1. What is MAC Flooding in Switch? How to Prevent the MAC Flooding Attack?

MAC Flooding: This is a type of attack that targets switches in a network. In a MAC flooding attack, an
attacker sends a large number of packets with different source MAC addresses to the switch. The
switch’s MAC address table fills up with these addresses, causing it to overflow. Once the table is full,
the switch starts broadcasting packets to all ports instead of sending them to the intended port,
effectively turning the switch into a hub. This can lead to sniffing attacks, where an attacker can capture
traffic not meant for them.

Prevention Techniques:

 Port Security: Enable port security on switches to limit the number of MAC addresses allowed
on each switch port.

 MAC Address Filtering: Only allow specific MAC addresses on certain ports.

 VLANs: Use Virtual Local Area Networks (VLANs) to segment traffic and manage permissions.

 Monitoring and Alerts: Keep logs of MAC address changes and set up alerts for suspicious
activity.

2. What are the Disadvantages of Manual/Static IP? Name the Protocol of Dynamic IP Assigning. How
DHCP Works?

Disadvantages of Manual/Static IP:

 IP Conflict: Manual assignment can lead to IP address conflicts if two devices are assigned the
same IP address.

 Time-Consuming: Configuring IP addresses on all devices can be tedious in larger networks.

 Inflexibility: Changing the network infrastructure can necessitate reconfiguring all devices
manually.

 Scalability Issues: As the network grows, managing IP addresses becomes increasingly complex
and error-prone.

Dynamic IP Protocol: The protocol commonly used for assigning dynamic IP addresses is DHCP (Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol).

How DHCP Works:

1. DHCP Discover: A client sends a broadcast message (DHCP Discover) to locate available DHCP
servers.
 2. DHCP Offer: Any DHCP server receiving this request responds with a DHCP Offer, which includes
an offered IP address, subnet mask, and lease duration.

3. DHCP Request: The client selects one of the offers and broadcasts a DHCP Request, indicating
acceptance of the offered IP address.

4. DHCP Acknowledgment: The server sends a DHCP Acknowledgment (DHCP ACK) to confirm that
the IP address is now reserved for the client.

3. What is Pipelining? Explain Execution Stages.

Pipelining: This is a technique used in the design of computer microprocessors. It allows multiple
instruction stages to be processed simultaneously, increasing instruction throughput. Pipelining divides
instruction execution into several stages, often represented as phases like fetch, decode, execute, and
write-back.

Execution Stages:

1. Fetch: The instruction is fetched from memory.

2. Decode: The instruction is decoded to understand what action is required.

3. Execute: The operation is performed (could be arithmetic, logical, etc.).

4. Memory Access: Any memory read/write operations are performed.

5. Write Back: Write the result back to the register or memory.

4. What is Block chain? How it Works? Given details in other docs

Block chain: A block chain is a decentralized, distributed ledger that records transactions across multiple
computers in such a way that the registered transactions cannot be altered retroactively. This
technology underpins crypto currencies but has applications across various sectors.

How It Works:

1. Transaction Creation: Users create transactions that need to be recorded.

2. Transaction Broadcasting: Transactions are sent to a network of nodes.

3. Transaction Validation: Nodes validate the transactions through consensus mechanisms (like
Proof of Work or Proof of Stake).
 4. Block Formation: Valid transactions are clustered together into a block. Each block contains a
timestamp, a reference (hash) to the previous block, and a list of transactions.

5. Block Addition: Once validated, the new block is added to the existing block chain.

6. Distribution: The updated block chain is distributed across all nodes in the network, ensuring a
synchronized ledger.

5. What are Web Browser and Web Server? How Web Server Works?

Web Browser: A web browser is a client application used to access and display content on the World
Wide Web, such as HTML pages, images, and videos. Examples include Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and
Edge.

Web Server: A web server is a system that stores, processes, and delivers web pages to clients over the
Internet. It handles requests via the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

How Web Server Works:

1. Client Request: A user types a URL into the browser, which sends an HTTP request to the web
server.

2. Processing Request: The web server processes the request to locate the requested web page
and any related resources.

3. Response: The server sends back an HTTP response containing the requested resource (HTML
files, images, etc.).

4. Rendering: The web browser receives the response and renders the content for the user to
view.

6. What is a Proxy Server?

A proxy server acts as an intermediary between a client and another server. It forwards requests from
clients to the destination server and sends back the server’s response. Proxy servers can provide various
functions, including:

 Anonymity: Masking the client's IP address for privacy.

 Caching: Storing frequently accessed web pages to reduce load times.

 Filtering: Blocking access to specific websites based on set rules.

  Load Balancing: Distributing client requests among multiple servers to optimize resource
utilization.

7. Short Notes: Network, Protocol, Link, Gateway, Traceable Matrix, Node.

 Network: A network is a set of connected devices that can communicate and share resources,
including computers, servers, and printers.

 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules governing communication between devices. Examples

include HTTP for web traffic, FTP for file transfers, and TCP/IP for networking.

 Link: A link refers to a connection that allows data to be transmitted between devices in a
network. It can be wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi).

 Gateway: A gateway is a node that serves as an access point to another network. It translates
communication between different protocols and can act as a firewall.

 Traceable Matrix: A traceable matrix is a tool used to ensure that requirements are met in
project management or software development. It maps requirements to corresponding
deliverables.

 Node: A node is any device or endpoint in a network that can send, receive, or forward data.
Examples include computers, routers, and switches.

8. Private IP Range of Class A, B, and C. Number of Maximum Hosts of Each Class.

 Class A:

o Private IP Range: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255

o Maximum Hosts: 16,777,214 hosts

 Class B:

o Private IP Range: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255

o Maximum Hosts: 65,534 hosts

 Class C:

o Private IP Range: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255

o Maximum Hosts: 254 hosts

9. Loopback Address of IPv4 and IPv6.

 IPv4: The loopback address is 127.0.0.1. This address is used by a host to send messages to
itself.

 IPv6: The loopback address is ::1. Similar to IPv4, this address is used for internal testing and
communication within the same device.

10. What is Vulnerability? How Can We Prevent These Types of Vulnerability?

Vulnerability: Vulnerability is a weakness or flaw in a system that can be exploited by an attacker to gain
unauthorized access or cause harm.

Prevention Techniques:

 Regular Updates: Apply security patches and updates to software and systems.

 Network Security: Use firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and secure configurations to
protect against breaches.

 Access Control: Implement strong user authentication and authorization measures.

 Employee Training: Educate staff about security practices, phishing, and social engineering.

 Security Audits: Regularly assess systems for vulnerabilities and remediate identified
weaknesses.

11. Write Main Features of Object-Oriented Programming.

 Encapsulation: Bundling of data and methods within a single unit (class) to restrict access to the
inner workings and enhance data security.

 Inheritance: Allows one class (child) to inherit attributes and methods from another class
(parent), promoting code reusability.

 Polymorphism: The ability to present the same interface for different underlying data types.
Achieved through method overriding and overloading.

 Abstraction: Hiding complex implementation details and exposing only the necessary parts to
reduce complexity and increase efficiency.

 Classes and Objects: Classes are blueprints for creating objects, representing real-world entities,
while objects are instances of classes.
12. What is RAID?

RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) is a data storage virtualization technology that combines
multiple physical disk drive components into one or more logical units. The primary goals are to improve
data redundancy, performance, and fault tolerance.

Common RAID Levels:

 RAID 0: Data is striped across multiple disks for performance; no redundancy.

 RAID 1: Data is mirrored across two disks for redundancy.

 RAID 5: Data is striped with parity information distributed across all disks for fault tolerance.

 RAID 10: Combines RAID 0 and RAID 1; offers performance and redundancy.

13. Write the Difference Between Hashing and Encrypting.

Hashing:

 Purpose: Used to generate a fixed-size string of characters from input data of any size, primarily
for data integrity checking.

 Reversibility: Hashing is a one-way function; it cannot be reversed to obtain the original data.

 Use Cases: Storing passwords securely, checking data integrity (e.g., checksums).

Encrypting:

 Purpose: Transforms data into a secure format to prevent unauthorized access.

 Reversibility: Encryption can be reversed (decrypted) using a specific key.

 Use Cases: Securing communications, protecting sensitive data in transit or at rest.

14. Write the Functions of Different Layers in TCP/IP.

Application Layer: Responsible for high-level APIs, resource sharing, and application services. It includes
protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP.

Transport Layer: Provides end-to-end communication services for applications. It handles error
detection and correction. Key protocols include TCP and UDP.
  TCP: Ensures reliable communication, ordered delivery, and flow control.

 UDP: Provides connectionless communication and does not guarantee order or reliability.

Internet Layer: Responsible for logical addressing and routing. Handles packet forwarding and includes
protocols like IP, ICMP, and ARP.

Link Layer: Manages the physical transmission of data over a network and is responsible for local area
network addressing and error detection. It includes Ethernet, PPP, and Wi-Fi.

15. Difference Between Microprocessor and Microcontroller.

 Microprocessor:

o Definition: A CPU on a single chip that processes data and performs calculations.

o Applications: Typically found in personal computers and servers.

o Components: No built-in peripherals; requires external components for I/O

(input/output) functions.

 Microcontroller:

o Definition: A compact integrated circuit that includes a CPU, memory, and input/output
peripherals on a single chip.

o Applications: Used in embedded systems, home appliances, and consumer electronics.

o Components: Designed for specific tasks with built-in peripherals such as timers, ADCs,
and communication interfaces.

16. Difference Between Core i5 and Core i7.

 Core i5:

o Typically has 4 to 6 cores.

o Supports Intel Turbo Boost technology for frequency scaling.

o Lower power consumption; generally better value for budget-conscious consumers.

 Core i7:

o Usually has 4 to 8 cores.

 o Supports Hyper-Threading, allowing each core to process two threads simultaneously,
enhancing multitasking.

o Higher base and boost clock speeds, providing better performance for heavy workloads
(gaming, video editing, etc.).

17. Using NAND Gate Make Logic Diagram of OR Gate.

A logic OR gate can be constructed using NAND gates by applying De Morgan's Theorem. An OR gate can
be represented with the equation: [ A + B = (A' \cdot B')' ] Using NAND gates, the circuit diagram
requires two NAND gates and some inversions.

Logic Diagram:

1. Connect inputs A and B to the inputs of the first NAND gate.

2. Connect A and the output of the first NAND gate to a second NAND gate.

3. Connect B and the output of the first NAND gate to the second NAND gate. The output of this
second NAND gate will produce the equivalent of an OR function.

18. What is Cyberspace? Write Some Threats of Cyberspace. What is Computer Virus?

Cyberspace: Refers to the virtual environment of information flow created by computer networks and
the Internet, where digital communications and activities occur.

Threats of Cyberspace:

 Malware: Software intended to harm or exploit devices, such as viruses, trojans, and
ransomware.

 Phishing: Fraudulent attempts to acquire sensitive information by masquerading as a

trustworthy entity.

 DDoS Attacks: Distributed Denial of Service attacks flood a targeted server with traffic to disrupt
services.

