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Bio notes

biology (Cumberland High School)

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Module 1 - Cells as the Basis of Life

- Classified as either Prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells
- Prokaryotic cells have a more simpler structure than eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that Don’t have Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus
organelles or other internal membrane-bound structures and organelles
and do not have a nucleus. Multicellular- depends on each other to survive

4 main structures that all prokaryotic cells have Eukaryotic cells are much more complex
1. Cell membrane ➢ It is a membrane bound nucleus which
2. Cytoplasm has the genetic material
3. Ribosomes
4. Genetic material Organelles: All the internal structures that are
➢ No membrane surrounding the genetic membrane bound
material and therefore no nucleus
➢ Genetic material forms large rings called ➢ Organelles carry out biochemical
ribosomes reactions such as respiration and
➢ Structures photosynthesis
Cell wall: protects the cell and provides structural support ➢ Are extremely essential
Pilli: allows them adhere to nearby
Flagella: provide the cell with locomotion Removal of wastes in Eukaryotic cells
Capsule: layer composed of complex carbohydrates ➢ Some waste products are packaged up by
outside the cell wall the lysosome and removed via exocytosis.
➢ Are unicellular ➢ Hormones and enzymes produced by the
➢ Can be divided into archaea and and bacteria cell are packaged into vesicles and leave
➢ similar in both size and shape but different via exocytosis.
chemical composition Proteasomes
➢ Bacteria→ beneficial OR harmful ➢ contain enzymes(proteases) which
➢ archaea → found in extreme and harsh breakdown proteins
environments ➢ found in the cytoplasm and nucleus.
E.g Kidney
➢ filters blood
➢ Reabsorbs proteins, glucose etc.
➢ Secretes waste
➢ Maintains salt and water balance and pH
of the blood

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TECHNOLOGIES
Light microscopes Fluorescence microscopes Electron microscopes

Compound light microscopes Similar to light microscopes Uses an electron beam instead of
used in school light, and electromagnets instead of
Extra parts that allow for lenses
Light source passes through the specificity on a certain area
condenser lens and through the The interaction between the
specimen and to the convex A fluorescent substance will electrons and the object forms a
objective lens where it is attach to the structures is viewable image on a screen. The use
magnified specifically being observed and of electrons instead of light gives
the fluorescent light is directed much greater magnification
Magnification up to 1500x and through filters that separate it
resolution up to 200nm are from surrounding light have a much higher resolving power
important to see the detail in the than light microscopes because
specimen electrons have a much shorter
wavelength than light

➢ Digital processing images by microscopes has allowed scientist to view cell differently
➢ cell scan software produces three-dimensional representations of cell structure
SIZES OF CELLS
1 cm = 10 mm & 1 mm = 1000 µ & 1 µm=1000 mm Actual length/Length of drawing = scale

ORGANELLES - Eukaryotic
Membranes - Selective boundaries (Both) Protoplasm

- The functions essential to life such as

- The cell membrane surrounds the cell contents making cellular products and
in all cells respiration
- Controls passage of water and other chemical - Living content of a cell surrounded by

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coming in and out membrane

- In both plants and animals - Contains a liquid called Cytosol
- It is selectively permeable allows in certain - Composed of nucleus and cytoplasm
substances to pass through

Nucleus - The control and information centre Endoplasmic Reticulum - Transport and
(Both) processing of proteins and lipids (both)

- Sphere, oval structure -

Flattened interconnected membranes
- Colourless and transparent jelly like -
Provides connection between the
- Usually one nucleus per cell nucleus and and the cell’s
- Stores information needed to control all cell environment
activities Rough ER → ribosomes
- Surrounded by double nuclear membrane Smooth ER → no ribosomes
- Have tiny pores pierced in nuclear membrane - Main function is to transport but can
that regulate passage of substances between the also synthesis lipids
nucleus and cytoplasm allowing communication -

Ribosomes (both) Golgi body - packaging and sorting the

product(both)

- Are small organelles - Does not have ribosomes attached

- Small size increases surface area - Arranged in stacks 4-10
- Made of Chemical RNA and protein - They package and sort cell products
- Carries out the genetically coded instructions of - Membrane provided act as a
DNA to produce any proteins necessary packaging label
- Amino acids are joined in order to form -
Polypeptides, structural unit of proteins
- Free in the cytoplasm or scatters over the surface
of ER

Lysosomes – digestion and destruction (animal only ) Mitochondria – cellular respiration

(both)

- Organelle within the cytoplasm eventually wear - Powerhouse of a cell

out - Produces energy in the form of energy
- They help with the process of reusing and rich molecules by the process of
recycling cellular respiration
- Formed by the golgi body - Smaller than the nucleus
- Contains digestive enzymes so that complex - Number of M. depends on how much
compounds can be broken down to simpler energy the cell requires to carry out
compounds its function
- Lysosomes can destroy and entire cell→ - Energy comes in the form of chemical
apoptosis called ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

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- Simple compounds building blocks for new - Surrounded by double membrane

organelles Outer membrane: gives shape and allows
passage of small substances in and out of the
mitochondria
Inner membrane: folded into fine, finger like
ridges or cristae which increases surface are
- Filled with fluid called matrix contains
DNA and enzymes that give the
feature of replication

Vacuoles – storage and support (plant only) Chloroplasts – photosynthesis(plant only )

- Large, permanent, fluid filled sacs in the - Green in colour due to chlorophyll
cytoplasm of mature plant cells - Responsible for photosynthesis
- Watery solution→ cell sap sugar in plants, using the energy of sunlight
- Surrounded by only single membrane - Not present in all plants
- For storage and support - Belong to group called plastids
- By filling up with water vacuole pushes outwards - chloroplasts→ green plastids
with cytoplasm placing pressure on the wall → - Surrounded by double membrane
turgid - Liquid→ stroma
- Stacks of membranes → thylakoids
- Single membrane→ granum

