Unit 1

Power Supplies, Transistors,

Amplifiers
Syllabus
Power Supplies –Block diagram, Half-wave rectifier, Full-wave rectifiers and filters, Voltage
regulators, Output resistance and voltage regulation, Voltage multipliers.

Transistor: BJT structure and operation (npn), circuit symbol, configurations, relation
between transistor currents.

Amplifiers – Definition, Types of amplifier, gain, Input-Output Resistance, Multi-stage

amplifier; BJT as a switch: Cut-off and saturation modes.
Text Book
Mike Tooley, ‘Electronic Circuits, Fundamentals & Applications’, 4th
Edition, Elsevier, 2015. DOI https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315737980.
eBook ISBN9781315737980.
Basic Electronics- Devices, circuits and IT fundamentals- By
Santiram Kal- PHI, 2012
Pre requisites
•Semiconductor basics

•What is semiconductor?

•Why do we need semiconductor?

•Types of semiconductor- Intrinsic and Extrinsic

•Extrinsic- Doping, p type, n type- trivalent and pentavalent

•Majority and minority charge carriers

Semiconductor diode
•Two-terminal unilateral device which allows the flow of current in only one direction

•Anode and cathode are the two terminals

•Diode offers low resistance hence permits current flow from Anode to Cathode

•It offers high resistance or restricts the flow of current from Cathode to Anode

•It can be biased (applying voltage across terminals of diode) in two ways: Forward bias and
Reverse bias

•Diode is a pn junction which permits current flow when forward biased and blocks current
when reverse biased
Unbiased Diode
• No voltage applied across the junction
• Majority holes on p side start diffusing
into n side
• Majority free electrons on n side start
diffusing into p side
• Positive immobile ions are formed on
n side and negative ions on p side near
the junction, this is called depletion
region
• In equilibrium condition, depletion
region widens up to a point where no
further electrons or holes can cross
the junction. This acts as a barrier.
• Potential difference across depletion
region is called barrier
potential/junction potential/built-in
voltage/cut-in potential
• Net current in unbiased diode is Zero.
Forward biased diode
• P region is connected to positive and n region is
connected to negative of dc supply
• Negative of the battery pushes free electrons across
the depletion region, provided the applied voltage
exceeds barrier voltage. Similarly, negative of the
battery pushes holes against barrier from p to n region
• Barrier voltage for Si diode is 0.7V and Ge diode is 0.3V.
• Due to this width of the depletion region reduces and
barrier potential also reduces
• Majority carriers cross the junction
• Hence current starts flowing from p to n side (Anode to
cathode terminal)-Forward current
Reverse biased diode
• P region is connected to negative and n region to positive of the dc
voltage
• Negative of the battery attracts holes in p region and positive of the
battery attracts electrons in n region
• Majority charge carriers move away from the junction
• Depletion region widens and barrier potential increases
• Resistance of diode is high
• Due to increased barrier potential, free electrons on p side are
attracted towards positive while holes towards negative of the battery
• There is a very small reverse current due to the flow of minority
carriers
• Reverse current is constant though reverse voltage is increased upto
a limit. It is called reverse saturation current.
• Minority charge carriers are thermally generated hence this current is
temperature dependant
• Reverse saturation current is in the order of micro amperes for Ge and
few nano amperes for Si diodes
Current voltage or I-V
characteristics of diode
• First quadrant indicates the behaviour of
diode when forward biased
• Current is nearly zero when forward voltage is
less than knee or barrier voltage
• As forward voltage exceeds barrier voltage,
current increases exponentially
• Third quadrant indicates the characteristics
of reverse biased diode
• As the reverse voltage is increased, reverse
current increases initially but after a small
voltage becomes constant equal to reverse
saturation current. Though reverse voltage is
increased the reverse current remains
constant.
• At reverse breakdown voltage, breakdown of
diode occurs and current increases sharply
damaging the diode.
Diode approximations
Ideal diode model Constant voltage drop model
 DC power supply
•Power supply is a device that supplies electric power to a load.
•A step-down transformer of appropriate turns ratio is used to convert high voltage from the mains to
a low voltage (9V, 12V, 15V, 20V, 30V). This is achieved by varying the turns ratio on the transformer.
•The a.c. output from the transformer secondary is then rectified using conventional silicon rectifier
diodes to produce an unsmoothed (sometimes referred to as pulsating d.c.) output.
•The output is smoothed and filtered before being applied to a circuit which will regulate (or stabilize)
the output voltage so that it remains relatively constant in spite of variations in both load current and
incoming mains voltage.
DC power supply
•The iron-cored step-down transformer feeds a rectifier arrangement (often based on a
bridge circuit).
•The output of the rectifier is then applied to a high-value reservoir capacitor. The capacitor
helps to smooth out the voltage pulses produced by the rectifier.
•A stabilizing circuit (often based on a series transistor regulator and a Zener diode voltage
reference) provides a constant output voltage.
A SIMPLE DC SUPPLY