Computer Virus: A type of malicious software that attaches itself to legitimate programs or files and
spreads to other computers when the infected program is executed. Viruses can corrupt data, steal
information, or cause system malfunctions.

19. What Happens When You Use Cables Longer Than the Prescribed Length in a Network?
Using cables longer than the recommended length can result in signal degradation and loss of data
integrity. The specific issues include:

 Increased Attenuation: The signal weakens as it travels longer distances, leading to data
corruption.

 Increased Latency: Longer cables add to the time it takes for data to travel between devices.

 Interference and Crosstalk: Over long distances, external interference may become more
pronounced, leading to poor performance.

For Ethernet cables, the maximum length is typically 100 meters for UTP cables. Beyond this length,
performance can be significantly compromised.

20. What is VPN? How it Works?

VPN (Virtual Private Network): A technology that creates a secure, encrypted connection over a less
secure network (such as the Internet). It allows users to send and receive data as if their devices were
connected to a private network.

How it Works:

1. Establishment of a Secure Connection: When a user connects to a VPN, their device establishes
a secure tunnel with the VPN server.

2. Data Encryption: All data transmitted through this tunnel is encrypted to protect it from
eavesdropping or intercepting.

3. IP Address Masking: The user's real IP address is masked by the VPN server's IP address,
providing anonymity.

4. Access to Restricted Resources: Users can access geographically restricted content and services
by connecting to servers in different locations.

21. What is Hyper-Threading? What is the Use of It?

Hyper-Threading: A technology developed by Intel that allows a single physical processor core to act like
multiple logical cores. This means that each core can run two threads concurrently, improving
multitasking efficiency and overall performance.

Uses:

 Improved Performance: Applications that support multiple threads see significant performance
improvements.
  Better Resource Utilization: Hyper-Threading helps to maximize the workload on each core,
increasing CPU throughput without needing more physical cores.

22. Explain the Difference Between Firewall and Gateway.

Firewall:

 A firewall is a security device that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic
based on predetermined security rules.

 It can be hardware-based or software-based and prevents unauthorized access to or from a

private network.

Gateway:

 A gateway is a node that connects two different networks and translates communication
protocols between them.

 It serves as an entrance and exit point within a network, routing traffic and managing protocols.

Key Differences:

 Firewalls are focused on security, while gateways are focused on connecting networks.

 Firewalls filter traffic based on rules, while gateways handle protocol conversion and address
translation.

23. Why is Firewall Used?

Firewalls are used to:

 Control Access: Prevent unauthorized access to or from a network.

 Secure Internal Resources: Protect sensitive data and systems within a network from external
threats.

 Filter Traffic: Block or allow data packets based on specified criteria (IP addresses, protocols,
etc.).

 Monitor Activity: Log and monitor incoming and outgoing traffic for suspicious activity or
breaches.

 Provide a Barrier: Serve as a barrier between a trusted internal network and untrusted external
networks (like the internet).
24. Describe SaaS, IaaS, & PaaS.

 SaaS (Software as a Service): A software distribution model where applications are hosted by a
service provider and made available to customers over the Internet. Examples: Google
Workspace, Salesforce.

 IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service): Provides virtualized computing resources over the Internet.
Customers rent IT infrastructure like servers and storage. Examples: Amazon EC2, Microsoft
Azure.

 PaaS (Platform as a Service): Supplies a platform allowing customers to develop, run, and
manage applications without the complexity of building and maintaining the underlying
infrastructure. Examples: Google App Engine, Heroku.

25. What Purpose is VPN Used in Computer Security?

A VPN is used in computer security to:

 Encrypt Data: Protect sensitive information transmitted over the Internet.

 Secure Remote Access: Allow users to connect securely to a company’s network from remote
locations.

 Bypass Restrictions: Enable access to blocked websites and services by masking the user's IP
address.

 Protect Against Eavesdropping: Prevent unauthorized access to data by securing the connection
between devices and networks.

26. Why is Virtual Memory Needed?

Virtual Memory is needed to:

 Extend RAM: Allow systems to run larger applications than physical memory would normally
permit by using disk space as “virtual” RAM.

 Isolate Processes: Provide each process with its own address space, preventing one process
from interfering with another.

 Efficient Memory Management: Facilitate memory paging and swapping, optimizing the use of
available memory resources.
  Running Multiple Applications: Enable users to multitask effectively, running several
applications simultaneously without exhausting physical memory.

27. What is Dynamic Programming? Explain With Examples.

Dynamic Programming: A method for solving complex problems by breaking them down into simpler
subproblems and solving each of these only once, storing the solutions for future reference. It is
particularly useful for optimization problems.

Example:

 Fibonacci Sequence: Instead of recalculating Fibonacci numbers recursively (exponential time),

store previously calculated Fibonacci numbers in an array to re-use results.

 Knapsack Problem: Solve by breaking down the possibilities of including or excluding items and
storing previously computed results to avoid redundant calculations.

28. What is ARQ?

ARQ (Automatic Repeat reQuest): A protocol for reliable data transmission that uses acknowledgments
and timeouts to ensure that data is received correctly. If the sender does not receive an
acknowledgment from the receiver within a certain timeframe, it retransmits the data.

Types of ARQ:

 Stop-and-Wait ARQ: The sender transmits a single packet and waits for an acknowledgment
before sending the next one.

 Go-Back-N ARQ: The sender can transmit multiple packets before needing an acknowledgment
but must retransmit all packets after an error is detected.

 Selective Repeat ARQ: The sender only retransmits the specific packets that were not
acknowledged, improving efficiency.

29. Web Caching. Is it Available for Every User Request? Why or Why Not?

Web Caching: A technique used to store copies of frequently accessed web resources (like webpages) to
reduce latency and decrease bandwidth usage. When a user requests a cached resource, the cached
version is served instead of generating an entirely new request to the server.

Availability for Every User Request:

  Not Always Available: Web caching may not be available for every request due to:

o Dynamic Content: Resources that change frequently (like user-specific data) may not be
cached.

o Cache Expiration: Cached data may expire after a specific period, requiring fresh
requests.

o Cache Invalidation: Updates to resources may necessitate clearing the cache, making
the latest data unavailable.

30. How HTTP Works? How Many HTTP Requests Would Be Needed to Retrieve or Manipulate Data?

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) works as follows:

1. Client Request: A client (browser) sends an HTTP request to a server for a resource (like a
webpage).

2. Server Response: The server processes the request and sends back an HTTP response, which
includes the requested content or an error message.

3. Rendering: The client receives the response and renders the content for the user to view.

Requests Count: The number of HTTP requests required depends on the resources used on a webpage.
For example, a single webpage may require multiple HTTP requests (HTML, CSS files, JavaScript files,
images, etc.). Each resource generally requires a separate request.

31. Explain the Problems with Possible Solutions Session Hijacking and SQL Injection.

Session Hijacking: This is an attack where an attacker steals or predicts a valid session token to gain
unauthorized access to a web application.

Problems:

 Data theft or unauthorized actions can be performed by the attacker.

Solutions:

1. Use of HTTPS to encrypt data in transit.

2. Implementing timeouts for sessions to limit the lifespan of tokens.

3. Regenerate session IDs after login and on critical actions to minimize risk.
SQL Injection: A code injection technique where an attacker can execute malicious SQL queries to
manipulate a database.

Problems:

 Data exposure, corruption, and unauthorized access to database contents.

Solutions:

1. Use prepared statements and parameterized queries to handle inputs safely.

2. Implement input validation to ensure only expected types of data are processed.

3. Use web application firewalls to filter and monitor SQL traffic.

32. A Network Administrator is Connecting Host A and B Directly Through Their Ethernet Interfaces as
Shown in the Illustration. Ping Attempts Between the Hosts Are Unsuccessful. What Can be Done to
Provide Connectivity Between the Hosts? Write Some Reasons How the Problem Will Identify.

Possible Solutions:

1. Check IP Configuration: Ensure that both hosts are assigned IP addresses within the same
subnet.

2. Test Cables and Connectors: Make sure the Ethernet cables are functioning properly and are
securely connected.

3. Network Interface Status: Check if both Ethernet interfaces are enabled and properly
configured.

4. Firewall Settings: Temporarily disable firewalls to see if it’s blocking ICMP packets (used for
ping).

Reasons Issues May Arise:

 Both machines could be on different subnets (e.g., A: 192.168.1.1, B: 192.168.2.1).

 Misconfigured network settings (incorrect subnet mask).

 Ethernet interfaces may not support auto MDI-X, and a crossover cable is needed.

 Firewall settings may block ping requests.

33. Write Connection Type: Router to Router, Router to Switch, Computer to Computer, Hub to
Switch, Computer Console Port to Switch.
  Router to Router: Often a WAN connection, could use serial, Ethernet, or fiber optic.

 Router to Switch: Typically an Ethernet connection, allowing the router to manage network
traffic.

 Computer to Computer: Can utilize Ethernet (wired) or wireless technologies (Wi-Fi).

 Hub to Switch: Typically an Ethernet connection; connecting a hub to a switch allows traffic to
be distributed to all connected devices.

 Computer Console Port to Switch: Usually a serial connection used for management and
configuration purposes, often via a console cable.

34. What is Multiplexing? Describe Different Types of Multiplexing.

Multiplexing refers to a method used to combine multiple signals or streams of data onto a single
transmission medium. It enables more efficient use of resources and increases communication capacity.

Types of Multiplexing:

1. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Divides time into fixed slots, allowing each signal to use the
line in its designated time slot.

2. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): Divides the transmission medium’s bandwidth into
frequency bands, where each signal operates on its own frequency.

3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM): A variation of FDM used in fiber optics that
transmits multiple data streams simultaneously using different wavelengths of laser light.

4. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): A form of multiplexing that allows multiple signals to
occupy the same transmission channel by assigning unique codes to each signal.

35. What is IPv6? Why is it Required?

IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6) is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol, designed to
replace IPv4. It uses 128-bit addresses, which significantly expands the address space.

Need for IPv6:

 Exhaustion of IPv4 Addresses: The number of available IPv4 addresses has depleted due to the
rapid growth of Internet-connected devices.

 Improved Addressing Scheme: IPv6 provides a vastly larger address space, allowing for more
devices and services.
  Built-in Security Features: IPv6 was designed with security features like IPsec, enabling better
data protection.

 Efficient Routing: Streamlined routing and address auto-configuration capabilities simplify

network management.

36. Short Notes: NAT, Ransomware, Firewall.

 NAT (Network Address Translation): A method used to remap one IP address space into
another by modifying network address information in the IP header of packets. NAT allows
multiple devices on a local network to share a single public IP address, helping conserve address
space and providing a layer of security by hiding internal IP addresses.

 Ransomware: A type of malicious software that encrypts a user’s files or data, rendering them
inaccessible. The attacker demands a ransom payment for the decryption key. Ransomware can
enter systems via phishing emails, malicious downloads, or vulnerabilities.

 Firewall: A security device that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic
based on predetermined security rules. Firewalls can be hardware or software-based and act as
a barrier between trusted networks and untrusted ones, preventing unauthorized access.