Plant cell wall – shape and support (plant only ) Centrioles – spindle production in cell
division( animal only)

- Cellulose provides strength and support - Granular structure

- Cellulose fibres have a little elasticity and are - Dense
somewhat flexible - Near nucleus in animal cells
- May be thickened with additional chemicals - Consists of two centrioles
- Role in cell division

Cytoskeleton – keeps organelles in place (both)

- Held in place by network of tiny microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments

- Framework for shape of the cell, cell movement, organelle movements and cell division

AUTOTROPHS: create their own food (plants)

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HETEROTROPHS: consume other organisms for food (humans)

PHOTOTROPH: uses light as energy source
CHEMOTROPH: uses chemicals as energy source

NUTRIENTS THE CELL REQUIRES

Inorganic Compounds Organic Compounds

● Water
● Oxygen Carbohydrates
● Carbon dioxide Lipids
● Nitrogen Proteins
● Minerals Nucleic acids
● Vitamins
● Ions eg: Na, K, Cl

CELL MEMBRANES - gateway to cells

- Structure of the cell membrane → mosaic model
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
- Controls what goes in and out between the different environments
- Selectively permeable means that it allows only certain things in
- Concentration of substances remain constant
- Describes the cells membrane as having a Lipid bilayer
- Can flow and change shape
- Some can move sideways or be in a fixed position
- Specialised proteins are embedded in the lipid
- The lipid components of all membranes allow them to be flexible and repair themselves

LIPID CONTENT
- Composed of two layer phospholipids called phospholipid bilayer
→ represented by head and two tails
Head → Hydrophilic: water absorbs and dissolving
Tail → Hydrophobic: Unable to dissolve in water as they are fatty acid tails
MEMBRANE PROTEINS
- Scattered throughout and suspended in the bilayer
- Some proteins may be fixed in placed while others travel freely
- Can function as pores or form of active carrier system or channels for transport or for cell
recognition
- Proteins allow for cell to cell interaction and communication
Membrane recognition proteins or glycoproteins identify the cell and are called antigens.
They allow the immune system to distinguish between foreign particles ( and the body’s
own cells.
- Transport proteins act like passageways that allow specific substances to move across the
membrane. Also involved in cellular communication.

- Receptor proteins are different in different types of cells. They cause the cells to respond

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only to certain signals from substances such as hormones that bind to them, giving them
specific functions
E.g For example, in multicellular organisms, adhesion proteins link cells together and help
maintain the organism’s three-dimensional structure

surface-area-to-volume ratio:
● surface area/volume
● smaller cell = more surface area in relation to volume (higher SA:V)
● larger cell = smaller amount of surface area in relation to volume (lower SA:V)
Into cells out of cells

- nutrients waste
- oxygen - carbon dioxide
- water - urea
- gases - hormones/mucus
- anti-bodies

DIFFUSION: Movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low

concentration until it is balanced

OSMOSIS: a type of diffusion which is the movement of solvent/water molecules through a

semipermeable membrane.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT: movement of molecules from a region of low concentration to a region of

high concentration gradient, involving use of energy

ENDOCYTOSIS: when a large particle wants to enter a cell, the cell membrane can change its shape
to surround the particle and engulf it by this process

EXOCYTOSIS: process by which special substances are transported to the external environment of
the cell

Solutions
Hypotonic low concentration of water compared to outside, water will enter cell (it’ll expand)

Isotonic equilibrium

Hypertonic high concentration of water compared to outside, water will leave cell (it’ll shrivel)

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CELLULAR RESPIRATION - PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Respiration occurs all hours where as photosynthesis - Utilises light energy where it is trapped in
occurs only during the day the chlorophyll in the chloroplasts
- All living organisms rely on one source of energy - Energy breaks apart water and carbon
ATP dioxide molecules and into oxygen,
Glucose is broken down in two ways glucose molecules and water molecules
Anaerobic respiration
- alcohol/yeast fermentation
glucose→ ethanol +carbon dioxide + adenosine
Triphosphate Photosynthesis is a series of smaller reactions
Lactic acid fermentation occurring across two stages
Occurs during strenuous exercise - A light-dependent stage occurs in
the grana where light energy splits
When more oxygen become available the lactic acid the water molecules into oxygen
become pyruvate and is then converted by aerobic and hydrogen.
respiration into carbon dioxide, water and energy - The light-independent stage occurs
in the stroma where carbon
dioxide and hydrogen combine to
form glucose
ENZYMES
- Most enzymes are proteins
- Control metabolic reactions
- biological catalysts – speed up chemical reactions
- Enzymes are protein molecules
- Requires less energy to start reaction due to enzymes → activation energy
- All living cells must maintain a balance despite the differences in internal external
conditions
- Most organisms live within a small temperature range
- A protein consists of a long chain of amino acids (called a peptide) which is folded into a 3
dimensional shape
TWO TYPES OF REACTION
Anabolic
➢ Builds ups large molecules
➢ Requires energy
➢ Endergonic → require energy
Catabolic
➢ Breaking down complex molecules into simpler molecules
E.g proteins into amino acids
Exergonic →releases energy

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SUBSTRATE substance that an enzyme reacts with

ACTIVE SITE part of enzymes surface into which the substrate binds

lock and key model fit exactly

induced fit model enzyme changes shape slightly

Coenzyme is a non-protein molecule that helps to form the active site by binding
to the enzyme. Extra piece to help it fit into the active site

Inhibitors Are chemicals that reduce the rate of enzymatic reactions

REVERSIBLE INHIBITORS are used to control enzyme activity. INteraction between the substrate and
the enzymes controlling the reaction

Competitive inhibitors This involves competition for the reactive site

Noncompetitive inhibitors work either to slow down the rate of reaction or block the active site
altogether and prevent its function (allosteric inhibition)

Denaturation At high temperatures the bond break and destroys active site

Saturation point All active sites are being used so adding more substrate has no effect on
reaction rate as Vmax has been reached

temperature pH: A measure of acidity

mammals→ 40°C - Optimum pH - the pH at which the enzyme is

cells function best at a small temperature range most active.
although as the temperature increases, the rate - Enzymes are denatured by extremes of pH,
of reaction increases until the optimal either too alkaline or too acidic. They operate
temperature is reached. If the cell exceed its within a very narrow range.
maximum level (60°C) the cell will start to - Changing pH even slightly either side of the

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deteriorate and become ineffective optimum, affects enzyme function but it is

reversible.
- Greater changes cause irreversible damage
(denaturation).

