is experimental method that contains all the information
concerning the degradation of quality. Therefore, careful analysis of the
eye pattern is important in analyzingthe degradation mechanism.

Eye patterns can be observed using an oscilloscope. The received wave

is applied to the vertical deflection plates of an oscilloscope and the saw
tooth wave at a rate equal to transmitted symbol rate is applied to the
horizontal deflection plates, resulting display is eye pattern as it
resembles human eye.

• The interior region of eye pattern is called eye opening.

The width of the eye opening defines the time interval
over which the received wave can be sampled without
error from ISI

The optimum sampling time corresponds to the maximum eye opening

The height of the eye opening at a specified sampling

time is a measure of the margin over channel noise.

The sensitivity of the system to timing error is

determined by the rate of closure of the eye as the
sampling time is varied.

Any non linear transmission distortion would reveal

itself in an asymmetric or squinted eye. When the
effected of ISI is excessive, traces from the upper
portion of the eye pattern cross traces from lower
portion with the result that the eye is completely
closed.
5 B) Assignment Questions
ASSIGNMENT NO:1
1. frequency discrimination and Phase discrimination methods for
generating SSB

2. Spectrum Analysis of Sinusoidal FM Wave using Bessel

functions ASSIGNMENT NO:2
1.Describe briefly about the base band signal
2.Explain about the coherent receiver
3.Explain about the eye diagram and ISI
5 C) Short and long answer question with Blooms :

UNIT-1
PART A:

1. Define Noise.
2. List out the types of noise.
3. What is thermal noise?
4. Define Modulation.
5. What is the need for modulation?

PART B:

1. Describe the noise with suitable examples.

2. What is the principle of Amplitude modulation? Derive expression for the
AM wave and draw its spectrum.
3. Describe the frequency analysis of Angle modulated waves. Explain
their Bandwidth requirements.
4. A modulating signal of 2 cos5000t is amplitude modulated over a carrier
signal of 5cos20000t . Derive expressions for the modulation index, LSB and
VSB frequencies, Bandwidth and the ratio of Side Band Power in the Total
Power of AM wave.
5. Explain the principle of Angle Modulation. Derive phase
deviation, Modulation index, frequency deviation and percent
modulation.
UNIT-II

PART A:
1. Name some of the characteristics of data communication.
2. Define Communication standards.
3. What are standards organizations?
4. Draw the block diagram of data communication circuit.
5. Mention the protocols in data communication with example.
PART B:
1. Explain the standard organization for data communication.
2. Explain data communication circuits with suitable examples

UNIT-III

PART A:
1. What are the carrier frequency requirements in a radio transmitter? Explain
2. Draw the block diagram of AM transmitter using low level modulation. Explain
the significance of each block.
3. Draw a neat block diagram of an AM transmitter and explain each block.
4. Why feedback is used in the AM transmitter? Explain its uses. Discuss the
effect of feedback on the performance of AM.

PART B:
1. Draw the block diagram of FM receiver and explain its working
2. Discuss the Threshold effect in FM demodulator.
3. Explain how frequency stability is achieved in FM transmitter.
4. Explain the need for pre-emphasis and de-emphasis in FM systems. How it is
implemented
UNIT-IV

PART A:
1. What are the types in sampling?
2. What are the advantages of PCM over PAM?
3. Draw the block diagram of PAM.
4. Define coding efficiency.
5. Define Quantization.
6. What is the need for error control coding?
7. What is Forward error correction?
PART B:
1. What are the types of sampling? Explain the operation of the sample and hold circuit.

2. Explain the generation and detection of PAM and PWM.

3. Explain the analog pulse communication system with neat diagrams.

4. Draw the block diagram of a PCM transmitter, receiver and explain thefunction of
each block.

5. Compare the various pulse communication systems.

UNIT-V

PART A:
1. Define QAM.
2. What is bandwidth efficiency?
3. What are the advantages of QPSK?
4. Draw the constellation diagram of 8-QAM.
5. Compare ASK and FSK
6.Draw the phasor diagram QPSK.
7. What are the advantages of BPSK?
PART B:
1. Draw and explain the operations of Non-coherent and coherent ASKmodulators.
2. Explain the principle of FSK transmitter and receiver.
3. Compare the various types of digital modulation techniques.
4. Describe with neat diagram, the operation of a QPSK modulator.Draw its
phasor and constellation diagram.
5. Explain the bandwidth considerations of 8-PSK system.
6. What is carrier recovery? Discuss how carrier recovery is achieved by
thesquaring loop and Costas loop circuits.