37. What is Subnet Mask and Local Host IP Address?

Subnet Mask: A subnet mask is a 32-bit number that divides an IP address into the network and host
portions. It determines which part of the IP address identifies the network and which part identifies the
host within that network.

Local Host IP Address: The local host, often referred to by the loopback IP address 127.0.0.1 in IPv4,
allows a computer to communicate with itself. It is often used for testing network applications on the
same device.

38. Difference Between TCP and UDP, HTTP and HTTPS.

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):

o Connection-Oriented: Establishes a connection before data transmission.

o Reliable: Guarantees delivery of data packets in order.

o Overhead: Requires more overhead for maintaining connections and ensuring data
integrity (checksums, acknowledgments).
  UDP (User Datagram Protocol):

o Connectionless: No established connection prior to data transmission.

o Unreliable: Does not guarantee delivery or order of packets.

o Lower Overhead: More efficient for applications where speed is crucial (e.g., streaming).

 HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol):

o A protocol used for transmitting web pages over the Internet. It is stateless and
unencrypted.

 HTTPS (HTTP Secure):

o An extension of HTTP that incorporates security using SSL/TLS to encrypt data

transmitted between client and server, ensuring privacy and data integrity.

39. What is OSI Model? Describe Briefly About OSI Model Layer. Difference Between OSI and TCP/IP
Layer.

OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection): A conceptual framework used to understand and
implement networking protocols in seven layers, facilitating interoperability.

Layers of the OSI Model:

1. Physical Layer: Transmits raw bitstreams over a physical medium (cables, radio).

2. Data Link Layer: Handles node-to-node data transfer, framing, and error detection (e.g.,
Ethernet).

3. Network Layer: Manages routing and forwarding of data (e.g., IP).

4. Transport Layer: Ensures reliable data transfer between hosts, including flow control (e.g., TCP,
UDP).

5. Session Layer: Manages sessions between applications, handling connections and maintaining
state.

6. Presentation Layer: Translates data between the application layer and the network format (data
encryption, encoding).

7. Application Layer: Interfaces directly with end-user applications (e.g., HTTP, FTP).

Difference Between OSI and TCP/IP:

 OSI Model: Has seven layers, focusing on theoretical architecture.

  TCP/IP Model: Has four layers (Application, Transport, Internet, Network Interface),
implemented as a practical model with protocols that work on the Internet.

40. What is Microprocessor?

A microprocessor is an integrated circuit that contains the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer.
It performs arithmetic and logic operations, controls tasks, and processes data. Microprocessors are the
brain of computers and are responsible for executing instructions from software programs. They consist
of millions of transistors embedded in silicon and come in various architectures (like x86, ARM).

41. Which Operating System is Open Source Operating System?

An example of an open-source operating system is Linux. Linux is a freely distributed operating system
kernel that serves as the foundation for various distributions (e.g., Ubuntu, Fedora). Other open-source
operating systems include FreeBSD, OpenBSD, and ReactOS.

42. How Many Numbers of Bits Will be Needed to Identify an IPv4 Address?

An IPv4 address consists of 32 bits, typically represented in four octets. Each octet contains 8 bits,
leading to a total of (8 + 8 + 8 + 8 = 32) bits, allowing for around 4.3 billion unique addresses.

43. Principles of OOPs.

The principles of Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) include:

1. Encapsulation: Binding data and methods within classes and restricting outside access.

2. Abstraction: Hiding complex realities while exposing the necessary parts to simplify interactions.

3. Inheritance: Allowing one class to inherit attributes and methods from another, promoting code
reusability.

4. Polymorphism: Providing a single interface for different data types, enabling methods to
perform differently based on the object.

44. Types of Topologies.

Network Topologies refer to the arrangement of different elements (links, nodes) in a network.
Common types include:

1. Star Topology: Devices are connected to a central hub or switch. Easy to manage, but if the
central device fails, the whole network goes down.

2. Bus Topology: All devices share a common communication line or cable. Simple and cost-
effective but can lead to collisions.

3. Ring Topology: Each device is connected in a circular fashion. Data travels in one direction; a
failure in any node can disrupt the network.

4. Mesh Topology: Every device is interconnected. Provides high redundancy but can be
complicated and costly to set up.

5. Hybrid Topology: Combines two or more different topologies. It seeks to offer the benefits of
each topology used.

45. Write Down the 2 Elements of Data Communication.

The two essential elements of data communication are:

1. Sender: The device or entity that originates the message (e.g., computer, phone).

2. Receiver: The device or entity that receives the message (e.g., another computer, server).

46. Write Down Cyber Threats.

Cyber Threats refer to potential malicious attacks that aim to access, steal, or damage sensitive
information or disrupt the normal functioning of information systems. Common threats include:

 Malware: Infectious software (e.g., viruses, worms, trojans).

 Phishing: Deceptive attempts to obtain sensitive information.

 Ransomware: Malware that encrypts data and demands payment for decryption.

 DDoS Attacks: Overwhelming a service with traffic to disrupt operations.

 Man-in-the-Middle Attacks: Intercepting communications between two parties.

47. Short Notes: DHCP, POP3, VSAT, LCD, NAT, SDN, HTML, CSS, PDU, Principles of OOP, Supernetting,
BIOS, Virtual Memory, Cache Memory, Piggybacking, Cluster, Bootloader.

 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Automatically assigns IP addresses and

configuration parameters to devices on a network.

 POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3): An Internet standard for retrieving email from a remote
server to a local client, allowing offline access.

 VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal): Satellite communication systems that connect personal
computers to satellite networks.

 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display): A screen technology used in televisions and computer monitors.

 NAT (Network Address Translation): The process of mapping multiple private IP addresses to a
single public IP address to conserve address space.

 SDN (Software Defined Networking): An approach to network management that enables

dynamic, programmable network configuration.

 HTML (Hypertext Markup Language): The standard language used to create and design web
pages.

 CSS (Cascading Style Sheets): A stylesheet language used to describe the presentation of a
document written in HTML or XML.

 PDU (Protocol Data Unit): A term describing a unit of data specified in a protocol of a given
layer.

 Principles of OOP: Encapsulation, abstraction, inheritance, and polymorphism.

 Supernetting: A technique used to aggregate multiple IP networks into a single routing prefix to
reduce the number of entries in a routing table.

 BIOS (Basic Input/Output System): Firmware that initializes computer hardware during booting.

 Virtual Memory: A memory management capability that allows for a larger-than-physical-

memory workload.

 Cache Memory: A small-sized type of volatile computer memory that provides high-speed data
access to the processor.

 Piggybacking: A method of data transmission where acknowledgement messages are combined

with data messages to save bandwidth.

 Cluster: A group of linked computers that work together closely, so they can be viewed as a
single system.
  Bootloader: A program that initializes the system hardware and loads the operating system into
memory.

48. What are Public and Private IP Addresses?

 Public IP Address: An IP address that is accessible from the Internet. Public IPs are unique across
the Internet and are assigned by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) or Internet
Service Providers (ISPs).

 Private IP Address: An IP address used within a private network and not directly accessible from
the Internet. Private IP addresses are defined in the ranges:

o Class A: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255

o Class B: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255

o Class C: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255

49. Consider the IP Address 172.162.100.25/27. Now Find Net Address, IP Class, Subnet Mask,
Broadcast Address, Number of Hosts per Network.

 IP Address: 172.162.100.25

 Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.224 (or /27)

 Net Address: 172.162.100.0 (the first usable address in the subnet)

 Broadcast Address: 172.162.100.31 (the last address in the subnet)

 IP Class: Class B (first octet in the range 128 to 191)

 Number of Hosts: (2^5 - 2 = 30) usable addresses (the -2 accounts for the network and
broadcast addresses).

50. What is Keyword? How Many Keywords Are Used in JAVA?

Keyword: A reserved word with a predefined meaning in a programming language. Keywords cannot be
used as identifiers (such as variable names).

Java Keywords: Java has 50 reserved keywords, including:

 abstract
 assert

 boolean

 break

 byte

 case

 catch

 char

 class

 const

 continue

 default

 do

 double

 else

 enum

 extends

 final

 finally

 float

 for

 goto (not used)

 if

 implements

 import

 instanceof
 int

 interface

 long

 native

 new

 null

 package

 private

 protected

 public

 return

 short

 static

 strictfp

 super

 switch

 synchronized

 this

 throw

 throws

 transient

 try

 void

 volatile

 while
51. Difference Between Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission.

 Synchronous Transmission:

o Data is sent in a continuous stream and is synchronized by clock signals.

o Suitable for high-speed data transfer over long distances.

o Requires both sender and receiver to operate with synchronized clocks.

 Asynchronous Transmission:

o Data is sent one byte or character at a time, with start and stop bits used to indicate the
beginning and end of each data packet.

o More flexible and suitable for short-distance communication.

o Does not require synchronized clocks; each data packet is sent independently.

52. What is Logic Gate? Prove the NAND and NOR Gate is Universal.

Logic Gate: A fundamental building block of digital circuits that perform a logical function on one or
more binary inputs and produce a single binary output. Common types of logic gates include AND, OR,
NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, and XNOR.

Universality of NAND and NOR:

 NAND Gate:

o Any logical function can be constructed using only NAND gates. This is proven by being
able to create AND, OR, and NOT gates from combinations of NAND gates.

 NOR Gate:

o Similarly, all logical functions can also be constructed using only NOR gates. They can be
connected to create AND, OR, and NOT gates as well.

53. Difference between Data and Information.

 Data: Raw facts and figures without context, often represented in a form suitable for processing
(e.g., numbers, characters, symbols). Data may be unorganized and lacks meaning on its own.
  Information: Data processed, organized, or structured to provide meaning or context, making it
useful for decision-making. For example, a list of raw numbers may represent temperature data,
but when processed and organized, it can inform you about weather patterns.

54. What is Blacklist and Whitelist? Write Down the Difference Between Blacklist and Whitelist.

 Blacklist: A list of entities that are denied access to certain resources (e.g., blocked websites,
unapproved email addresses). If an entity is on the blacklist, it will be prevented from
performing specific actions.

 Whitelist: A list of entities that are granted access to certain resources (e.g., approved websites,
trusted email addresses). Only entities on the whitelist can perform specific actions.

Differences:

 Purpose: Blacklists are used to restrict access, while whitelists are used to grant access.

 Default Behavior: With a blacklist, all entities are allowed unless specified otherwise; with a
whitelist, all entities are denied unless explicitly allowed.

55. NAT. Private IPv4 Address Range.

NAT (Network Address Translation): A method used to remap IP address spaces to improve security and
provide privacy. It allows multiple devices on a local network to access the internet using a single public
IP address.

Private IPv4 Address Range:

 Class A: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255

 Class B: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255

 Class C: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255

56. Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability of Data.

CIA Triad:

 Confidentiality: Ensures that sensitive information is accessed only by authorized individuals

and kept secret.
  Integrity: Assures that data is accurate, consistent, and protected from unauthorized
modification.