Module 2 - Organisation of Living Things

Unicellular: Exist as a single cell working with other single cells → colonial
Multicellular: where many cells depend on each other where they specialised in a certain function
and work together to keep the organism alive

Unicellular organisms Colonial organisms Multicellular organisms

● Contain only one cell ● made up of identical ● made up of many

● Can either be prokaryotic or single-celled organisms different types of cells
eukaryotic collectively called a ● similar cells are grouped
● Always exposed to the colony together to perform
external environments ● all individuals in the specialised functions →
● Have a high surface area to colony are capable of efficient functioning
volume ratio which enable carrying out each ● specialised cells cannot
easy movement of function necessary for life live independently
substances to carry it its ● some contain cells with ● processes of obtaining
functions specialised functions that nutrients and getting rid
● Wastes can efficiently be are coordinated with of wastes in unicellular
removed other cells in colony more and colonial organisms
efficient functioning rely on diffusion and are
e.g. volvox, coral, jellyfish less successful and
efficient than those in
multicellular organisms
● larger in overall size
therefore SA: V is smaller
● passive transport is
insufficient to address
their needs (overcome by
functional organisation)

FORMING SPECIALISED FUNCTIONS

Cell specialisation: refers to the particular Differentiation: is the process that a stem cell
functions that a cell has. goes through to become specialised

- When becoming specialised they differentiate

- All specialised cells originate from stem cells
- Stem cells are undifferentiated
- Stem cells can be found in embryos where they are known as embryonic stem cells/ adult
cells
- requirement for well-developed communication and coordination between the many
specialised cells

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- Cell structure is related to the particular function of the specialised cell

The type of cell that is formed is determined by the location of the undifferentiated cells in the
organism and the particular genes that are switched on
Structural organisation of multicellular organisms

ANIMAL CELLS
epithelial - covers body surfaces, protects organs and forms glands
- cells are densely packed and can occur in either single sheets or layers
- does not contain blood vessels
- relies on underlying connective tissue for nutrients
- two distinct surfaces
1. surface that is exposed to exterior of body cavity
2. surface that is exposed to adjacent tissue
- cells of epithelial tissue are organised very close to each other, aiding their
role as barriers to injury and infection
- may also be specialised for absorption or secretion

connective - Can vary in function and form it takes

- all connective tissues share common characteristic of an extracellular matrix
with cells scattered through it
- matric is made up of protein fibres collagen (for strength) and elastin (for
flexibility
- provides support, ensures that different parts of body are bound together
and protects against damage
- different types of connective tissue vary in density and the way cells are

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specialised

Types: fibrous connective tissue, loose connective tissue, adipose tissue,

cartilage, bone and blood (differences are due to arrangement of cells and
their specialised structure and function
e.g. adipose, cartilage, collagen

nervous nervous system: brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves which contains
nervous tissue
highly specialised for communication between all parts of the body
- nerve cells (neurons) are highly specialised for their function of passing
messages to other cells and itself
- neurons consist of multi-branched dendrites and an axon that extends out
from cell body

muscle contains muscle cells called muscle fibres → Contractions of muscles

three types: skeletal, cardiac, smooth – contain proteins actin and myosin which
interact with each other to cause the cells to lengthen and shorten

skeletal muscle: long, have striations (light and dark areas) which are caused by
arrangement of actin and myosin. attached to bones and their contraction
causes movement in the organism.
Voluntary → conscious movement

cardiac muscle: present in heart and have striations (light and dark areas).
Individual cells have connection functions that are necessary for
coordinated beating of the heart.
involuntary→ automatic

smooth muscle: do not have striations and their contractions push substances
through specialised organs such as gastrointestinal tract, the blood vessels
and urethra which leads to bladder.
involuntary → Automatic

Plant cells
The organs of a plant 1. The shoot system is the part of the plant above the ground. It supports
can be grouped into the plant, enables the transport of substances around the plant,
three systems: exchanges gases, and carries out photosynthesis and reproduction.
Organs that are part of the shoot system include the leaves, the stem
and the reproductive organs.
2. The root system is that part of the plant below the ground. It is
responsible for absorbing water and nutrients from the soil for the use
of the rest of the plant. The roots, including the root hairs, are organs of
the root system.
3. Sometimes plants are said to have a third system – the vascular system
for transport. It is made up of xylem and phloem vessels

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meristematic - found at tips of roots and shoots

- cells divide to produce new growth
- cell differentiation to produce specialised cells
- cube-shaped and very small

Dermal - protects plant tissues

- can be found on outer layers of stems, roots and leaves
- protects plant from damage and controls interactions with plants
surroundings
- epidermal layer is outermost layer of dermal tissue
- secretes waxy layer called cuticle which is vital to reduce water loss from
plant
- wide variety of epidermal cells and most lack a chloroplast. They can
also produce fine hairs on the surfaces of leaves and stems (trap a layer
of air next to the leaf, preventing flow of air and decreasing evaporation
of water from the leaf. other types = contain
- substances that are harmful to insects that feed on them)
- some have very fine projections called root hair which increase surface
area for movement of water into root, increasing water and mineral
intake

vascular - responsible for transport of substances around plant

- found in roots, stems and leaves
two main types: xylem and phloem
xylem transports water and mineral salts from roots to leaves
phloem transports products of photosynthesis around the plant.

ground - all internal cells of a plant other than the vascular tissue
- bulk of plant tissue and consists of a variety of different cell types that
are specialised for food storage, support and photosynthesis

BODY SYSTEMS
Circulatory - delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues
- equalises temperature in the body

Respiratory - removes carbon dioxide from the body

- delivers oxygen to the blood

Excretory - performs the breakdown and discharge of wastes in the body

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Digestive - processes food for use by body

- removes waste from undigested food

Autotroph structure and function

vascular plants they possess a transport system to move substances from one part of the plant to
another

Non-vascular plants (such as mosses) do not possess specialised structures for support and transport

autotrophs produce their own organic compounds from inorganic compounds surrounding
them

heterotrophs
must consume other organisms for organic substances for energy

Xylem responsible for the transport of water, along with water-soluble nutrients and
minerals, absorbed from the soil through the root system.