6 d: Beyond the syllabus topics and notes

UNIT-1
Signals
The signal is an electromagnetic wave that carries information
from one point to another. It can travel through different
mediums, such as air, vacuum, water, and solid. In
electronics, the signal is defined as a current, voltage, or
wave carrying information and traveling long distances. The
speed of a signal wave is equal to the speed of light.

There are two types of signals, analog and digital. Analog refers
to the data transmission in analog or continuous form, while
digital refers to the data transmission in the form of bits. The bits
are represented by 0 (LOW) and 1 (HIGH).
Analog signals
Analog signals are continuous time-varying signals. It means that
these signals are the function of time.

Or

An Analog signal is a signal whose characteristics, such as

voltage, amplitude, or frequency, vary with time. The common
shape of an analog signal is the sinusoidal wave. It is shown
below:

Examples of analog signals are electrical signals, light signals,

speech signals, etc. Radio signals are also categorized as analog
signals. Every signal requires a medium to propagation. For
example,

Electrical signals require cables to propagate from one place to another.

Speech signals or voice requires free space to propagate. We can

also say that speech signal uses air as a propagation medium.
But, noise and distortion in analog signals during transmission
are greater than digital signals.

Example: The distance of a car travelling with constant time

with a specific time can be considered as an example of an
analog signal. The graph representing will be an inclined line, as
shown below:
It is continuous in nature.

Types of analog signals

A signal is a type of energy that carries information, like an
electrical signal. It is electrical energy that carries information
from one source to the other. The analog signals are categorized
as periodic signals and non-periodic signals.

Periodic signals

An analog signal that repeats over a period of time is known as

the periodic signal, such as sine wave and cosine wave. Periodic
signals can be easily represented using mathematical equations.
The cosine wave is shown below:

Aperiodic signals

An analog signal that does not repeat over a period of time is

known as an Aperiodic signal, such as noise signals. It is a
continuous signal but not of the repeated pattern. It isn't easy to
represent an aperiodic signal using mathematical equations.

An example of the aperiodic analog signal is shown below:

Digital Signal
Digital signals are the signal that represents the data in the form
of discrete values. It takes only two values 0 and 1, which is
known as bits. The data is transmitted in the form of these bits.
For example,

01000110

It is an 8-bit or 1 byte data.

A common example of the digital signal is shown below:

Let's consider another example of a digital signal.

Example: The average marks of the 30 students in a classroom

in five subjects can be considered as an example of a digital
signal. The graph is shown below:
Types of Digital Signals
Digital signals are also categorized as periodic signals and
non-periodic signals.

Periodic signals

A digital signal that repeats over a period of time is known as

periodic signals, such as square wave.

The square wave is shown below:

Aperiodic signals

A digital signal that does not repeat over a period of time is

known as an Aperiodic signal. It is also a discrete signal, but not
of repeated pattern.

A common example of the Aperiodic digital signal is shown below:

Analog Communication System
The analog communication system refers to a model that helps
the data to transmit from one end to the other. It combines
elements that work together to establish a network between the
sender and receiver. It consists of transducers, transmitter,
channel, and receiver. The function of transducers is to convert
one form of energy to the other. The channel acts as a medium
to transmit electrical information from the transmitter to the
receiver.

The block diagram of an analog communication system is shown below:

Let's discuss the function of each component in detail.
Input transducer
The input transducer converts the information in the message
signal into the electrical energy suitable for transmission. The
sources of information are audio, television, computers, etc.

The frequency range of speech signal is from 300Hz to

3000Hz. The frequency of video signals is 4.2M Hz.

The frequency range of television is 0 Hz to 6000K Hz.