 Availability: Ensures that authorized users have timely access to data and resources when
needed.

Maintaining the CIA triad is essential in information security to protect sensitive data from breaches,
corruption, or loss.

57. What are the Challenges in Optimizing Energy Efficiency of Data Centers?

Challenges include:

 Cooling Management: Cooling systems consume substantial energy, and managing

temperatures while minimizing power usage is complex.

 Power Density: High-density computing leads to increased heat generation, compounding

cooling and energy efficiency issues.

 Equipment Load Balancing: Maximizing equipment utilization without compromising

performance requires fine-tuning.

 Older Infrastructure: Legacy systems may not be as energy efficient as newer technology
solutions, leading to increased operating costs.

 Scalability: As data center operations grow, maintaining energy efficiency in a larger

environment poses significant challenges.

58. Math 405 Page, 403

Could you please clarify what specific content or mathematical problems you're referring to on those
pages?

59. What is CIA Triad? Confidentiality, Integrity & Availability

CIA Triad refers to the fundamental concepts that are crucial in information security:

 Confidentiality: Protects sensitive information from unauthorized access. Techniques include

encryption, access controls, and secure communication.

 Integrity: Ensures that data is accurate, reliable, and unaltered except by authorized parties.
Techniques include checksums, hashing, and validation processes.
  Availability: Guarantees that data and resources are accessible to authorized users when
needed. Techniques include redundancy, failover, and robust backup solutions.

Each element of the CIA triad plays a vital role in protecting data and maintaining trust in systems.

60. Steps of SDLC

The Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) consists of several distinct phases:

1. Planning: Define project scope, gather requirements, and plan resources and timelines.

2. Analysis: Analyze requirements in detail and create specifications.

3. Design: Architect the system with overall designs and detail specifications.

4. Implementation: Write code based on designs; engage in unit testing.

5. Testing: Systematically validate functionality and performance; identify and fix defects.

6. Deployment: Release the software for user acceptance testing; deploy to production.

7. Maintenance: Provide ongoing support, bug fixes, updates, and enhancements.

61. Explain Process State.

A process state refers to the current status of a process at any given time during its lifecycle. Different
states include:

 New: The process is being created.

 Ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a CPU.

 Running: Instructions are being executed.

 Waiting: The process is waiting for some event (like I/O completion).

 Terminated: The process has finished execution.

Tracking process states aids in effective resource management and process scheduling.

62. Explain Denial of Service (DoS).

A Denial of Service (DoS) attack aims to make a machine or network resource unavailable to intended
users by overwhelming the target with traffic or sending malicious data packets that exploit
vulnerabilities. The attack can cause service disruption, making it impossible for legitimate users to
access resources.

Common types of DoS attacks include:

 Volumetric Attacks: Consuming bandwidth by flooding a target with excessive traffic.

 State-Exhaustion Attacks: Overloading the connection state tables of firewalls and load
balancers.

 Application Layer Attacks: Targeting specific features of applications (e.g., HTTP requests) to
crash them.

63. Difference Between TCP and UDP.

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):

o Connection-Oriented: Establishes a connection before transmitting data.

o Reliable: Uses acknowledgments and retransmissions to ensure delivery.

o Ordered: Guarantees that packets are delivered in the order they were sent.

 UDP (User Datagram Protocol):

o Connectionless: Does not establish a connection before sending data.

o Unreliable: There are no guarantees for packet delivery, order, or error correction.

o Faster: Less overhead makes it suitable for real-time applications (e.g., streaming,
gaming).

64. What is DNS? What is Forward and Reverse Lookup in DNS?

DNS (Domain Name System): A hierarchical naming system that translates human-readable domain
names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP addresses (e.g., 192.0.2.1).

 Forward Lookup: Resolves a domain name to its corresponding IP address. For instance,
querying the DNS may provide the IP for www.example.com as 192.0.2.1.

 Reverse Lookup: Resolves an IP address back to its corresponding domain name. This is done
using a PTR (Pointer Record) in DNS, for example, capturing that the IP 192.0.2.1 resolves to
www.example.com.
65. Describe Different Types of Satellite and Its Usage.

1. Geostationary Satellites: Orbit the earth at a fixed point above the equator, maintaining a
constant position relative to the earth. Used for communications, broadcasting, and weather
monitoring.

2. Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites: Orbit at an altitude of 160 to 2,000 km, providing low-latency
communications due to proximity to the earth. Used for communication services and Earth
observation.

3. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) Satellites: Positioned between LEO and geostationary satellites
(2,000 to 35,786 km). Used mainly for navigation systems (like GPS).

4. Polar Satellites: Pass over the North and South poles, enabling coverage of the entire Earth.
Used for Earth monitoring and mapping, especially for weather and military applications.

66. Functions of ISP, IIG, IGW, ICX.

 ISP (Internet Service Provider): An organization that provides access to the Internet for end-
users. ISPs manage infrastructure for connectivity, offering services like broadband, fiber, and
dial-up.

 IIG (International Internet Gateway): A point where local ISPs connect to international
networks to access the global Internet. IIGs facilitate the exchange of data between domestic
and international networks.

 IGW (Internet Gateway): Acts as an access point between a local network and external
networks, allowing communication with different systems outside the organization.

 ICX (Internet Exchange): A physical infrastructure or hub that facilitates the exchange of
Internet traffic between different networks, allowing ISPs to connect and share traffic efficiently.

67. Database Management System Roles in ICT Sector. What is ACID Properties?

Database Management System (DBMS) plays a crucial role in the ICT sector by enabling organizations to
manage data efficiently. Key roles include:

 Data Storage: Providing a systematic and structured way to store data.

 Data Retrieval: Allowing for efficient query processing and retrieval of information.

 Data Security: Implementing access controls and permissions to protect sensitive data.

 Data Integrity: Ensuring accuracy and consistency of data through ACID properties.
  Multi-user Access: Enabling multiple users to access and manipulate the database concurrently
while maintaining performance.

ACID Properties:

1. Atomicity: Ensures that a series of operations within a transaction are treated as a single,
indivisible unit; all operations must succeed or none at all.

2. Consistency: Guarantees that a transaction will bring the database from one valid state to
another, adhering to all predefined rules.

3. Isolation: Ensures that concurrent transactions do not affect each other, maintaining data
integrity even in an environment with multiple simultaneous transactions.

4. Durability: Guarantees that once a transaction has been committed, it will persist even in the
case of a system failure.

68. Explain Peer-to-Peer Network.

A Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network is a decentralized network structure in which each computer (peer)
operates as both a client and a server. In a P2P network, all participants share resources directly with
one another without a centralized managing server.

Characteristics:

 Decentralization: No single point of control; all nodes are equal.

 Resource Sharing: Users can share files, services, and bandwidth directly with each other.

 Scalability: A P2P network can grow as more peers join without requiring significant
infrastructure changes.

 Reliability: If one peer goes down, others can still communicate and share resources.

Use Cases: File sharing (e.g., BitTorrent), cryptocurrency transactions (e.g., Bitcoin), and collaborative
applications.

69. What Do You Mean by Complexity of an Algorithm?

The complexity of an algorithm refers to the amount of resources (time and space) required for the
algorithm to execute as a function of the input size. Specifically, complexity is analyzed in two terms:
  Time Complexity: Represents the total time taken by the algorithm in relation to the input size.
It is often expressed using Big O notation, which characterizes the upper limit of runtime growth
as input size increases (e.g., O(n), O(log n)).

 Space Complexity: Represents the total amount of memory space required by the algorithm in
relation to the input size, also often expressed in Big O notation.

Understanding algorithm complexity helps in selecting the most efficient algorithm for a given problem.

70. What is Blockchain Technology? State the Merits and Demerits of Using this Technology.

Blockchain Technology is a decentralized digital ledger that records transactions across many computers
so that the recorded transactions cannot be altered retroactively. Each transaction is grouped into a
block, which is then linked to the previous block, creating a chain of blocks (hence the name).

Merits:

 Transparency: All transactions are visible and verifiable by all participants, enhancing trust.

 Security: Data security is improved through cryptographic techniques, making the blockchain
resistant to tampering.

 Decentralization: Reduces the reliance on a central authority or intermediary, lowering

transaction costs and improving efficiency.

 Immutability: Once recorded, transactions cannot be altered, reducing fraud risk.

Demerits:

 Scalability: As the number of transactions increases, maintaining performance can be

challenging.

 Energy Consumption: Proof of Work mechanisms can consume significant energy, raising
environmental concerns.

 Complexity: Implementing blockchain technology can be complex, requiring skilled personnel.

 Regulation: Legal and regulatory uncertainty can pose challenges for widespread adoption.

71. Explain DNS and ARP, IPv4 Address and MAC Address.

 DNS (Domain Name System): A hierarchical system for naming resources on the Internet,
translating human-friendly domain names (like www.example.com) into numerical IP addresses
that computers use to communicate.
  ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): A protocol used to map an IP address to a MAC address in a
local area network, enabling devices to find each other on the same network segment.

 IPv4 Address: A 32-bit numeric address assigned to devices on a network using the Internet
Protocol for communication, typically expressed in decimal as a series of four numbers
separated by periods (e.g., 192.168.1.1).

 MAC Address: A 48-bit hardware address unique to each network interface card (NIC), used to
identify devices in a local area network. MAC addresses are expressed in hexadecimal format
(e.g., 01:23:45:67:89:AB).

72. What is Information System? Describe Various Types of Information System.

Information System: An integrated set of components for collecting, storing, and processing data, and
delivering information, knowledge, and digital products. An information system helps organizations
make better decisions and perform their operations efficiently.

Types of Information Systems:

1. Transaction Processing System (TPS): Handles day-to-day transactional data, ensuring accuracy
and efficiency (e.g., sales order processing).

2. Management Information System (MIS): Provides summary reports and tools for managers to
support decision-making.

3. Decision Support System (DSS): Helps in making decisions based on data analysis, simulations,
and modeling (e.g., what-if analyses).

4. Executive Information System (EIS): A high-level overview of an organization's operations,

providing insights for top management.

5. Customer Relationship Management (CRM) System: Manages interactions with customers and
improves customer service.

6. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) System: Integrates all facets of an organization's

operations, including finance, HR, manufacturing, and supply chain into one system.

73. State the Importance of Information System in Modern Society.

The importance of Information Systems in modern society includes:

 Improved Decision-Making: Information Systems provide data-driven insights that facilitate

better decision-making across various sectors.
  Increased Efficiency: Automation of data management and processes leads to time and
resource savings.

 Enhanced Communication: Information Systems enable effective communication and

collaboration, both within organizations and externally.

 Record Keeping: Efficient storage and retrieval of information support compliance and
accountability in various sectors.

 Support for Business Operations: Information Systems underpin critical business functions and
strategic initiatives for growth.

74. Difference Between Compile Time and Run Time.

 Compile Time:

o Refers to the phase during which source code is translated into machine code by a
compiler. Errors like syntax errors can be detected during this stage.

o Compile-time optimizations may improve the performance of the final executable.