Phloem is conductive tissue composed of thin-walled cells that transport sugars, in the
form of dissolved sucrose, and other plant products from one part of a plant to
another

- The main functions of the root system are anchoring the plant and absorbing water and
inorganic nutrients from the soil.
- The root system is usually underground.The roots have a very large surface area that
allows water and inorganic mineral salts to be absorbed efficiently.
There are three main types of tissue in the stem:
– Dermal tissue is the outer layer of the stem.
– Vascular tissue consists of the xylem and phloem tissue organised in vascular bundles.
– Ground tissue is all the parts of the stem that are not dermal tissue or vascular tissue.

leaf tissue structure function

cuticle thin waxy waterproof layer protects inner cells, prevents water loss and allows
sunlight to penetrate for photosynthesis

epidermis transparent and usually thin protects inner cells, prevents water loss and allows
sunlight to penetrate for photosynthesis

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epidermis and contains guard cells surrounding regulates gas exchange and water loss – waxy cuticle
cuticle stomata protects leaf from excess water loss and the
opening/closing of stomata controls the amount of
gas and water entering/exiting

mesophyll ● palisade: tightly packed photosynthesis

column shaped cells with
many chloroplasts, close
to epidermis
● spongy: loosely packed,
rounded cells with fewer gas exchange, including diffusion of CO2 throughout
chloroplasts, with air leaf
spaces around cells

xylem and phloem tubular vessels transports fluids

XYLEM PHLOEM

Two main elements: xylem tracheids and xylem vessels - Is a living tissue
separated by parenchyma and fibre. - Comprised of two main elements: sieve
- Consist of cells stacked on top of each where the tube elements and companion cells
transverse (horizontal) walls have broken down and - Sieve tube element - has a cytoplasm
the cell contents have died to leave a hollow tube. but no nucleus or mitochondria
- The walls of the xylem are strengthened and - Arranged end to end to form a tube
thickened to prevent collapse by rings or spirals of - Have a sieve plate at either end
lignin. - Companion cell - controls the activity of
- The pits are very thin areas of the xylem that allow the sieve tube element, providing it
for the sideways movement of water and minerals with the energy to carry out transport
- Tracheids are elongated, narrow cells with tapered of the sap and keeping it alive
ends. They have walls thickened with lignin and no - The transport of sugars is known as
perforated plates. translocation

SHOOT SYSTEMS
- The main function of the leaf is to absorb sunlight and carry out photosynthesis to produce
the organic compound glucose
- The thin, flat structure and orientation of the leaf maximise surface area for absorption of
sunlight
- A waxy cuticle minimises water loss from the leaf
- Palisade cells containing many chloroplasts are lined up vertically near the upper surface of
the leaf to absorb sunlight
- Spongy mesophyll cells are loosely and irregularly organised to allow easy movement of

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gases through the leaf

- Transport tissue in the leaf is organised into veins. This provides support as well as a
pathway for the movement of water and the products of photosynthesis
- Guard cells, which are often more numerous on the underside of the leaf, change shape to
open and close ‘pores’ known as stomata
- The gases oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the inside and outside of the
leaf through stomata
- All plant cells carry out cellular respiration both at night and during the day.
- Oxygen produced in photosynthesis is used in this process.

GAS EXCHANGES
Respiratory surface - They are a specialised surface for gaseous exchange in contact with the
external environment
- A large surface area is needed for fast diffusion and to compensate for small SA:V ratio
achieved through folding and flattening
- A moist thin surface reduces the distance across which diffusion occurs and moist so that
the oxygen and carbon dioxide is dissolved
- It is close to transport system for efficient dispersal to all cell

Mammals Fish INSECTS FROGS

● habitat - dry→ Habitat - Water is Habitat - terrestrial, Habit - amphibious, live

dehydration is a already dissolved in therefore problem of water on land but breed in
problem water but is at a low loss. water. Different
● Solution - Internal concentration - Also insects do not habitats at different
respirator compared to the have lungs, blood or a stages of the life cycle
systems(lungs) with a concentration of oxygen circulatory system for Solution - Adults have a
large surface area in the air transport combination of simple
● Multiple lobes - Oxygen varies - Have large energy lungs and gas exchange
● branching(trachea→ depending in requirements, across moist skin
bronchus → water depth, therefore require Tadpoles - have a
bronchioles → alveoli) temperature and efficient respiration combination of gills and
● Folding and vili in the surface area of gas exchange across
alveolar sacs water exposed Solution moist skin
Gas exchange to air - Gas exchange cannot - Due to large
- Occurs across a thin cell - Solution- occur through their SA:V ratio (small
barrier internal gills body covering body and long
- By diffusion across a with one way - An internal thin tail)
concentration gradient flow of water respiratory surface diffusion is
- Breathing occurs as a - Water flows over consisting of adequate for gas
result of the the gills gas branching tracheal exchange
concentration of the exchange takes tubes Adults
diaphragm place - Air is exchanged Have simple lungs (not
- Each gill has 2 directly into the cells a lot of folding and
rows of Air enters through the branching) and no
filaments to spiracles (which have valves diaphragm or ribs.
increase SA for to control their opening and Three surfaces for gas

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exchange closing) and enter the exchange.