13
 RECTIFIERS
A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (ac) to direct
current (dc).
Rectifiers
•Semiconductor diodes are commonly used to convert alternating current (a.c.) to direct
current (d.c), in which case they are referred to as rectifiers.

•Types- Half-wave rectifier, Full-wave rectifier, Bridge rectifier

•Half-wave rectifier uses single diode and operates on only either positive or negative
half-cycles of the supply

•Full-wave rectifier uses two diodes with centre tap transformer and operates in both
positive and negative half cycles

•Bridge rectifier uses four diodes and operates in both positive and negative half cycles
Vrms – Root mean square voltage

Vm (= Vpeak) – peak voltage

Vavg (= Vdc) – Average voltage

Half-wave rectifier
•Mains voltage (220 to 240 V) is applied to the
primary of a step-down transformer (T1).

•The secondary of T1 steps down the 240 V r.m.s. to

12 V r.m.s. (the turns ratio of T1 will thus be 240/12 or
20:1).

•D1 will be forward biased during each positive

half-cycle (relative to common) and will effectively
behave like a closed switch.

•D1 will be reverse biased during each negative

half-cycle and will effectively behave like a open
switch.
Half-wave rectifier- Working
•The switching action of D1 results in a pulsating output voltage which is developed across the load resistor
(RL).

•Mains supply and output developed across RL both have same frequency 50 Hz.

•During the positive half-cycle, the diode will drop the 0.6 V to 0.7 V forward threshold voltage normally
associated with silicon diodes.

•However, during the negative half-cycle the peak a.c. voltage will be dropped across D1 when it is reverse
biased. This is an important consideration when selecting a diode for a particular application.
Half-wave rectifier- Working
•Assuming that the secondary of T1 provides 12 V r.m.s., the peak voltage output from the
transformer’s secondary winding will be given by:

•The peak voltage applied to D1 will thus be approximately 17 V. The negative half-cycles are
blocked by D1 and thus only the positive half-cycle appear across RL.

•Actual peak voltage across RL will be the 17 V positive peak being supplied from the
secondary on T1, minus the 0.7 V forward threshold voltage dropped by D1. Positive
half-cycle pulses having a peak amplitude of 16.3 V will appear across RL.
Half-wave rectifier- Waveforms
Problem 1
A mains transformer having a turns ratio of 44:1 is connected to a 220 V r.m.s. mains
supply. If the secondary output is applied to a half-wave rectifier, determine the peak
voltage that will appear across a load.
Ans:
Reservoir and smoothing circuits
•Improvement in Half-wave rectifier circuit is possible by
adding the capacitor, C1, to ensure that the output
voltage remains at, or near, the peak voltage even when
the diode is not conducting.
•When the primary voltage is first applied to T1, the first
positive half-cycle output from the secondary will
charge C1 to the peak value seen across RL.
•Hence C1 charges to 16.3 V at the peak of the positive
half-cycle. Because C1 and RL are in parallel, the voltage
across RL will be the same as that across C1.
•The time required for C1 to charge to the maximum
(peak) level is determined by the charging circuit time
constant (the series resistance multiplied by the
capacitance value).
Half-wave rectifier with capacitor
filter
•The series resistance comprises the secondary winding resistance together with the
forward resistance of the diode and the (minimal) resistance of the wiring and connections.
Hence C1 charges very rapidly as soon as D1 starts to conduct.

•The time required for C1 to discharge is, in contrast, very much greater. The discharge time
constant is determined by the capacitance value and the load resistance, RL.

•In practice, RL is very much larger than the resistance of the secondary circuit and hence
C1 takes an appreciable time to discharge.

•During this time, D1 will be reverse biased and will thus be held in its non-conducting state.
As a consequence, the only discharge path for C1 is through RL.
 Half-wave rectifier with capacitor
filter
•C1 is referred to as a reservoir capacitor. It stores charge during the
positive half-cycles of secondary voltage and releases it during the
negative half-cycles.