 Run Time:

o Refers to the phase during which a program executes on a machine. Errors like logical
errors and runtime exceptions (e.g., divide by zero, null reference) are identified at this
stage.

o Run-time performance is affected by dynamic factors such as resource availability.

75. Briefly Explain Different Payment Systems in E-Commerce.

 Credit/Debit Cards: Traditional electronic payments via cards that enable secure transactions
over the internet.

 E-Wallets: Digital wallets (like PayPal, Apple Pay) that store payment information securely and
enable quick digital transactions.

 Bank Transfers: Direct transfers between bank accounts often used for larger transactions.

 Cryptocurrency: Payments made using digital currencies (e.g., Bitcoin) that use blockchain
technology for secure transactions.

 Payment Gateways: Services that authorize payments for e-commerce websites, acting as
intermediaries between the merchant and the customer.
76. Short Notes: Operating System, Cloud Computing Classification, 5G vs WiFi.

 Operating System: Software that manages computer hardware and software resources,
providing services for computer programs. Examples include Windows, macOS, and Linux.

 Cloud Computing Classification:

o Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): Provides virtualized computing resources over the

internet.

o Platform as a Service (PaaS): Provides a platform allowing developers to build, deploy,

and manage applications.

o Software as a Service (SaaS): Offers software applications over the internet on a

subscription basis.

 5G vs WiFi:

o 5G: A new generation of mobile network technology, providing high-speed mobile

broadband with low latency and improved connectivity for a large number of devices.

o WiFi: A local area wireless networking technology that connects devices to local
networks and the internet with limited range, typically found in homes and offices.

77. Explain the Operation of Public Key and Private Key Encryption. State the Application of Each in
Daily Life.

Public Key Encryption:

 Operation: Utilizes a pair of keys—public and private—where the public key can be shared
openly, and the private key remains confidential. Data encrypted with the public key can only be
decrypted using the corresponding private key.

 Application: Secure communication over the Internet (e.g., SSL/TLS for secure websites),
encrypted emails, and digital signatures.

Private Key Encryption:

 Operation: Also known as symmetric encryption, it uses a single key for both encryption and
decryption. Both the sender and recipient must share the same key.

 Application: Data protection for sensitive files, encrypted messaging apps (like WhatsApp), and
VPNs for secure communication.
78. Limitation of Dynamic RAM. Why Should One Prefer Static RAM?

Limitations of Dynamic RAM (DRAM):

 Speed: Slower than Static RAM (SRAM) due to the need for continual refreshing to maintain
data.

 Power Consumption: Requires more power for refreshing, making it less efficient for battery-
powered devices.

 Complexity: More complex design leads to larger physical sizes compared to SRAM for the same
storage capacity.

Preference for Static RAM (SRAM):

 Speed: Faster than DRAM as it does not require refreshing.

 Simplicity: Simpler design results in quicker access times.

 Power Efficiency: Consumes less power when idle, making it suitable for cache memory in CPUs.

79. What is Information System? Describe 5 Basic Types of Information System.

Information System: An integrated system that collects, stores, processes, and disseminates
information to support decision-making, coordination, control, analysis, and visualization in an
organization.

Five Basic Types of Information Systems:

1. Transaction Processing System (TPS): Supports daily operations by handling routine

transactions (e.g., sales order processing).

2. Management Information System (MIS): Provides reports and tools for managers, aiding in
decision-making through data analysis.

3. Decision Support System (DSS): Assists in complex decision-making by providing analytical tools
and data manipulation (e.g., data modeling).

4. Executive Information System (EIS): High-level data presentation tools for executives, offering
quick access to key performance indicators.

5. Customer Relationship Management (CRM) System: Manages interactions with customers,

improving relationships and retention.
80. What is Prototype? For a System Design, Explain the Essential Aspects that You Should Consider.

Prototype: A preliminary version of a system used to visualize and test aspects of design and
functionality before final development. Prototyping helps in gathering user feedback and refining
requirements.

Essential Aspects to Consider:

1. User Requirements: Collect and prioritize user needs to ensure the prototype addresses
essential features.

2. Functionality: Include core functionalities that demonstrate how users will interact with the
system.

3. User Interface: Design an intuitive and user-friendly interface that aligns with user expectations.

4. Performance: Ensure the prototype is responsive and scalable to depict how the final system
will perform.

5. Feedback Loop: Implement mechanisms to gather user feedback during testing and iterate on
the prototype.

81. Explain Five Different Electronic Payment Systems Used in E-Commerce.

1. Credit/Debit Card Payment: Allows customers to make purchases by directly withdrawing funds
from their bank accounts or credit lines through secure online Gateway.

2. E-Wallets: Digital wallets (e.g., PayPal, Apple Pay) that store users' payment information
securely for quick and convenient transactions without needing to enter card details each time.

3. Mobile Payments: Payments made through mobile devices using applications (e.g., Google Pay,
Samsung Pay) that enable contactless payments at retail establishments.

4. Bank Transfers: Direct electronic transfers between banks or accounts, usually used for larger
transactions or recurring payments.

5. Cryptocurrencies: Digital or virtual currencies (e.g., Bitcoin) that use cryptography for security,
offering decentralized transactions over blockchain technology.

82. Show the 3 Way Handshake Protocol in TCP Connection Establishment Using a Diagram.

The 3-Way Handshake is the process used to establish a TCP connection, which includes three steps:
 1. SYN: The client sends a SYN (synchronize) packet to the server to initiate a connection.

Client ----> [SYN] -----> Server

2. SYN-ACK: The server responds with a SYN-ACK (synchronize-acknowledgment) packet to

acknowledge the receipt of the SYN and establish its connection request.

Server <----- [SYN-ACK] <----- Client

3. ACK: The client sends an ACK (acknowledgment) packet back to the server to confirm receipt of
the SYN-ACK.

Client ----> [ACK] -----> Server

The connection is now established, and data transmission can begin.

83. Show Different Steps of SMTP Protocol Using a Block Diagram.

The SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) process involves several steps for sending an email from the
client to the server, illustrated as follows:

1. Mail Client: The user composes an email and submits it (e.g., clicking on 'send').

[Mail Client] --> [Compose Email]

2. SMTP Session Initiation: The mail client initiates a connection to the mail server using SMTP.

[SMTP Session] --> [Connect to SMTP Server]

3. Email Submission: The email client sends the email to the SMTP server.

[Email Submission] --> [Send Email to SMTP Server]

4. Email Relay: The SMTP server verifies and relays the email to the corresponding recipient's
server.

[Email Relay] --> [Forward to Recipient's Mail Server]

5. Email Delivery: The recipient's mail server accepts the email and stores it.

[Email Delivery] --> [Store in Mailbox]

6. Receiver's Mail Client: The recipient retrieves the email using POP3 or IMAP protocols.

[Mail retrieval] --> [Retrieve Email]

84. How Many Types of Data Transmission Modes?

There are three primary types of data transmission modes:

1. Simplex: Data is transmitted in one direction only. Example: A keyboard to a computer.

2. Half-Duplex: Data can flow in both directions, but not simultaneously. Example: Walkie-talkies.

3. Full-Duplex: Data can be transmitted in both directions simultaneously. Example: Telephone

conversations.

85. Write Down 3 Components Which Impact Computer System.

Three key components impacting a computer system include:

1. Hardware: Physical components like the CPU, RAM, Hard Disk that affect performance, speed,
storage, and functionality.

2. Software: The variety of applications and operating systems that define the computer's
capabilities, effectiveness, and usability.

3. Networking: The network configurations and connections that determine how well a system
communicates with other devices and networks, impacting overall performance and efficiency.

86. Baseband Transmission vs Broadband Transmission, Nyquist Theorem.

Baseband Transmission:

 Transmits digital signals over a single channel. It utilizes the full bandwidth of the medium.

 Commonly used for local area networks (LANs) like Ethernet.

Broadband Transmission:

 Transmits multiple signals simultaneously over a single medium (e.g., coaxial cable).

 Allows multiple channels, making it suitable for DSL or cable Internet services.

Nyquist Theorem: A principle stating that the maximum data rate of a channel is directly proportional to
the bandwidth of the channel. It describes how to avoid errors in signal processing and states: [ \
text{Channel Capacity (C)} = 2B \log_2(L) ] where (B) is the bandwidth and (L) is the number of signal
levels.
87. Short Notes: Cyber Theft, 2 & 3 Tier Architecture, Software Life Cycle, Reentrancy, and Thrashing.

 Cyber Theft: The act of stealing confidential and sensitive data, often conducted by
cybercriminals. Methods include phishing, hacking, and social engineering.

 2 & 3 Tier Architecture:

o 2-Tier Architecture: Involves a client (front end) communicating directly with a server
(back end) for data processing, commonly used in small applications.

o 3-Tier Architecture: Consists of three layers – presentation, application logic, and data
storage, promoting separation of concerns and scalability.

 Software Life Cycle: The various stages of software development, including planning,
requirements gathering, design, implementation, testing, deployment, and maintenance. Each
stage ensures systematic progress through the development process.

 Reentrancy: Refers to a program’s ability to be interrupted and safely called again ("re-
entered") before the previous execution is complete. Reentrant code is essential for creating
responsive, concurrent applications.

 Thrashing: A situation where excessive paging occurs, causing the system continually to swap
data in and out of memory, leading to poor performance. Thrashing can be mitigated by
optimizing memory management.

88. Human Computer Interaction is an Important Issue in the Field of ICT/IT. Explain with Your
Argument.

Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) is vital because it focuses on creating user-friendly interfaces and
enhancing user experience. As ICT/IT systems become increasingly complex and integrated into daily
life, understanding how users interact with technology becomes essential for:

 Usability: Ensuring that systems are easy to use, reducing training time and increasing
productivity.

 Accessibility: Making technology usable for people with disabilities and diverse user groups,
ensuring that everyone can benefit from ICT advancements.

 User Satisfaction: Designing systems that meet user needs and preferences, which fosters
positive experiences and loyalty.

 Innovation: Improving HCI leads to new ideas and technologies that transform how people
interact with computers, influencing future designs.
89. Explain Predictive Data Mining and Write an Application of Clustering in Real-Life World.

Predictive Data Mining: A process used to analyze historical data to make predictions about future
events or behaviors. Techniques like regression analysis, decision trees, and neural networks are often
employed to uncover patterns that lead to predictive insights.

Application of Clustering:

 Market Segmentation: In retail, businesses use clustering algorithms to group customers based
on purchasing behavior. By identifying distinct customer segments, companies can tailor
marketing strategies, optimize product offerings, and improve customer satisfaction.

90. Write Down the Risk in Traditional Auction and Online Auction.

Traditional Auction Risks:

 Bidding Fraud: Participants may place false bids or collude to inflate prices.

 Physical Security: Risk of theft or disruption during the auction event.

 Information Asymmetry: Buyers may lack complete information about items leading to
uninformed bidding.

Online Auction Risks:

 Identity Theft: Personal information can be stolen during online transactions.

 Scams and Phishing: Fraudulent listings and sellers deceiving buyers into losing money.

 Non-Delivery Risks: Risk of not receiving items due to fraudulent sellers.