- Gas exchange trachea which branch into The moist lining of the
occurs across a tracheoles to increase the SA mouth acts as a surface
concentration for gas exchange. for gas exchange
gradient Ends of the tracheoles Skin - The main surface
contain a watery fluid to for gas exchange in the
dissolve the gases aquatic environment.
Gases diffuse directly into It is thin moist and well
and out of cells supplied with blood
vessels
COMMONALITIES between skin, gills, trachea and lungs
• All the respiratory organs have a large surface area to get enough oxygen.
• All the respiratory organs have thin walls for easy diffusion and exchange of respiratory gases.
• All the respiratory organs like skin, lungs and gills have a rich blood supply for transporting gases.
But only in the tracheal system of respiration, air reaches the cells directly.

MAMMALIAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS

- There is a relationship between the length and complexity of their digestive systems of
vertebrates in relation to their diet
- More complex diets → longer digestive tract and the longer digestion takes (specialised
structures)

Carnivores
- Eat meat
- MEat is low in carbohydrates, high in protein and fat and contain more energy per kg than
plants
- Food doesn't need to stay in the digestive system as long
- Small intestine usually short in comparison to body size

TYPES OF TEETH
Incisors → cutting or shearing food into small chewable pieces
Canines → ripping and tearing at tough foods
Premolars → chewing and grinding food
Molars→ chewing and grinding food

PROCESS OF DIGESTION
Chemical Mechanical

- Process of using digestive enzymes to - Physical breakdown of food particles

chemically breakdown the food - mouth→ chewing, grinding
- Trying to obtain glucose, complex - Stomach→ the churning motion
carbohydrates, amino acids, fatty acids and
nucleotides

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PATHWAY THROUGH THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Mouth - Teeth breakfast into smaller pieces
- Salivary amylase released into the mouth where enzymes can start the
chemical breakdown
- Food formed into ball shape call bolus

Oesophagus - travels along the soft-walled, muscle-ringed tube to the stomach

- Muscular contractions also move the bolus by a process called peristalsis.

stomach - there are narrow openings whose opening and closing are controlled by
circular sphincter muscles
- Once inside the stomach, relaxation and contraction of the stomach walls
continue mechanical digestion
- Continues the mechanical breakdown in an acidic environment
- Evolves into mixture known as chyme which include pepsin to continue
chemical breakdown

Small intestines The highly folded small intestine contains 3 main regions:
- the duodenum (at the start of the small intestine)
- the jejunum (middle section)
- ileum (end region)
- bile is released into the duodenum

Absorption Digestive - Absorption of substances mostly occurs in the jejunum section of the
tract small intestine
- The products of digestion, including amino acids, glucose, fatty acids and
glycerol, move into the transport systems of the body in the small
intestine
- The pancreas releases many different digestive enzymes and bicarbonate
ions.
- Other enzymes complete the chemical breakdown of larger molecules.
- Most absorption of products of digestion occurs in the jejunum.
- Villi are microscopic projections on the wall of the jejunum that are one
cell thick.
- Small molecules diffuse or are actively transported through the walls of
the villi into the capillary or lymph vessels to be distributed throughout
the body.

Large intestines - The large intestine has two main sections: the colon and the rectum
- the remaining undigested material moves to the large intestine
- Water and mineral salts are absorbed from the large intestine into the
bloodstream.
- The remaining undigested material is called faeces and is stored in the
rectum before being eliminated from the body.
- Digestive products absorbed into the body are used in many different
ways, including for structural purposes and for energy storage

Liver - Bile produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder emulsifies fat

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molecules to increase surface area for breakdown

NUTRIENT/GAS REQUIREMENT AUTOTROPH HETEROTROPH

Oxygen gas Diffuses into the plant across Diffuses through the respiratory
cell surfaces surface

Carbon dioxide gas Diffuses into the plant Not required

Water Diffuses into roots Ingested into the digestive system

Glucose Produced by photosynthesis Ingested into the digestive system

as either simple or complex
carbohydrates, and absorbed into
the bloodstream

Proteins, lipids Produced by the plant from Ingested into the digestive system
glucose and mineral ions and absorbed into the bloodstream
as amino acids, fatty acids or
glycerol

Mineral ions Move into the plant through the ingested into the digestive system
roots by diffusion and active and absorbed into the bloodstream
transport

- Autotrophs and heterotrophs require gases and nutrients to maintain efficient and effective
metabolic function
- Both heterotrophs and autotrophs require inorganic and organic substances, water and
oxygen gas. Autotrophs also require carbon dioxide gas
- Heterotrophs need to take in all of their nutrients. Autotrophs produce their own organic
nutrients using the energy from the sun, but need to obtain water, mineral ions and the
gases carbon dioxide and oxygen
- Autotrophs manufacture their own glucose and other organic substances from inorganic
nutrients
- Heterotrophs must obtain all of their organic nutrients by consuming autotrophs or other
heterotrophs

COMPONENTS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS

Vascular System
In mammals, this consists of the blood vessels and blood.
- Arteries→ arterioles → capillaries → venules → veins

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Components of blood are plasm, erythrocytes, thrombocytes and leukocytes

Erythrocytes Carry nutrients and oxygen throughout the body

Thrombocytes Clump together to make blood clot

Leukocytes are the body’s immune response to foreign invaders

OPEN AND CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS

- Role of the circulatory system is to supply nutrients and remove waste products from
organisms.
- Circulatory systems are more efficient than simple diffusion, particularly for multicellular
organisms
Three types of vessels:
1. arteries (carry blood away from the heart),
2. capillaries (the link between the arteries, the organs and the veins)
3. veins (take blood back to the heart)
- Interstitial Fluid - fluid outside the circulatory system containing nutrients, gases and waste
- High pressure, efficient transport suitable for large, active organisms