The output of the input transducer in fed to the transmitter.

Transmitter
The transmitter converts the electrical signal into a form suitable
for transmission for the channel. It performs modulation by
superimposing the message signal on the high-frequency
carrier signal. Thus, different channels have different types of the
transmitter. If the channel's characteristic varies, the transmitter
must adjust itself to maintain the desired range for effective
communication.

The original signal is known as the message signal or the

baseband signal. Transmitter also performs multiplexing, i.e.,
simultaneous transmission of several signals.

Communication channel
Communication channel is a medium to transmit the electrical
signal from transmitter to the receiver. The communication can
be broadcast or point to point. Broadcast refers to a single
sender and multiple receivers, such as radio. Point to point
communication refers to the communication between a single
sender and a single receiver, such as a telephone. The essential
parameter for suitable transmission is bandwidth. The greater
the bandwidth, the better will be the transmission.

The communication channel is further categorized as:

o Wired channel
o Wireless channel
Wired channel

The examples of wired channel are twisted pair cables,

waveguide, cables, and optical fiber.

Twisted pair cables: These are the two conducting cables

twisted to improve the transmission ability. The twist in the two
conductors couples the electric or magnetic fields and prevents
the noise interference in the channel. It is commonly used for
wire shielding to prevent the data from external noise.

Waveguides: The waveguides can transmits the

electromagnetic waves without any energy less or minimal loss.
It is commonly used in radar and microwave communication.

Optical fiber: An optical fiber is a transmission fiber made up of

plastic or glass. It can transmit the data upto hundreds of
kilometers without affecting the signal's quality. The
transmission is based on TIR (Total Internal Reflection). The
diameter of the fiber is as small as the human hair.

Wireless channel

It is the communication in the form of EM (Electromagnetic

waves) from one antenna to the other in space. The transmission
depends on the frequency of the EM waves.

Interference factors
The interference in the channel is termed as noise and attenuation.

Attenuation is defined as the loss in the strength of the signal.

It is also known as distortion. The attenuation is caused by the
passive components in the communication system, such as
cables and connectors. It is low in optical fiber as compared to
other types of media.

Noise is a serious factor in the communication system. It is

defined as any unwanted interference in the signal during the
transmission. Noise is categorized as:

o Internal Noise
o External Noise
Internal Noise

The interference that occurs during the signal transmission

inside the communication system is known as internal noise.
Examples of internal noise are thermal noise, shot noise, etc.
Internal noise can also arise from the recombination of the
carriers (electrons and holes).

External Noise

The interference that occurs outside the communication system

is known as external noise. The examples of external noise are
lighting, ignition, electrical switching, etc.

Receiver
The receiver receives information from the channel. It extracts
the necessary information from the signal required by the output
transducer. The receiver performs the opposite of
modulation and multiplexing, i.e., demodulation and
demultiplexing. It also amplifies and removes noise from the
signal.

Output transducer
The output transducer works reversely as that of the input
transducer. It converts the electrical energy into the original
signal. We can also say that it makes the information available
understandable to the target. Examples of output transducers
are loudspeakers, motors, LEDs, etc.

Both the input and output transducers are important because

they convert the signal suitable for transmission and increase the
signal's speed.

The loudspeakers convert the electrical energy to

sound. The motors convert the electrical energy

into motion.

The LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) convert the electrical energy to

light energy.

Some channel also uses amplifiers or filters to remove the noise

or distortion from the signal. The noise present in the signal can
affect the signal's quality. Hence, it's essential to use such
components in the circuit.
Function of the analog communication
system
We have already discussed about each component in detail. Let's
discuss how the data from one end through the transducer is
transmitted to the receiving end. It makes the data available to
the receiver without any noise or distortion. Here, we will discuss
an example of the speech signal.

The information first reaches the input transducer. It converts

the speech signal to the electrical signal. It is because the
communication system can only allow the electrical energy to
pass through the system. The electrical signal is further sent to
the transmitter. It improves the characteristics of the received
signal by modulation and converts it to the suitable form for the
channel. The information now travels on the channel through
different wired or wireless media. After travelling the desired
distance, the signal reaches the receiver. It demodulated the
signal to recover the original message signal, which is last send
to the output transducer. The output transducer converts the
electrical signal back to the speech signal.