91. What are the Different Types of E-Governance? What are the Benefits of E-Governance?

Types of E-Governance:

1. G2C (Government to Citizen): Services provided directly to citizens (e.g., online applications for
permits).

2. G2B (Government to Business): Government services targeted at businesses (e.g., online

business registrations).

3. G2G (Government to Government): Inter-agency collaboration and communication to enhance

efficiency (e.g., data sharing between departments).
 4. C2G (Citizen to Government): Feedback and communication from citizens to government
officials (e.g., public grievance submissions).

Benefits of E-Governance:

 Increased Transparency: Streamlined processes that allow citizens to track applications and
data.

 Improved Accessibility: Citizens can easily access services from anywhere at any time.

 Enhanced Efficiency: Reduced paperwork and streamlined workflows lead to faster service
delivery.

 Cost Reduction: Saves time and resources for both the government and citizens, reducing
operational costs.

 Better Communication: Facilitates smoother interactions and feedback between the public and
government.

92. Difference Between E-commerce and E-marketing, Active and Passive Satellites.

 E-commerce (Electronic Commerce): The buying and selling of goods and services over the
Internet, including transactions made through online stores and marketplaces.

 E-marketing (Electronic Marketing): The promotion of products and services using digital
channels, primarily through the internet, including social media, email, and search engines.

Active Satellites:

 Satellites with onboard power and active systems for communication. They can transmit signals
to ground stations and provide services such as telecommunication, broadcasting, and weather
forecasting.

Passive Satellites:

 Satellites that rely on external sources for power and do not actively transmit signals. They
usually collect data and reflect signals sent from Earth, such as imaging satellites used for
reconnaissance or environmental monitoring.

93. Describe Different Types of Orbital Satellites.

1. Geostationary Satellites: Remain fixed relative to a point on Earth’s surface, orbiting at

approximately 35,786 km above the equator. Used for communication and weather forecasting.
 2. Polar Satellites: Orbit directly over the poles, allowing Earth coverage as the planet rotates
beneath. Commonly used for Earth observation and reconnaissance.

3. Sun-Synchronous Satellites: Maintain a consistent angle with respect to the sun, enabling
regular lighting conditions for imaging and Earth observation.

4. LEO (Low Earth Orbit) Satellites: Orbit at altitudes between 160 km and 2,000 km. Used for
communication, earth imaging, and scientific monitoring. Lower latency makes them
advantageous for real-time applications.

5. HEO (Highly Elliptical Orbit) Satellites: Have highly elliptical orbits, providing coverage for
specific regions of the Earth for extended periods. Used for communication and scientific
monitoring in regions with limited access to continuous satellite coverage.

94. TCP vs. UDP, Compiler vs. Interpreter.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):

 Connection-oriented: Ensures reliable, ordered delivery of data.

 Usage: Used for applications requiring reliable communication (e.g., HTTP, FTP, SMTP).

UDP (User Datagram Protocol):

 Connectionless: Does not guarantee delivery or order of packets.

 Usage: Used for applications requiring fast transmission (e.g., VoIP, live video streaming).

Compiler:

 Translates source code into machine code before execution. It produces an executable file and
checks for errors.

 Usage: For languages like C, C++.

Interpreter:

 Translates source code into machine code line by line during execution, without producing an
intermediate executable file.

 Usage: For scripting languages like Python and JavaScript.

95. What is Modulation? Why is it Necessary?

Modulation: The process of varying one or more properties of a carrier wave (amplitude, frequency, or
phase) in accordance with the information signal being sent. It enables the transmission of signals over
various distances and through different media.

Need for Modulation:

 Lengthening Transmission Distance: Modulation makes radio waves more effective for long-
range transmission.

 Overcoming Bandwidth Limitations: It allows signals to fit within the limited bandwidth of
channels, enhancing communication efficiency.

 Minimizing Interference: Different modulated signals can coexist, reducing crosstalk and
interference, especially in crowded frequency bands.

96. Define Distance Vector and Link State Routing Protocols.

 Distance Vector Routing Protocol: A routing protocol that calculates the best route for data
based on distance and direction (vector) to reach a specific network. Each router updates its
table based on the distance to neighboring routers. Examples: RIP (Routing Information
Protocol), IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol).

 Link State Routing Protocol: A routing protocol where each router maintains a complete
topology of the network. Routers exchange information about their connected neighbors and
the state of the links (cost, bandwidth). This allows routers to construct a complete view of the
network and determine the best paths. Examples: OSPF (Open Shortest Path First), IS-IS
(Intermediate System to Intermediate System).

97. Which 2 Services are Required to Enable a Computer to Receive a Dynamic IP Address and Access
the Internet Using Domain Names?

1. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): It assigns dynamic IP addresses to devices on the
network automatically, enabling them to join the network without manual configuration.

2. DNS (Domain Name System): It translates domain names into IP addresses, allowing users to
access resources using human-readable addresses rather than numerical IP addresses.

98. In What Circumstances Would You Choose DFS Over BFS?

Depth-First Search (DFS):

  Space Efficiency: Uses less memory than BFS since its implementation typically uses a stack (or
recursion) and keeps track of only the current branch being explored.

Breadth-First Search (BFS):

 Optimal for Shortest Path: In unweighted graphs, BFS guarantees the shortest path because it
explores all neighbors before going deeper.

Choose DFS when:

 You have a large or infinite search space and are looking for a solution that may be deep in the
search tree.

 You prefer memory efficiency over guaranteed shortest path finding.

 The problem is suited to backtracking search, like puzzle-solving scenarios.

99. Can You Enumerate and Explain the Various Types of Errors That Can Occur During the Execution
of a Computer Program?

1. Syntax Errors: Mistakes in the code's syntax (grammar) that prevent the program from
compiling or executing. Example: Missing semicolons, incorrect parentheses.

2. Runtime Errors: Errors that occur while the program is executing; often unpredictable. Example:
Division by zero, accessing invalid memory locations.

3. Logical Errors: Flaws in the program's logic that lead to incorrect results or behavior. The
program runs without crashing but gives the wrong output. Example: Incorrect algorithm
implementation.

4. Compilation Errors: Errors arising during the compilation process due to issues in the code that
violate syntax rules or data type mismatches.

5. Linker Errors: When the code references other compiled modules or libraries incorrectly, it can
lead to unresolved references or missing symbols.

100. What is Thread in OS?

A thread is the smallest sequence of programmed instructions that can be managed independently by a
scheduler. Threads are part of a process, allowing for concurrent execution of tasks within the same
application context.

Key Characteristics:
  Multiple threads can exist within the same process, sharing resources such as memory, while
still managing execution independently.

 Threads improve efficiency and resource utilization, allowing tasks to run concurrently and
enhancing the responsiveness of applications.

101. What Do You Understand by Deadlock in Operating System? How Can Deadlock Be Avoided?

**

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Certainly! Here are the detailed answers to questions 101 through 133:

101. What Do You Understand by Deadlock in Operating System? How Can Deadlock Be Avoided?

Deadlock: A deadlock is a state in a multiprogramming environment where two or more processes are
unable to proceed because each is waiting for the other(s) to release a resource. Each process holds a
resource and waits for another to finish, creating a cycle of dependencies that prevents any of them
from moving forward.

How to Avoid Deadlock:

1. Resource Allocation Prevention:

o Hold and Wait: Require processes to request all necessary resources upfront.

o No Preemption: Allow resources to be preempted if necessary to break a deadlock.

o Circular Wait: Impose an ordering on resource types and require processes to request
resources in that order, preventing cyclical dependencies.
 2. Deadlock Detection: Allow the system to enter a deadlock state, but routinely check for
deadlocks and recover them by terminating or rolling back processes.

3. Resource Allocation Graph: Utilize a directed graph to track the allocation of resources to
processes. If a cycle is detected, a deadlock is present.

102. What is Network Topology? Write the Name of All Different Topologies Used in Computer
Networking with Examples, Diagram, and Their Activities.

Network Topology: Refers to the physical and logical arrangement of nodes (devices) in a network. It
determines how data flows between nodes and affects performance, reliability, and scalability.

Types of Network Topologies:

1. Bus Topology:

o Diagram: A single central cable with all devices connected to it.

o Activities: All devices share the same communication line. Data sent from a device
travels in both directions to all other devices.

2. Star Topology:

o Diagram: All devices are connected to a central hub or switch.

o Activities: Data is sent from a device to the hub, which then relays it to the intended
recipient.

3. Ring Topology:

o Diagram: Each device is connected to two other devices, forming a closed loop.

o Activities: Data travels in one direction (or both) around the ring, each device receiving
and forwarding the data.
 o

4. Mesh Topology:

o Diagram: Each device is interconnected to several other devices, creating multiple paths
for data to travel.

o Activities: Provides redundancy; if one link fails, data can still be routed through other
paths.

5. Tree Topology:

o Diagram: A hierarchical structure combining characteristics of star and bus topologies.

o Activities: Central nodes can branch out to other nodes, allowing for inherent
organizational structures.

6. Hybrid Topology:

o Diagram: A combination of two or more different topologies (e.g., star-bus).

o Activities: Utilizes the advantages of different topologies; adaptable to specific needs.

 o

103. Define Networking and Internetworking. What are the Different Types of Networks? Explain in
Details.

Networking: The process of connecting computers and other devices together to share resources,
exchange data, and communicate. It involves both the technology and protocols enabling devices to
interact.

Internetworking: The practice of interconnecting multiple distinct computer networks to function as a

single cohesive unit. It often involves routers and gateways to manage data flows.

Types of Networks:

1. Local Area Network (LAN):

o Definition: Covers a small geographic area, such as a home, office, or school.

o Example: A network of computers in an office connected via Ethernet cables and

switches.

o Characteristics: High-speed connectivity, low latency, typically uses Wi-Fi or cables.

2. Wide Area Network (WAN):

o Definition: Covers a large geographic area, often connecting multiple LANs.

o Example: The Internet is the largest example of a WAN.

o Characteristics: Longer distances, lower speed compared to LAN, usually uses leased
telecommunication lines.

3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

o Definition: Covers a city or a large campus, larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.

o Example: A network connecting government buildings in a city.

 o Characteristics: Often used by municipalities or large organizations, speeds are higher
than WAN but lower than LAN.

4. Personal Area Network (PAN):

o Definition: A small network typically used for connecting devices within the range of a
few meters.

o Example: A Bluetooth connection between a smartphone and a headset.

o Characteristics: Very short range, often connects personal devices like smartphones,
tablets, and laptops.

5. Virtual Private Network (VPN):

o Definition: A secure connection over the Internet that allows remote users to connect
to a private network.

o Example: Employees accessing their company's internal resources securely from home.

o Characteristics: Provides privacy through encryption, maintains security over insecure

networks.

104. What is DHCP Server and Why Is It Needed in a Computer Network?

DHCP Server (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol Server): A server that automatically assigns IP
addresses and other network configuration parameters (like subnet mask, gateway, DNS servers) to
devices on a network, allowing them to communicate effectively.