Open circulatory systems Closed Circulatory systems

- Blood is contained in vessels for some of the time

- Blood leaves the vessels to bathe the tissues and - Called a closed system because
then returns to the vessels the blood never leaves the vessels
- Found in invertebrates such as insects, spiders, although the oxygen and nutrients
crabs and snails do.
- Fluid is pumped by a vessel (heart) through short - Found in vertebrates including
vessels that empty into empty spaces (sinuses) in mammals, birds, reptiles and
the body cavity amphibians

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- Transport fluid is called hemolymph (a clear fluid - Involves a pumping mechanism

without R.B.C.) (heart) with 2, 3 or 4 chambers
- Exchange is by diffusion between the
haemolymph and the cells
- Haemolymph returns to the heart through small
holes
- Transport is slow and inefficient as it occurs under
low pressure

Module 3 - Biological Diversity

SELECTIVE PRESSURE
- Changes in the environment result in some resources becoming limited and organisms have
to compete for these resources.
- Those individuals within a population that have random variations that make them better
suited to survive in the changed environment are more likely to survive.
- If the variation has a genetic basis then it will be passed onto offspring.
- Over several generations, only individuals with the variation survive and the population will
become different to the original population.
- Selective pressures drive natural selection.

Selective pressures can include:

Abiotic Factors Biotic Factors

- Temperature - competition for the same limited

- light intensity resources
- soil type - predators and availability of prey
- water availability

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- gas availability.

Adaptation
- a characteristic that makes an organism suited to its’ environment
- a random change that is beneficial
Three types:
1. Structural
2. physiological (function)
3. behavioural

Inferring characteristics of adaptations

- an organism’s current characteristics may have been developed a long time ago when the
habitats were different
- not all characteristics are adaptations
- without knowing past environments in detail (hard to ascertain from fossil records) it is
difficult to suggest adaptations

Convergent evolution:
is the process whereby organisms not closely related, independently evolve similar traits as a
result of having to adapt to similar environments or ecological niches.

Why are keystone species important to the Certain species that are critical to the survival of other species
environment? within the same ecosystem.
→ It is the organism that helps hold the system together.
→ Without keystone species, some ecosystems would be very
different as they would not be able to adapt to environmental
changes. → ecosystem could come to an end or invasive species
could dominate, shifting the ecosystem in a new direction.

Why are keystone species often the focus of As if the keystone species disappeared from the ecosystem no
conservation efforts? other species would be able to fill its ecological niche hence the
ecosystem would change and possibly see the introduction of
invasive species.

An example of how humans affect the biotic Overpopulation, pollution and deforestation are some of the
selection pressures in an environment. many human-induced activities that affect the biotic selection
pressures within an environment. As the land is constantly being
exploited, rates of survival and reproduction of various species
will experience a decline.

Why do human activities have such far They damage ecosystems which species are reliant upon for
reaching consequences for so many species? survival for their own benefit. E.g. orangutans in Indonesia
become endangered due to humans deforesting to gain palm oil
for profit opportunity.

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Plant Adaptation Type of Environmental Factor How Adaptation Assists Survival

Adaptation Adaptation is Suited
To

Deciduous trees losing Physiological Very cold environments, Reduce the risk of ice forming with and
their leaves in Winter water shortages and between their cells.
lower availability of Deciduous trees lose their leaves and
sunlight go into a period of dormancy

Thick Cuticle Covering Structural Excessive sunlight It has reflective properties to reduce
Leaves the amount of evaporation, making the
epidermal cells waterproof to prevent
water loss by evaporation

Active Secretion of Salt Physiological Concentration of salt in Even in small concentrations the soils
any environments such water has damaging effects in cell
as mangroves structure and its metabolism. Plants
that are adapted to saline
Highly salty water environments are called halophytes.
supply. Plants can either use salt tolerance
(salt accumulation) or salt avoidance
(salt exclusion) as strategies to survive
in environments where they are
exposed to high salt concentrations.
Prevents dehydration and helps
maintain homeostasis.

Deep Root System Structural Able to access water supplies deep

underground. The plant will be able to
withstand heavy winds and soil erosion
will be prevented. Anchor the plant in a
windy environment. Obtain water and
get nutrients.

Sunken Stomata in Hairy Structural Moist air and water Sunken stomata allows moist air to be
Leaves vapour trapped in the pit, reducing the
difference in osmotic pressure outside
the stoma and in the leaf. Hairs trap
water vapour from transpiration,
creating a humid microclimate that
reduces transpiration.

Behavioural adaptation in animals Physiological adaptations in Structural adaptations of animals:

animals:

Red Kangaroo: It rests during the day. Octopus: secretes ink when Fennec Fox: has large thin ears that
Other kangaroos lick their wrists where threatened to prevent any allows cool blood to easily pass through
their blood vessels are close to the predators from seeing it the ears and cool down the fox. A thick

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surface with the evaporating saliva escape location. Camouflage coat keeps them warm at night, furry
having a cooling effect. It takes the helps it match its feet reduces contact between sensitive
heat energy to cause the evaporation. environment to hide from its skin and the hot sand. (lives in the
Puffer fish: puff up to scare away predators and prey. African desert)
predators

- Endosymbiosis = one organism actually living inside the other

- Mitochondria and Chloroplasts were originally free living bacteria
- Over millions of years of evolution, they have become more specialized and today they
cannot live outside the cell.
- They still have their own DNA, a remnant of their original genome.
Advantages of Being Multicellular
- allows an organism to exceed the size limits imposed by diffusion: single cells with
increased size have a decreased surface-to-volume ratio and have difficulty absorbing
sufficient nutrients and transporting them throughout the cell. Multicellular organisms thus
have the competitive advantages of an increase in size without its limitations.
- They can have longer lifespans as they can continue living when individual cells die.
- Multicellularity also permits increasing complexity/specialization by allowing differentiation
of cell types within one organism.