Speech plays a major role in human voice, communication

through mobile phones, video, etc. But, the back noise in a
system is considered as inference and needs to be eliminated
from the system. For this, effective filters or amplifiers are used.

Analog vs. Digital

The primary differences between the two communications are
that analog communication uses analog signals, which are
continuous time varying signals. The digital communication uses
digital signals, which are present in discrete form.

Let's discuss some differences between analog and digital communication.

Category Analog Digital Communication

Communication
Definition It uses analog signals It uses digital signals for
for transmitting data transmitting data from
from transmitter to the transmitter to the receiver.
receiver.

Signal The analog signal is a Digital signal uses two bits for
continuous time transmission of level 0 (LOW)
varying signal. and 1 (HIGH).

Noise Poor Good

Immuni
ty

Error High Low

Probabili
ty

Coding No Yes
The digital communication
system uses an encoder and
decoder for coding at the
transmitting and receiving end.
It helps in the detection of
errors.

Flexible Less flexible More flexible

Cost Low cost High cost

Power High Low

consumpti
on

Data Less accurate

transmissi More accurate
on
Signal The analog signals are The digital signals are
representat represented by a sine represented by a square wave.
ion wave or cosine wave.
 Examples Audio signals, Clock signals
speech signals,
video signals, etc.

Applications Radar. Telephony, etc. Digital watches, Compact

Disks, computers, etc.

Advantages of analog communication

The advantages of analog communication are as follows:

o Analog signal uses less bandwidth as compared to the digital

signal. It is due to the use of amplifier in the analog
communication system, which improves the signal and reduces
the distortion.
o It provides a more accurate method of representation due to its
continuous nature.
o Audio signals are preferred for audio and video transmissions. It
is because these signals can be easily modulated and
demodulated using Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation.
o Analog signals are easy to process as compared to the digital signals.
o It offers a finite amount of signal resolution.
o Analog signals have high density because it is continuous and
requires a medium to transmit.

Prerequisite
The requirement to learn Analog Communication is the basic
knowledge of communication concepts. A basic understanding
of Signal and Systems, Electronics and Communication
would be an advantage.

Unit-II

.1.Define bit rate

Bit rate is defined as number of bits transmitted during one second
between the transmitter and receiver.
2. Define baud rate.

Baud rate is defined as the rate of change of signal on transmission

medium after encoding and modulation have occurred.

3. Define bandwidth efficiency

Bandwidth efficiency is the ratio of the transmission bit rate to the

minimum bandwidth required for a particular modulation

4. Define Digital modulation

Digital Modulation is defined as changing the amplitude of the carrier

signal with respect to the binary information or digital signal.

5. What are the advantages of Digital communications

It has a better noise immunity

Repeaters can be used between transmitters and receivers

It becomes simpler and cheaper as compared to the analog

communication
Unit-III
ATA COMMUNICATION:

HISTORY OF DATA COMMUNICATION,

STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS FOR DATA
COMMUNICATION.
Data communication can be defined as two personal computers
connected through a Public Telecommunication Network (PTN).
Point to point communication is the link between two stations A and
B ie)., information is transferred between a main frame computer and a
remote computer terminal.

A multipoint line configuration is one in which more than two specific

devices share a single link. Morse code is used to send messages. A
key which turned the carrier of a transmitter ON and OFF to produce
the dots and dashes. These dots and dashes were detected at the
receiver and it is converter back into letters and numbers makes the
original message.

Forward Error Correction (FEC)

FEC, a receiver can use an error correcting code, which

automatically correct certain errors without any retransmissions

In FEC, bits are added to the message before the transmission

Purpose of FEC code is to reduce the wasted time of retransmission

Data Communications History

• 1838: Samuel Morse & AlfredystemVeil Invent

• 1876: Alexander Graham Bell invented Tel

• 1910:Howard Krum developed Start/Stop Sy

History of Computing

• 1930: Development of ASCII Transmission Code

• 1945: Allied Governments develop the First Large Computer
• 1950: IBM releases its first computer IBM 710
• 1960: IBM releases the First Commercial Computer IBM 360

Main Contributors of Data Comm.