•C1 will discharge by a small amount during the negative half-cycle

periods from the transformer secondary.

•Small variation in dc output voltage is ripple

•Since ripple is undesirable we must take additional precautions to

reduce it. One obvious method of reducing the amplitude of the
ripple is that of simply increasing the discharge time constant.

•Discharge time constant can be increased by increasing the value of

C1 or by increasing the resistance value of RL. Usually RL cant be
changed.

•Increasing the value of C1 is a more practical alternative and very

large capacitor values (often in excess of 4,700 μF) are typical.
Refinement to the circuit to
reduce ripple (use of R-C
smoothing filter)
•This circuit employs two additional components, R1 and C1,
which act as a filter to remove the ripple.

•The value of C2 is chosen so that the component exhibits a

negligible reactance at the ripple frequency (50 Hz for a
half-wave rectifier or 100 Hz for a full-wave rectifier)

•The amount of ripple is reduced by an approximate factor

equal to:
Problem 2
The R–C smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains operated half-wave rectifier circuit consists of R1 = 100
Ω and C 2 = 1,000 μF. If 1 V of ripple appears at the input of the circuit, determine the amount of
ripple appearing at the output.

Ans:

C2
Full-wave rectifiers
•A better rectifier arrangement would make use of both positive and negative half-cycles.

•Improvement over half-wave rectifiers

•They are not only more efficient but are significantly less demanding in terms of the
reservoir and smoothing components.

•Two types: phase type and the bridge rectifier type.

Bi-phase rectifier circuits
•Mains voltage (240 V) is applied to the primary of the
step-down transformer (T1) which has two identical
secondary windings, each providing 12 V r.m.s. (the
turns ratio of T1 will thus be 240/12 or 20:1 for each
secondary winding).

•On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with

respect to point B. Similarly, point B will be positive
with respect to point C. In this condition D1 will allow
conduction while D2 will not allow conduction.

•On negative half-cycles, point C will be positive with

respect to point B. Similarly, point B will be positive
with respect to point A. In this condition D2 will allow
conduction while D1 will not allow conduction.
Equivalent circuits during
positive and negative half-cycle
Bi-phase rectifier circuits with
capacitor filter
•The current is routed through the load in the same direction on
successive half-cycles.

•Pulsating output voltage being developed across the load

resistor (RL). Frequency of the output is 100 Hz. This doubling
of the ripple frequency allows us to use smaller values of
reservoir and smoothing capacitor to obtain the same degree of
ripple reduction.

•Peak voltage produced by each of the secondary windings will

be approximately 17 V and the peak voltage across RL will be
16.3 V

•If C1 is added at the output, it charges to approximately 16.3 V

at the peak of the positive half-cycle and holds the voltage at
this level when the diodes are in their non-conducting states.
 OPERATION OF BI-PHASE RECTIFIER
D1 FWD
Biased

Vin T1 A + + VL
R
- L
B -
t +
-
C

D2 REV Biased
 OPERATION OF BI-PHASE RECTIFIER
D1 REV
Biased
vin T1 A - + vout
R
L
B+ -
t -

C
+
D2 FWD Biased
Bi-phase rectifier circuits-
waveforms
•The time required for C1 to charge to the maximum (peak) level
is determined by series resistance which comprises of
secondary winding resistance together with the forward
resistance of the diode and the (minimal) resistance of the
wiring and connections. Hence C1 charges very rapidly as soon
as either D1 or D2 starts to conduct.
•The time required for C1 to discharge is, in contrast, very much
greater.
•The discharge time contrast is determined by the capacitance
value and the load resistance, RL which is large.
•C1 takes an appreciable time to discharge.
•During this time, D1 and D2 will be reverse biased and held in a
non-conducting state, thus only discharge path for C1 is through
RL.
Bridge rectifier circuits
•This arrangement avoids the need to have two separate
secondary windings. It uses 4 diodes.

•Mains voltage (240 V) is applied to the primary of a step-down

transformer (T1). The secondary winding provides 12 V r.m.s.
(approximately 17 V peak) and has a turns ratio of 20:1

•On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect to

point B. In this condition D1 and D2 will allow conduction while
D3 and D4 will not allow conduction.

•On negative half-cycles, point B will be positive with respect to

point A. In this condition D3 and D4 will allow conduction while
D1 and D2 will not allow conduction.
 Operation of Bridge Rectifier

vin T A+ D4 +
1 RE
D1 FW
V
D

t D2 + vout
B FWD - D3
- REV RL t
-
 Operation of Bridge Rectifier

A-
vin T1 FW
D4
D D1 REV

t + vout
D2
REV D
B+ FW
3 RL
D - t
Equivalent circuits during
positive and negative half cycles
•Once again, the result is that current is routed through the load in the same direction on successive
half-cycles.