Influence of Selective Pressures

- Presence of increasing levels of O2 inhibited growth of anaerobes therefore their numbers
declined

Aerobic respiration is more efficient than anaerobic respiration

→ more energy available to organisms
→ increased complexity and size of organisms (development of multicellular organisms).

SPECIATION
Speciation is difficult to study since it takes a very long time – it occurs over geological time scales

Speciation is thought to occur mainly by allopatric speciation:

1. A population is divided by a natural barrier (new river, mountain, or other environmental
change.)
2. The two isolated populations accumulate genetic differences over time, eventually they
cannot mate together anymore = 2 new species

sympatric speciation:
1. Two populations that overlap geographically will usually interbreed, stopping speciation
2. Sometimes they will develop an isolating mechanism that stops one group mating with the
other, forming two groups
e.g. Queensland fruit flies – both occur in the yellow region

Developing species can become isolated from each other in a number of ways :
1. Geographically: different preferred habitats

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2. Temporally (Bactrocera fruit flies)

3. Behaviourally: e.g. a bird not recognizing a slightly different mating call

Speciation does involve natural selection.

When two populations are diverging, individuals who mate with members of the other group (the
“wrong” group) usually produce
- less progeny or
- infertile progeny (e.g. mules)
- or “confused” offspring(which mating call do they listen to?)
Evolutionary change is usually referred to as either:
Microevolutionary Macroevolutionary

small incremental changes affecting a fundamental changes that create significant

population within a species differences between many species.
EVOLUTION - THE EVIDENCE
Biochemical Evidence
This involves comparing the sequence of bases in chemicals found in cells to establish evolutionary
relationships.
1. Amino acid sequencing
2. DNA- DNA hybridization
3. DNA sequencing
DNA sequencing is now the most common type of evidence used as it has become cheaper and
easier.
Comparative Anatomy
Homologous Structures Analogous Structures

- structures with a similar pattern - Have similar structure and function

- suggest a common ancestor - Evolved independently
- result from divergent evolution - Result of convergent evolution
Vestigial Structures
- Evolutionary remnants of body parts that no longer serve a useful function
- Evidence of common ancestry
E.g Tailbone in humans, Pelvic bones in snakes and whales

Biogeography
- The study of the geographical distribution of organisms
- Following on from Darwin’s Theory, species should resemble those that share a similar
habitat or that lived in a common area before being split up. Eg: ratite birds & Gondwana

Wallace’s line
- The bird species in North-western Indonesia are most similar to those on the mainland.
- The bird species in South-eastern Indonesia are most similar to those on the Australian
mainland.
- In earlier times when the water level was higher, these islands remained separated.
- These regions are on different tectonic plates and have only recently come together.

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● The number of toes that the horses have has changed over time and the body size
● The reduction in the number of toes is an advantage for animals such as the horse as it
increases the speed at which the animal runs and therefore have an increased chance of
survival in the population
● Mutations and genetic drift has caused genetic variation which contribute to evolution as
mutations change the frequency of a gene, which is genetic drift resulting in possible
speciation and evolution if a population becomes isolated and reproduces based on these
changes to the gene pool.
● Genetic drift: variation in the frequency of different genotypes in a small population with
this change as a result of chance-like mutations.
PLATYPUS HORSE

● Evolution of platypus is an example of ● The evolution of the horse is an example

macroevolution of microevolution
● Evolution of platypus is significant ● The evolution of the horse is significant
because it shows that the modern because it shows a branching nature
platypus is more specialised than its early ● An extensive fossil record provides
ancestors. evidence
● The fossil record provides evidence for
platypus evolution however, it is limited.

FOSSIL EVIDENCE
The preserved remains, impressions or traces of organisms found in ice, amber, coal deposits or
rock.
Index Fossils
Also known as an indicator fossil
A commonly found fossil from similar sites for which an absolute age has been determined.
If an Index fossil is found it indicates that the rocks at each site are of a similar age.

Fossils can be dated using 2 methods

1. Relative dating
The sequence in which fossils are laid down in rock reflects the order in which they formed, with
the oldest rocks in the lower (bottom) layers.
This is called The Law of Superposition.
Relative Dating: Determines the chronological sequence and is able to show which organisms lived
together.
Limitations
- Does not give the actual age
- Sedimentary rock layers can be disturbed by geological events such as uplifting, folding,
faulting and earthquakes.

2. Absolute Dating
Provides a more accurate estimate of age (not an exact date).
Types: radiometric dating, thermoluminescence and electron spin resonance (ESR).
Radiometric dating determines the proportion of a radioisotope within a rock sample as radioactive decay

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occurs at a known rate.

Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) Thermoluminescence

- dates calcium carbonate in limestone, - Used for cooking hearths , pottery and fire treated
coral, fossil teeth, molluscs and egg tools up to 500,000 yrs old.
shells - the emission of light from an object when heated.
- Used for up to 300,000 yrs - The older an object the more light that is emitted.
- Absolute Dating Rock Layers - only useful for human evolution
interactive - destroys the sample

Module 4 - Ecosystem Dynamics

Palaeontology The study of fossils and all aspects of extinct life

Geology The study of the origin, history and structure of the Earth as recorded in the rocks.