• Transmission Technology

• Packet Switching Technology

• Internet–1967:ARPANET by Advanced Research Project Agency

(ARPA) of U.S.

–1975: TCP/IP protocol

• LAN Technology

–DIX-Ethernet & IEEE 802 Networks

• WAN–1976: ISO releases HDLC & CCITT releases X.25 (PSPDN)

The Applications Of Data Communication:

 Used in Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) Internet


 Airline and Hotel reservation system

 Mass media

 NEWS network

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Parallel Communication:

Advantages:

Parallel transmission is speed

Used for short distance communication

Disadvantages:

Require more lines between source and destination

More cost

UNIT-4

ENTROPY, SOURCE ENCODING THEOREM

Source encoding theorem

The discrete memory less source of entropy H(X), the average code
word length (L) for any distortion less source encoding is bounded.

Code redundancy is the measure of redundancy bits in the encoded

message sequence.

Mutual information is the amount of information transferred when Xi

is transmitted and Yi is received. It is represented by I(Xi,Yi) .The
average mutual information is defined as the amount of source
information gain per received symbol.

A block code of length n and 2k code words is calleda linear (n, k)

code if and only if its 2k code words form a k-dimensional subspace
of the vector space of all the n-tuples over the field GF(2). The
message occurring frequently can be assigned short code words,
whereas message which occur rarely are assigned long code word,
such coding is called variable length coding.
 UNIT-5

Channel Capacity theorem

Shannon’s theorem: on channel capacity(“coding Theorem”)
It is possible, in principle, to device a means where by a communication
system will transmit information with an arbitrary small probability of
error, provided that the information rate R(=r×I (X,Y),where r is the
symbol rate) isC‘ calledlessthan―chao capacity‖.

The technique used to achieve this objective is called coding. To put

the matter more formally, the theorem is split into two parts and we
have the following statements.

Positive statement:

―Given a source of M equally likely messages, with M>>1, which is

generating information at a rate R, and a channel with a
capacity C. If R ≤C, then there exists a coding technique such that the
output of the source may be transmitted with a probability of error of
receiving the message that can be made arbitrarily small‖.
This theorem indicates that for R< C transmission may be
accomplished without error even in the presence of noise. The
situation is analogous to an electric circuit that comprises of only pure
capacitors and pure inductors. In such a circuit there is no loss of
energy at all as the reactors have the property of storing energy rather
than dissipating.

Negative statement:

―Given the source of M equally likely messages with M>>1, which is

generating information at a rate R and a channel with capacity C.
Then, if R>C, then the probability of error of receiving the message is
close to unity for every set of M transmitted symbols‖.
 6.e)Objective Questions

1. Distance between direct broadcasting satellite and earth’s surface is

a) 4500km
b) 33000km
c) 5200km
d) 36000km
2. UHF stands for
a) Ultra High Electric Field
b) Ultraviolet High Frequency
c) Ultra High Frequency
d) Ultra High Magnetic Field
3. What is the ITU designation range for VHF?
a) 30 to 300 Kilohertz
b) 300 to 3000 Kilohertz
c) 30 to 300 Megahertz
d) 3 to 30 Megahertz
4. Effective noise at high frequencies is
a) Johnson noise
b) Flicker noise
c) transit-time noise
d) Partition noise
5. VHF stands for
a) very high frequency
b) very high electric field
c) very high magnetic field
d) very high electromagnetic field
6. Which among the following is the Analog Continuous Modulation
technique?
a) PAM
b) PCM
c) AM
d) PM
7. ITU stands for
 a) Indian Telecommunication Union
b) Indian Telephonic Union
c) International Telephonic Union
d) International Telecommunication Union
8. If AM transmitter has low level modulation then it has
a) high efficiency
b) poor efficiency
 c) high modulating power
d) high resistance towards noise
9. Quantization noise occurs in
a) Frequency Division Multiplexing
b) Time Division Multiplexing
c) Delta Modulation
d) Amplitude Modulation
10. Which is the greatest disadvantage of Pulse Code Modulation?
a) highly prone to noise
b) cannot travel long distances
c) its inability to handle analog signals
d) large bandwidth is required for it

11. the main advantage of PCM

12. In AM pilot carrier, transmission has

13. of the following frequency is not transmitted in AM

transmission.