Why It Is Needed:

 Efficiency: Eliminates the need for manual IP address configuration for each device, simplifying
the setup of new devices.

 Reduces Errors: Minimizes the risk of IP conflicts (two devices having the same IP address) and
misconfigurations.

 Dynamic Allocation: Enables the allocation of temporary IP addresses (leases) based on current
network demands.

 Ease of Management: Administrators can change network settings (like DNS servers) at the
DHCP server level instead of updating each device.

105. Briefly Describe the Relationship Among Threat, Vulnerability, and Attacks. Give Examples.
  Threat: A potential cause of an unwanted incident that may result in harm to a system or
organization. It represents a danger to the integrity, confidentiality, or availability of
information.

o Example: A cybercriminal seeking to exploit system weaknesses to steal data.

 Vulnerability: A weakness in a system that can be exploited by a threat to gain unauthorized

access or cause harm. Vulnerabilities can stem from design flaws, misconfigurations, or lack of
security controls.

o Example: An outdated software application with known security flaws that attackers can
exploit.

 Attack: An intentional act aimed at exploiting a vulnerability to compromise the system's

security or integrity. Attacks can be physical or digital.

o Example: An attacker launching a malware infection that exploits a known vulnerability

in outdated software.

Relationship: A threat exploits a vulnerability to conduct an attack. Organizations must proactively

identify vulnerabilities to mitigate risks posed by potential threats.

106. Why Is IP Considered a Best-Effort Protocol?

IP (Internet Protocol) is considered a "best-effort" protocol because it does not guarantee the delivery
of packets, order of delivery, or error recovery. Key characteristics include:

 No Acknowledgments: IP does not provide any form of acknowledgment for the receipt of
packets; thus, it does not know whether packets arrive at their destination.

 No Retransmission: If a packet is lost or corrupted, IP does not attempt to resend it; higher-level
protocols (like TCP) handle these aspects instead.

 Variable Paths: Packets can take different routes to their destination, leading to variations in
delivery times.

This "best-effort" design allows IP to be flexible and scalable but places the responsibility for reliability
on higher-layer protocols (such as TCP).

107. Describe CSMA/CD Protocol for Medium Access Control.

CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) is a network protocol for managing
how data packets are transmitted over shared communication channels to avoid collisions:
  Carrier Sense: Before transmitting, a device listens to the channel to determine if it is already in
use (if it's busy or idle).

 Multiple Access: Multiple devices can attempt to use the same channel concurrently.

 Collision Detection: If two devices transmit simultaneously, a collision occurs. Devices detect
the collision and immediately stop transmitting.

 Backoff Algorithm: After a collision, each device waits for a random period before attempting to
retransmit. This reduces the chances of repeated collisions.

CSMA/CD is traditionally used in Ethernet networks. It is less effective in wireless networks, where
CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance) is used instead.

108. What is Thread? Give Some Benefits of Multi-threaded Programming.

A thread is a sequence of executed instructions within a program, allowing for parallel execution of
tasks within an application. Threads share the resources of a process, including memory and file handles.

Benefits of Multi-threaded Programming:

1. Improved Performance: Multi-threading can lead to significant performance improvements by

utilizing multiple CPU cores for simultaneous execution.

2. Responsive UI: In graphical applications, multi-threading can maintain responsive user

interfaces by moving long-running processes to background threads.

3. Resource Sharing: Threads within the same process share memory and resources, enabling
efficient data exchange.

4. Simplified Program Structure: Multi-threading allows for a more straightforward design for
tasks that can proceed independently without complex inter-process communication.

109. What is the Purpose of Router? How Congestion Control Works in the TCP Protocol?

Router:

 A router is a networking device that connects multiple networks and directs data packets
between them. Its primary purpose is to determine the best path for forwarding packets toward
their destination based on routing tables and protocols.

Congestion Control in TCP:

  Purpose: TCP congestion control mechanisms aim to prevent network congestion by adjusting
the rate of packet transmission based on current network conditions.

 Methods Include:

1. Slow Start: Begins with a small congestion window and increases the size exponentially
as acknowledgments are received, allowing TCP to "probe" the network capacity.

2. Congestion Avoidance: Once a threshold is reached, growth becomes linear to avoid

overwhelming the network.

3. Fast Retransmit and Fast Recovery: If a packet is presumed lost (detected via duplicate
ACKs), TCP quickly retransmits it without waiting for a timeout and reduces the
congestion window.

These methods dynamically adjust transmission rates to optimize throughput while preventing packet
loss due to congestion.

110. Difference Between Stateless and Stateful Protocol. Which Type of Protocol is HTTP? E-commerce
vs. F-commerce, Open Source vs. Proprietary Software.

Stateless Protocol:

 Does not retain user session information between requests. Each request is treated
independently.

 Example: HTTP is stateless; it does not remember past requests.

Stateful Protocol:

 Retains session information between requests, allowing context to be maintained across

multiple interactions.

 Example: FTP is stateful; it keeps track of the user's session.

HTTP: A stateless protocol; every request is separate, and the server does not remember prior
interactions.

E-commerce vs. F-commerce:

 E-commerce: General online buying and selling of goods and services through any device or
platform.

 F-commerce: A subset of e-commerce that involves transactions conducted on social media

platforms (like Facebook).
Open Source vs. Proprietary Software:

 Open Source Software: Software whose source code is available to the public for use,
modification, and distribution (e.g., Linux, Apache).

 Proprietary Software: Software that is owned by an individual or company and is not available
for public modification or distribution (e.g., Microsoft Windows, Adobe Photoshop).

111. How Can You Define IoT? What Are the Basic Components of IoT?

IoT (Internet of Things): A network of interconnected devices that communicate and exchange data
with each other over the Internet. These devices can range from everyday household items to
sophisticated industrial equipment, all typically equipped with sensors, software, and network
connectivity.

Basic Components of IoT:

1. Devices/Sensors: Physical objects with embedded sensors that collect data from the
environment (e.g., temperature sensors, smart thermostats).

2. Connectivity: Communication protocols that allow devices to send and receive data (e.g., Wi-Fi,
Zigbee, cellular).

3. Data Processing: Systems that analyze the collected data to generate actionable insights, which
could occur either locally or in the cloud.

4. User Interface: Applications or dashboards that allow users to monitor and interact with devices
(e.g., mobile apps, web interfaces).

112. What Do You Mean by Machine Learning? Name Three Machine Learning Applications in Our
Daily Life.

Machine Learning: A subset of artificial intelligence that focuses on developing algorithms and statistical
models that enable computers to perform tasks without explicit programming, using patterns and
inference.

Three Machine Learning Applications in Daily Life:

1. Personalized Recommendations: Streaming services like Netflix and Spotify use machine
learning algorithms to analyze user behavior and provide tailored recommendations for movies
or music.
 2. Voice Assistants: Applications like Siri and Google Assistant use natural language processing and
machine learning to interpret user commands, providing responses, managing schedules, and
controlling smart devices.

3. Fraud Detection: Financial institutions implement machine learning models to analyze

transaction patterns and identify potentially fraudulent activities in real-time.

113. What is API? Explain With Examples.

API (Application Programming Interface): A set of rules and protocols that allows different software
applications to communicate with each other. APIs define the methods and data structures that
developers can use to interact with the services offered by another application or system.

Examples:

1. Weather API: Allows developers to access weather data by sending requests to a weather
service provider. Developers can build applications that display current conditions or forecasts.

2. Payment API: Payment gateways like Stripe or PayPal provide APIs that allow developers to
integrate payment processing into their e-commerce sites, enabling transactions without leaving
the host site.

3. Social Media API: Facebook and Twitter provide APIs that allow applications to interact with
their platforms. For example, posting a tweet or fetching user timelines can be done through
their respective APIs.

114. What is Authentication and Authorization in Computer Security?

 Authentication: The process of verifying the identity of a user or system trying to access
resources. Common methods include passwords, biometrics, and two-factor authentication.

 Authorization: The process of granting or denying access to resources based on the

authenticated identity. It determines what actions or data a user can access after they have
been authenticated.

In summary, authentication verifies who you are, while authorization determines what you are allowed
to do.

115. Which One Peripheral Device Between USB Flash Drive and RAM? Why?

A USB Flash Drive is considered a peripheral device.

Reasons:

 External Storage: USB flash drives are external storage devices used to transfer and store files
temporarily.

 Removable: They can be easily plugged in and out of computers or other compatible devices,
making them portable.

 RAM (Random Access Memory): Unlike USB flash drives, RAM is internal memory used by
computers to store data and instructions for active processes; it is volatile and not removable.

116. 3 Protocol Names of TCP and UDP.

TCP Protocols:

1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring web pages.

2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between client and server.

3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending emails.

UDP Protocols:

1. DNS (Domain Name System): Used for resolving domain names to IP addresses.

2. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Used for assigning IP addresses dynamically.

3. RTP (Real-time Transport Protocol): Used for streaming multimedia over IP networks.

117. What is UDP Protocol? Is UDP Reliable or Not? Why or Why Not?

UDP (User Datagram Protocol): A connectionless protocol used for sending messages (datagrams)
without establishing a prior connection. It is considered faster than TCP due to its minimal overhead but
does not guarantee delivery, order, or integrity of packets.

Reliability: UDP is not reliable for the following reasons:

 No Acknowledgments: It does not provide acknowledgment of received packets, meaning the

sender has no way of knowing if the data reached its destination.

 No Retransmission: Lost packets are not retransmitted, leading to the potential loss of data.

 No Ordering: Packets can arrive in any order, which means the application must handle packet
order if needed.
UDP's speed and low overhead make it suitable for applications where speed is critical, and some data
loss is tolerable (e.g., live video streaming, online gaming).

118. What is Cyber Threat Intelligence Database? What is the Use of This Corporate Office Network?

Cyber Threat Intelligence Database: A repository that collects, stores, and analyzes information related
to current and potential cyber threats. This intelligence helps organizations understand threats,
vulnerabilities, and security incidents.

Uses in a Corporate Office Network:

 Incident Response: Provides context for cybersecurity incidents, guiding appropriate responses.

 Threat Prediction: Analyzes trends to forecast potential attacks, allowing proactive security
measures.

 Vulnerability Management: Helps identify and prioritize vulnerabilities based on relevant threat
intelligence, leading to effective remediation strategies.

 Enhanced Security Posture: Informs security policies and controls based on real-world threats,
improving overall security readiness.

119. What is DHCP Starvation, and How Does DHCP Starvation Work With Diagram? Write Down the
Related Attack Introduced by DHCP Starvation.

DHCP Starvation: An attack that exploits the DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) by
overwhelming it with requests to exhaust the available IP addresses in a DHCP pool, preventing
legitimate users from obtaining IP addresses.

How It Works:

1. An attacker floods the DHCP server with DHCP requests, each using a different source MAC
address.

2. The DHCP server responds to these requests by assigning IP addresses from its pool, filling it up
quickly.

3. Once the pool is exhausted, legitimate clients requesting IP addresses will be unable to connect
to the network.

Diagram:
Related Attacks: After successful DHCP starvation, an attacker may perform a DHCP Spoofing attack,
where they set up a rogue DHCP server on the network to provide incorrect IP addresses to clients,
allowing them to intercept traffic or perform man-in-the-middle attacks.