Why study past To see the influence of past changes in the environment on the evolution of living
environments? things and to infer possible future effects of environmental change on living things.
Changes in the Distribution of Australian Species
● After Australia separated from Antarctica the continent was covered by closed rainforest
● As the continent moved northwards, the climate became drier and so the area of rainforest
shrank, replaced by open forests, woodlands and scrublands, dominated by eucalyptus and
acacia
● In semi-arid regions, mulga, tussock and hummock grasses became dominant
● By 2 mya, more than half of the continent was arid desert or semi-arid scrubland
● The record of climate change has been explored in detail at Riversleigh in Queensland.
● Rocks and fossils at this site cover 25 mya to 40 000 years ago.
● They preserve the record of climate change in this region from tropical rainforest to arid for
much of the year except during monsoon season.
● Fossils at this site confirm that Australia was covered by broad leaved rainforest
Origins of Australian Flora Origins of Australian Fauna

● Present on the continent when it ● Present on the continent when it separated from
separated from Gondwana Gondwana
● Migrated from South East Asia to Eg: frogs, reptiles, monotremes, marsupials, emus and lyrebird
Australia ● Introduced by traders and aborigines ( 4 000 ya)
● Introduced species with the arrival eg: dingoes
of humans ● Introduced by Europeans (120 ya)
E.g Tree fern from Gondwana, Introduced eg: horse, fox, rabbit
Bitou Bush ● Migrated from Asia when sea levels were low and land
bridges were exposed (15 mya and 40 - 30 000 ya)
Eg: snakes, rats, mice and bats.
Ecological niches
- All the biotic and abiotic resources that a species uses
- An organism’s role in an environment

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- How an organism uses resources, responds and interacts with other species
- Can be fundamental or realised eg: koalas
- Competitive Exclusion Principle - no two organisms can occupy the same niche in an
ecosystem at the same time
- Competition may be intraspecific(within a species) or interspecific(between species)
- All species compete for nutrition, shelter and mates
- Predation, competition, symbiosis and disease have consequences for populations.

Predicting Consequences - food webs

Short-term consequences When two species compete for a resource, the short-term effect is a
decrease in population numbers.

Long-term consequences If the trend of one species successfully out-competing another species
continues, the long periods of decreased reproduction rates and
increased deaths will eventually lead to the elimination of the ‘losing’
species in that area, and on the larger scale possible extinction.
Possible causes of extinction
Inability to adapt to change, being outcompeted for resources, human activity, mass extinction
events
Contributors of mass extinction
Atmospheric circulation, climate, meteorite impact, volcanism, air temperature, ocean
acidification, water oxygen levels, rise in sea level
The Impact of Biotic Factors
Factors that affect numbers in predator prey populations
Variables that influence population size
- Birth rate
- Death rate
- Immigration rate
- Emigration rate
Growth Rate = (Births + Immigration) - (Deaths + Emigration)
Symbiosis
- food, protection, cleaning, transportation
- organisms that coexist where at least one benefits
1. Parasitism → One is benefits the other harmed
2. Mutualism → Both benefit
3. Commensalism → one is benefited the other unaffected

Types of Distribution
Regular, Random, Clumped
Possible factors that affect numbers of predator prey populations
- Number of predators competing for the same prey
- Availability of prey’s food
- Birth rate (time to reach maturity to reproduce, size of litter, no. of reproductive cycles)
- Death rate
- Number of males and females
- Size of ecosystem

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- Movement between ecosystems

- Availability of shelter
- Human impact
Competition - When two or more organisms use a resource in common eg: food, shelter, mates, nesting
sites
- Usually for a resource that is in limited supply
- May be direct (physical aggression) or indirect (eg:leave scent markers)
- Can be intraspecific (own species)eg: competition for mates or interspecific (other
species) eg: introduced species.

Allelopathy - a means by which plants successfully compete with other plants for space
- Space = more water, more soil, more sunlight
- chemicals (called allelochemicals) are released by a plant which inhibit the growth and
development of surrounding plants

Ecology - The study of relationships between different organisms and between organisms and the
environment.
- These relationships determine distribution and abundance.
- Population density reflects the total number of organisms the ecosystem can support.
- Can identify trends in populations and then predict possible impacts of changes to the
ecosystem (natural or through development)

Sampling techniques for pop. estimation

- Plant populations are relatively easy to count as they are immobile.
- It is difficult to obtain a total count for a mobile population such as that of birds, insects
and animals.
- Seasonal and tidal variations also make it difficult to obtain total counts.
- Affected by abiotic and biotic selective pressures

Sampling Techniques

Transects - Used for plants or immobile animals Profile Sketch

The red line represents the north/south transect. The transect diagram illustrates the type of data
The yellow line represents the east/west transect. which is collected using a continuous line transect .
- Can also do strip transects This notes every individual which touches the line.
The data is displayed in the form of a diagram, using
symbols for different species, which are drawn to
scale. This is a useful way of being able to clearly
visualise what changes are taking place along the line.
It enables patterns of zonation in species along the
line to be picked out.

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Quadrats Mark - Release - Recapture (animals)

A quadrat is (usually) a 1m x 1m square used to Assumptions

estimate populations when numbers are too high - There is no population change through
to count individually. migration, birth, death between sampling.
Use representative areas to estimate the whole - All animals are equally able to be
population. caught/trapped.
A number of random quadrats are counted, - Marked animals are not affected in their
averaged and then the percentage coverage of the ability to move and mix with the remaining
ecosystem is used to estimate the entire population.
population.
If numbers are too high you can use the % coverage
method to estimate.

FUTURE ECOSYSTEMS
- Human impacts on ecosystems
- Hunting
- Overfishing
- Agriculture (habitat destruction)
- Urbanisation (habitat destruction)
- Nest predation
- Introduced species
- Pollution
- Human impacts

Threatened with extinction

- 11% of birds
- 18% of mammals
- 5% of fish
- 8% of plants

Approximately 50% of mangrove ecosystems globally have been transformed or destroyed by

human activity

Human causes of Coral depletion

Pollution runoff: nitrates from fertilizers, oil spills
Exploitation: Over 90% of saltwater aquarium fish are taken directly from reefs
Increased water temperatures: Global warming, Increased El Nino
Direct destruction: Boats, fishing nets, removal of coral for sale
Invasive species

- With the increase in ease of travel and shipping, one of the greatest threats by human us
the introduction of invasive species
Tropical rainforests
- Each year approximately 7.8 million acres of rainforest are destroyed
- 137 species going extinct each day
- The soil is poor with most of the nutrients existing in the trees and pant

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