14. For 100% modulation, power in each sideband is _ of that of

carrier.

15. Overmodulation results in

16. For getting 100% modulation, carrier amplitude should

17. Envelope Detector is a/an

18. of these amplifiers is used for impedance matching.

19. For removing unwanted signals we should use

20. Why AM is used for broadcasting

 UNIT-2

1. The approximate aspect ratio for television is

a) 2 : 1
b) 3 : 2
c) 4 : 3
d) 3 : 4
2. Signal to Noise ratio for a hi-fi system is equal to
a) 50 dB
b) 100 dB
c) 75 dB
d) 10 Db
3. What is the use of SSB?
a) It has lesser bandwidth
b) It has large bandwidth
c) It has infinite bandwidth
d) It has zero bandwidth
4. Approximate how many times odd and even fields of
television system are scanned?
a) 25 times each
b) 50 times each
c) 50 times each but alternately
d) 25 times each but alternately
5. Any signal and its Hilbert transform have same energy density spectrum.
a) True
b) False
6. If the spectrum of a narrow band noise is symmetrical and it
has a power density spectrum 4×10-6. Power density of
quadrature component is

a) 2 x 10-6
b) 5 x 10-6
c) 3 x 10-6
d) 4 x 10-6
7. What is the capacitive reactance for DC signals?
a) zero
b) very low
c) equal to one
d) infinite
8. If a FM signal having modulation index mf is passed through a
frequency tripler, then the modulation index of output of
frequency tripler is

a) mf
 b) 3mf
c) 1⁄3 mf
d) 1⁄9 mf
9. What are the two major drawbacks of delta modulation?
a) Slope Overload and Granular noise
b) Slope Overload and Serration noise
c) Serration noise and Granular noise
d) Slope Overload and Channel Noise
10. Beam width of antenna is expressed in
a) metres
 b) degrees
c) radian
d) volt
11. Detection is same as

12. Most commonly used modulation system for telegraphy is

13. do you understand by the term “carrier”?

14. According to Fourier analysis, square wave can be represented as

15. FSK system involves

16. is the purpose of peak clipper circuits in radios.

17. is the main function of a balanced modulator.
18. do you understand by the term SSB?
19. of the following frequency is not
transmitted in AM transmission
20. Mathematically, the number of sidebands in frequency
modulated system is
UNIT-3

1. What is the SNR of an ideal 10bit ADC?

a)81.96DB
b)51.96 db
c)61.96 db
d)71.96 db
2. DA converter is a part of

a)odometer
b) analog meter

c) Panel board meter

d)proximity sensor
3. find out the resolution of 8-bit DAC/ADC?

a)562
b)625
c)256
d)265
4. Which of following is not a type of ADC?
(a) Flash ADC
(b) Dual slope ADC
(c) Recessive approximation ADC
(d) sigma-delta ADC

5. The throughput of a flash ADC is measured in

(a) displacement per second
(b) distance per second
(c) samples per minute
(d) samples per second

6. A digital voltmeter uses a

(a) flash ADC
(b) successive approximation ADC
(c) sigma-delta ADC
(d) dual-slope ADC

7. The most common ADC seen in telecommunications based on audio

signals is
(a) flash ADC
(b) successive approximation ADC
(c) sigma-delta ADC
(d) dual-slope ADC

8.The resolution of a 12-bit Analog to Digital converter in percent is

a. 0.01220
b. 0.04882
c. 0.02441
d. 0.09760
9. In a binary weighted DAC, the lowest-value resistor corresponds to