•Once again, the peak output voltage is approximately 16.3 V (i.e. 17 V less the 0.7 V forward
threshold voltage).
Bridge rectifier circuits with
reservoir capacitor
•Reservoir capacitor (C1) can be added
to maintain the output voltage when
the diodes are not conducting.
•C1 charges to approximately 16.3 V at
the peak of the positive half-cycle and
holds the voltage at this level when the
diodes are in their non-conducting
states.
•R–C and L–C ripple filters can be added
to bi-phase and bridge rectifier circuits
in exactly the same way as those shown
for the half-wave rectifier arrangement
 What is a Voltage Regulator?
A voltage regulator provides a constant DC output voltage that
is independent of AC line voltage variations, load current and
temperature.
The input to a voltage regulator comes from the filtered output
of a rectifier derived from an AC voltage.
Voltage regulators
•Regulator circuit using Zener diode
•Rs is included to limit the zener current to a safe value
when the load is disconnected
•When a load (RL) is connected, the zener current (IZ)
will fall as current is diverted into the load resistance
•(it is usual to allow a minimum current of 2 mA to 5 mA
in order to ensure that the diode regulates).
•The output voltage (VZ) will remain at the zener
voltage until regulation fails at the point at which the
potential divider formed by RS and RL, produces a
lower output voltage that is less than VZ.
Equations

where VIN is the unregulated input voltage.

Problem 3
A 5 V zener diode has a maximum rated power dissipation of 500 mW. If the diode is to be used in a simple
regulator circuit to supply a regulated 5 V to a load having a resistance of 400 Ω, determine a suitable value
of series resistor for operation in conjunction with a supply of 9 V.
Output resistance and voltage
regulation
•In a perfect power supply, the output voltage would remain constant regardless of the current taken by the load, but in
practice output voltage falls as the load current increases.

•Power supply has internal resistance (ideally this should be zero). This internal resistance appears at the output of the
supply.

•The regulation of a power supply is given by the relationship:

•Ideally, the value of regulation should be very small. Simple shunt zener diode regulators are capable of producing
values of regulation of 5% to 10%. More sophisticated circuits based on discrete components produce values of
between 1% and 5% and integrated circuit regulators often provide values of 1% or less.
Problem 4
The following data were obtained during a test carried out on a d.c. power supply:

(i) Load test: Output voltage (no-load) = 12 V, Output voltage (2 A load current) = 11.5 V

(ii) Regulation test: Output voltage (mains input, 220 V) = 12 V, Output voltage (mains input,
200 V) = 11.9 V

Determine (a) the equivalent output resistance of the power supply and (b) the regulation
of the power supply.

Ans:
Voltage multipliers: Voltage
doubler
•Increasing the output of simple half-wave rectifier

•C1 will charge to the positive peak secondary

voltage while C2 will charge to the negative peak
secondary voltage.

•Since the output is taken from C1 and C2

connected in series the resulting output voltage is
twice that produced by one diode alone.
 OPERATION OF VOLTAGE DOUBLER
D FWD
1 Biased
vi T
n + 1 +
V
+C
p -1
t -
C
2
-
D REV
2 Biased
 Operation of Voltage Doubler
D REV
1 Biased
vi T
n + 1 +
V
+C
p -1
t -
V +C
p -2
-
D FWD
2 Biased
 OPERATION OF VOLTAGE DOUBLER
D REV
1 Biased
vi T
n + 1 + vou
2 t
V
+C V
p -1 p
t - t
V +C
p -2
-
D FWD
2 Biased
Voltage tripler
Voltage tripler
∙ During the first positive half cycle of AC, Diode D1 get forward biased and capacitor C1 get charged
through the D1. Capacitor C1 get charged up to the peak voltage of AC i.e. Vpeak.

∙ During the negative half cycle of the AC, Diode D2 conducts and D1 reverse biased. D1 blocks the
discharging of capacitor C1. Now the capacitor C2 charge with the combined voltage of capacitor C1
(Vpeak) and the negative peak of the AC voltage (Vpeak). So the capacitor C2 charge up to 2Vpeak.