120. What is the MAC Flooding Attack? What is the Impact of This in Switch?

MAC Flooding Attack: An attack aimed at switches in which an attacker sends a high number of packets
with different source MAC addresses to exhaust the switch's MAC address table. Once the table is full,
the switch cannot learn new MAC addresses and operates in a "fail-open" state.

Impact on Switch:

 Broadcasting Behavior: The switch begins to treat incoming traffic as unicast, causing it to flood
all ports with the incoming packet instead of sending it to the intended port. This effectively
turns the switch into a hub.

 Data Interception: It allows an attacker to intercept, capture, and analyze the network traffic,
potentially impacting data confidentiality and privacy.

 Network Performance: The increased traffic caused by flooding can lead to network congestion
and decreased performance.

121. Write Down the Countermeasure of SQL Injection.

Countermeasures for SQL Injection:

1. Prepared Statements: Use prepared statements with parameterized queries to ensure that user
inputs are treated as data, not executable code.

2. Stored Procedures: Implement stored procedures that limit direct SQL query execution and
encapsulate logic on the database side.

3. Input Validation: Rigorously validate and sanitize user inputs, checking for expected data types,
lengths, and formats.

4. Escaping Inputs: Use escaping functions to neutralize special characters in SQL queries that
could be malicious.

5. Web Application Firewall (WAF): Deploy a WAF to filter and monitor HTTP requests, identifying
and blocking potential SQL injection attempts.

6. Least Privilege Principle: Grant the minimum necessary database privileges to the application,
limiting the impact of a successful SQL injection attack.
122. What Do You Mean by Dynamic Capacity Provisioning? Why Is It Essential for a Data Center?

Dynamic Capacity Provisioning: The ability of a data center to allocate and adjust computing resources
(like CPU, memory, and storage) based on real-time demand. It involves automatically scaling resources
up or down to match workload fluctuations without manual intervention.

Importance:

 Efficiency: Helps ensure that resources are utilized optimally, reducing wastage and lowering
operational costs.

 Scalability: Allows data centers to quickly adapt to changing workloads, accommodating peak
demands without downtime.

 Performance: Improves application responsiveness by dynamically matching resource

availability with user needs.

 Cost Savings: Reduces the need for over-provisioning resources, leading to financial efficiencies
in operations.

123. What Do You Mean by TIERing of a Data Center? Distinguish Between Different Data Center TIER
Standards with Illustrative Figures.

TIERing of a Data Center: Tiers refer to levels of redundancy and availability within a data center, using
defined standards to indicate how reliable the infrastructure is.

Data Center TIER Standards:

1. TIER I: Basic capacity; non-redundant components. Minimal protection against downtime; single
path for power and cooling.

o Availability: 99.671% uptime annually.

2. TIER II: Redundant components for cooling and power but single paths. More resilient than TIER
I; scheduled maintenance leads to downtime.

o Availability: 99.749% uptime annually.

3. TIER III: Concurrently maintainable; multiple paths for power and cooling. Can perform
maintenance without downtime, offering high availability.

o Availability: 99.982% uptime annually.

 4. TIER IV: Fully fault-tolerant; multiple active paths for power and cooling, ensuring no single
point of failure. Data centers can withstand disruptive events with no downtime.

o Availability: 99.995% uptime annually.

Illustrative Figures: Unfortunately, I can't provide images directly, but you can find diagrams of TIER
standards showing the infrastructure components and redundancy for each level.

124. Cluster Computing vs. Grid Computing.

Cluster Computing:

 Involves a group of interconnected computers working together as a single system to perform

tasks. Clusters usually have high-speed networks linking the nodes, often operating under a
single operating system.

 Primary Use: Typically for high-performance computing (HPC) applications with tightly-coupled
tasks.

Grid Computing:

 Involves a distributed computing environment where multiple computers contribute resources

to work on large tasks but are loosely coupled and can be located in different physical locations.

 Primary Use: Ideal for solving complex problems that require massive processing power, often
used for research and scientific computations.

125. What Do You Mean by Multi-Tenancy in the Cloud? Why Is It Beneficial for Cloud Service
Providers?

Multi-Tenancy: A cloud computing architecture where a single instance of software serves multiple
customers (tenants). Each tenant shares the same infrastructure and application but has its data and
configuration settings segregated securely.

Benefits for Cloud Service Providers:

 Resource Optimization: Maximizes resource utilization by serving multiple tenants from the
same infrastructure.

 Cost Efficiency: Reduces operational costs through economies of scale, allowing providers to
offer competitive pricing.

 Maintenance Ease: Simplifies software updates and maintenance because changes can be
deployed to a single instance rather than individual installations.
  Faster Deployment: New tenants can be onboarded quickly, taking advantage of shared
resources without lengthy setup processes.

126. Distinguish Between Elasticity and Scalability of Resources in the Cloud.

Elasticity:

 Definition: The ability to dynamically allocate and deallocate resources in response to

fluctuating demands. Elasticity ensures that resources can automatically scale up or down based
on current workload requirements.

 Usage: Essential for applications with varying workloads (e.g., e-commerce websites during peak
shopping seasons).

Scalability:

 Definition: The capacity to increase or decrease resources in a system proportionally to

demand, typically without requiring major reconfiguration. Scalability can be vertical (adding
resources to existing machines) or horizontal (adding more machines).

 Usage: Important for consistent growth, allowing applications to handle increased loads and
user demands efficiently over the long term.

127. What is DCIM in Data Center?

DCIM (Data Center Infrastructure Management): A set of tools and practices used to monitor, manage,
and optimize data center performance and resource utilization. It combines hardware and software to
track the status of data center assets, environmental conditions, and overall energy consumption.

Functionality:

 Asset Management: Tracks physical assets such as servers, networking devices, and storage.

 Monitoring: Provides real-time visibility into power usage, cooling, and environmental factors.

 Capacity Planning: Helps optimize resource allocation and plan for future expansions.

 Workflow Management: Streamlines operational workflows, including maintenance and change

management processes.

128. What Do You Mean by RISC and CISC? Compare the Properties of RISC and CISC Processors.
RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer):

 Definition: Architecture that emphasizes a small, highly optimized instruction set designed for
fast execution. RISC processors utilize simple instructions that can be executed within one clock
cycle.

 Properties:

o Fewer addressing modes

o Load/store architecture

o Fixed instruction length

o Greater emphasis on compiler optimizations

CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer):

 Definition: Architecture that provides a large set of instructions, allowing for complex
operations to be executed using a single instruction. CISC processors are designed to minimize
the number of instructions needed to perform a task.

 Properties:

o More addressing modes

o Variable instruction length

o A wider range of instructions for operations

o Elaborate instruction decoding and execution processes

Comparison:

 Performance: RISC is generally faster due to simpler instructions, while CISC can execute more
complex instructions in fewer clock cycles.

 Complexity: RISC designs are simpler, leading to easier circuit design, while CISC is more
complex, resulting in more intricate decoding logic.

 Memory Usage: RISC may lead to more programs due to more instructions for simple tasks,
while CISC may require less memory due to fewer instructions accomplishing more complex
tasks.

129. HTTP vs. HTTPS.

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):

 Protocol used for transmitting data over the web. It is stateless and does not provide encryption,
making it vulnerable to eavesdropping and man-in-the-middle attacks.

HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure):

 An extension of HTTP that incorporates SSL/TLS protocols to provide a secure encrypted

connection. HTTPS ensures the confidentiality and security of data transmitted between the
client and server.

Differences:

 Security: HTTPS encrypts data in transit, while HTTP does not.

 Port: HTTP typically uses port 80, whereas HTTPS uses port 443.

 Trust: HTTPS indicates trust and reliability, essential for e-commerce and sensitive transactions,
often indicated by a padlock symbol in the browser's address bar.

130. Explain Why Called NOR and NAND Gate Universal.

Universal Gates: NAND and NOR gates are considered universal gates because they can be used to
create any other type of logic gate (AND, OR, NOT).

 NAND Gate:

o Function: Outputs LOW only when all its inputs are HIGH.

o Construction: Any complex logic circuit can be constructed using only NAND gates by
combining them appropriately.

 NOR Gate:

o Function: Outputs HIGH only when all its inputs are LOW.

o Construction: Similarly, all logical functions can be created using NOR gates alone by
combining them correctly.

Their universality allows designers to use just one type of gate in designing complex circuits,
contributing to simplicity and efficiency in digital circuit design.

131. Active Attack vs. Passive Attack, SRAM vs. DRAM.

Active Attack:
  Involves an attacker actively attempting to alter data, disrupt services, or cause harm to a
system. Examples include man-in-the-middle attacks and denial-of-service (DoS) attacks.

Passive Attack:

 Involves an attacker monitoring and collecting data without altering or disrupting the system.
Examples include eavesdropping on communications and traffic analysis.

SRAM (Static Random Access Memory):

 Characteristics: Retains data bits in its memory as long as power is supplied; faster and more
reliable than DRAM but more expensive and takes up more space.

 Usage: Commonly used for cache memory in processors due to its higher speed.

DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory):

 Characteristics: Stores data bits in capacitors that need constant refreshing; slower than SRAM
but offers higher density and is less expensive.

 Usage: Used as the main memory in computers and various electronic devices.

132. What is SNR? Write the Significance of SNR in Analog Transmission. Signal of dBm Noise 20 dBm.
Calculate SNR.

SNR (Signal-to-Noise Ratio): A measure used to compare the level of a desired signal to the level of
background noise. Higher SNR indicates a cleaner signal and better performance in communication
systems.

Significance in Analog Transmission:

 SNR is crucial for evaluating the quality of a transmission channel; a high SNR means better
audio or video quality.

 A higher SNR reduces the probability of errors and improves overall system performance and
reliability.

Given Data:

 Signal = dBm (assuming some value, let's say 40 dBm for the sake of the calculation).

 Noise = 20 dBm.

SNR Calculation: [ SNR = Signal - Noise \ SNR = 40 , \text{dBm} - 20 , \text{dBm} = 20 , \text{dB} ]

This indicates a strong signal quality relative to noise.

133. Show the 3-Way Handshake Protocol in TCP Connection Establishment Using a Diagram.

The 3-Way Handshake is a process for establishing a TCP connection between a client and a server:

1. SYN: The client sends a SYN message to the server to initiate a connection.

o Client --> [SYN] --> Server

2. SYN-ACK: The server responds with a SYN-ACK message, acknowledging the receipt of the SYN.

o Server <-- [SYN-ACK] <-- Client

3. ACK: The client sends back an ACK message confirming the receipt of the server's SYN-ACK
message.

o Client --> [ACK] --> Server

The connection is now established, and data can be transmitted.

Please note that I cannot create diagrams directly but can describe them. A visual representation
typically involves arrows showing the flow of messages between two devices (the client and server).

If you need any additional explanations or another part of this vast list, feel free to ask!