(a) the highest binary weighted input

(b) the lowest binary weighted input
(c) the first input
(d) the last input

10. Which ADC narrows the range.

a)Flash ADC
b)Wilkinson
c)Sigma Delta
d)Successive Approximation

11. Demodulation is done in

12. In a receiver, noise is usually developed at
13.Process of recovering information signal from received carrier
is known as
14. is the function of radio receiver
15.Scattering causes
16. Adding bits to synchronize one digital signal to another is called

17.Notch is a
18. Sin wave is
19. Noise is added to a signal
20. Agreement between communication devices are called
UNIT-4

1. Why amplitude modulation is issued for broadcasting?

a) It is more immune to noise
b) It has more fidelity
c) It avoids receiver complexity
d) It has better selectivity and sensitivity

2. For what modulation index, we can expect maximum

undistorted power output of a transmitter?
a) 50%
b) 100%
c) 25%
d) 0

3. Types of analog pulse modulation systems are

a.Pulse amplitude modulation
b. Pulse time modulation
 c. Frequency modulation
d. Both a and b
4. The sampling technique having the minimum noise interference is

a. Instantaneous sampling
b. Natural sampling
c. Flat top sampling
d. All of the above
5. The instantaneous sampling

a. Has a train of impulses

b. Has the pulse width approaching zero value
c. Has the negligible power content
d. All of the above
6.A low pass filter is

a. Passes the frequencies lower than the specified cut off

frequency
b. Rejects higher frequencies
c. Is used to recover signal from sampled signal
d. All of the above
7. For generation of FSK the data pattern will be

a. RZ pattern
b. NRZ pattern
c. Split-phase Manchester
d. None
8. In Coherent demodulation technique of FSK signal can
be affected using

a. Correlation receiver
b. Bandpass filters and envelope detector
c. Matched filter
d. Discriminator detection

9. The bit rate of a digital communication system using

QPSK modulation techniques in 30 MBPS. So, The system
 a. 60 Mbps
b. The baud rate equal to 15 Mbps
c. The baud rate equal to 30 Mbps
d. The baud rate equal to 7.5 Mbps
10. In Eye Pattern, as eye closes:

a. ISI increase
b. ISI decrease
c. Timing jitter increases
d. Timing jitter decreases
e. 1.The Nyquist interval for m(t) is
f. 2. The spectrum of the sampled signal may be obtained
without overlapping only if
3. Quantization noise is produced in_
g. 4. Quantization noise is produced in_
h. 5. The main advantage of PCM signal is _ _
i. 6. For transmission of normal speech signal the PCM channel
needs a bandwidth of_
j. 7. PCM systems use non-uniform quantization in order
to
k. 8. The use of non-uniform quantization leads to _
l. 9. In QAM, both identities are varied
m. 10. Signal-to-quantization noise ratio of a PCM system using 8-
bit words for the analog signal that does not exceed its
quantization boundary is

UNIT-5
1. Auto-correlation function is non-unique description of signals.
a) True
b) False

2. Companding is used
a) to overcome quantizing noise in PCM

b) in PCM transmitters, to allow amplitude limiting in the receivers

c) to protect small signals in PCM from quantizing distortion.

d) in PCM receivers, to overcome impulse noise.

3. The biggest disadvantages of PCM is

a) its inability to handle analog signals

b)the high error rate which its quantizing noise introduces

c)its incompatibility with TDM

d)the large bandwidths that are required for it.

4. Indicate which of the following pulse modulation systems is analog

a) PCM

b) Differential PCM

c) PWM

d) Delta modulation

5. Quantizing noise occurs in

a) time-division multiplexing

b)FDM

c)PCM

d)PWM

6. Quantizing noise can be reduced by increasing the number of

samples per second. It is true,
a) yes, it is

b) no, it is not

c) not necessarily
 d) none of these

7. In PCM a system, the quantization noise depends upon

a) the number of quantization levels only

b) the sampling rate only

c) both the sampling rate and the number of quantization levels

d) none of the above is correct

8. The signal-to quantization noise ratio in PCM system depends upon

a)sampling rate

b) number of quantization levels

c) message signal bandwidth

d) none of the above

9. If the maximum instantaneous phase transition of a digital

modulation techniques kept at 90°, the modulation will be
organized as

1. DPSK
2. QPSK
3. OQPSK
4. BPSK

10. The modulation techniques employed in for telephone modems is

?

1. QAM
2. GMSK
 3. QPSK
4. GFSK
Fill in the blanks
1. of the following gives the least probability of error
2. The process of converting the analog sample into discrete form is
called_
3. The characteristics of compressor in μ-law companding
are _
4. The sequence of operations in which PCM is done is
5. In digital transmission, the modulation technique that requires
minimum bandwidth is
6. In Differential Pulse Code Modulation techniques, the decoding
is performed by _
7. Granular noise occurs when_
8. The digital modulation technique in which the step size is varied
according to the variation in the slope of the input is
called_
9. The number of voice channels that can be accommodated for
transmission in T1 carrier system is
10.Matched filter may be optimally used only for

6. F) PPT’S/NPTEL VIDEOS/any other

1. https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc21_ee74/preview

2. https://archive.nptel.ac.in/courses/117/105/117105143/

7. Student Seminar Topics

1. Introduction about ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS

2. Explain about the Generation of FM Signal- Armstrong Method

3. Explain about the frequency discrimination and

Phase discrimination methods for generating SSB
4. Eye diagram

8. Previous University Question Papers to practice

ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

5.

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9. Sample Internal Examination Question papers with key

ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

21. Distance between direct broadcasting satellite and earth’s surface is

a) 4500km
b) 33000km
c) 5200km
d) 36000km
22. UHF stands for
a) Ultra High Electric Field
b) Ultraviolet High Frequency
c) Ultra High Frequency
d) Ultra High Magnetic Field
23. What is the ITU designation range for VHF?
a) 30 to 300 Kilohertz
b) 300 to 3000 Kilohertz
c) 30 to 300 Megahertz
d) 3 to 30 Megahertz
24. Effective noise at high frequencies is
a) Johnson noise
b) Flicker noise
c) transit-time noise
d) Partition noise
25. VHF stands for
a) very high frequency
b) very high electric field
c) very high magnetic field
d) very high electromagnetic field
26. Which among the following is the Analog Continuous Modulation technique?
a) PAM
b) PCM
c) AM
d) PM
27. ITU stands for
a) Indian Telecommunication Union
b) Indian Telephonic Union
c) International Telephonic Union
d) International Telecommunication Union
28. If AM transmitter has low level modulation then it has
a) high efficiency
b) poor efficiency

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c) high modulating power

d) high resistance towards noise
29. Quantization noise occurs in
a) Frequency Division Multiplexing
b) Time Division Multiplexing
c) Delta Modulation
d) Amplitude Modulation
30. Which is the greatest disadvantage of Pulse Code Modulation?
a) highly prone to noise
b) cannot travel long distances
c) its inability to handle analog signals
d) large bandwidth is required for it

31. the main advantage of PCM

32. In AM pilot carrier, transmission has

33. of the following frequency is not transmitted in AM transmission.

34. For 100% modulation, power in each sideband is _ of that of carrier.

35. Overmodulation results in

36. For getting 100% modulation, carrier amplitude should

37. Envelope Detector is a/an

38. of these amplifiers is used for impedance matching.

39. For removing unwanted signals we should use

40. Why AM is used for broadcasting

KEYS

1.D
2.C
3.C

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4.C
5.A
6.C
7.D
8.B
9.D
10.D
11. lower noise
12. two side bands and a carrier
13. Audio
frequency 14.25%
15. Distortion
16. be equal to signal amplitude
17. Asynchronous Detector
18. Common Collector
19. filter method
20. Avoids Receivers Complexity

Set 1

1) a) Describe briefly about the Amplitude Modulation with Time

b) Describe briefly about the frequency domain description.
2) a) Describe briefly about the single tone modulation
b) Explain about the power relations in AM waves
3) a) Explain about the Generation of AM waves .
b) Explain about the Switching modulator
4) a) Explain about the Detection of AM Waves - Envelope detector
b) Explain about the DSBSC modulation - time and frequency domain description.

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