∙ During the second positive half cycle, D2 gets reverse biased and D3 conducts. So capacitor C2 charges the
capacitor C3 up to the same voltage as itself, which is 2Vpeak. Meanwhile, Diode D1 conducts to charge
Capacitor C1 up to Vpeak.

∙ Now the capacitor C1 and C3 are in series and voltage across C1 is Vpeak and voltage across C3 is 2Vpeak,
so the voltage across the series connection of C1 and C3 is Vpeak+2Vpeak = 3Vpeak, that’s how we get the
triple voltage of the peak value of AC.
Transistors
BJT – BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS
 flo
Since the sandwichedwp-type material is very thin and has a low conductivity, a
very small number of these carriers will take this path of high resistance to the
base terminal.
From eq.(2), neglecting ICBO ,
Ic = αIE
From eq (1) ,
Ic = α(Ic+Ib)
Ic = (α/1-α)IB
Ic =βIB
Where, β= (α/1-α) (where β is called as common emitter current gain and typically it ranges
b/w 25 to 300)
In a common emitter transistor circuit, if β = 100 and
IB = 50μA, compute the values of α, IE and IC.
Calculate α and β if IC is measured as 1mA and base
current is 25µA. Also determine the new base
current to give IC of 5mA.
A emitter current of transistor in Common base
configuration is IE=25mA and IC=23mA. Calculate
base current, common base dc current gain and
common emitter dc current gain.
The following current measurements are made on
transistor: IC= 12.42mA, IB= 200µA. Determine a
new IC level when IB is 150 µA.
 Common-base configuration
The input signal is applied between the transistors base and the emitter
terminals, while the corresponding output signal is taken from between
the base and the collector terminals as shown.
 Common-emitter configuration
The input signal is applied
between the base and the
emitter, while the output is
taken from between the
collector and the emitter as
shown.
 Common-collector configuration
The input signal is applied
between the base and the
collector, while the output is
taken from between the
emitter and the collector as
shown.
BJT – Regions of operation
Transistor as a switch
When the base emitter junction is open or reverse biased (i.e., IB=0) no collector
current(IC) flows, the transistor is said to be OFF.

• The input and Base are grounded ( 0V )

• Base-Emitter voltage VBE < 0.7V
• Base-Emitter junction is reverse biased
• Base-Collector junction is reverse biased
• Transistor is “fully-OFF” ( Cut-off region )
• No Collector current flows ( IC = 0 )
• VOUT = VCE = VCC = ”1″
• Transistor operates as an “open switch”
Transistor as a switch
When the base emitter junction is forward biased, IB flows which results in IC. At
some point of IB , IC becomes saturated, i.e., it does not increase further and
becomes independent of IB. At this point, the transistor may be treated as fully ON
as it is conducting in saturation region.
•The input and Base are connected to VCC
• Base-Emitter voltage VBE > 0.7v
• Base-Emitter junction is forward biased
• Base-Collector junction is forward biased
• Transistor is “fully-ON” ( saturation region )
• Max Collector current flows ( IC = Vcc/RL )
• VCE = 0 ( ideal saturation )
• VOUT = VCE = ”0″
• Transistor operates as a “closed switch”
Amplifiers
•Amplifiers are electronic circuits that increase the strength of a signal
(voltage/current/power)
•It uses electric power from a power supply to increase the amplitude of a signal
applied to its input terminals, producing a proportionally greater amplitude
signal at its output.
•The amount of amplification provided by an amplifier is measured by its gain:
the ratio of output voltage, current, or power to input.
•Amplification is fundamental to modern electronics, and amplifiers are widely
used in almost all electronic equipment.
Types of amplifier
•AC coupled amplifiers: stages are coupled together in such a way that DC levels are
isolated and only the AC components of a signal are transferred from stage to stage.

•DC coupled amplifiers: stages are coupled together in such a way that stages are not
isolated to DC potentials. Both AC and DC signal components are transferred from stage
to stage.

•Large-signal amplifiers: Large-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for appreciable

voltage and/or current levels (typically from 1 V to 100 V or more). Example: Power
amplifiers (audio)

•Small-signal amplifiers: Small-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for low-level signals
(normally less than 1 V and often much smaller). Small-signal amplifiers have to be specially
designed to combat the effects of noise. Example: instrumentation amplifiers

•Audio frequency amplifiers: operate in the band of frequencies that is normally associated
with audio signals (e.g. 20 Hz to 20 kHz).
Types of amplifier
•Wideband amplifiers: capable of amplifying a very wide range of frequencies, typically
from a few tens of hertz to several megahertz. Wideband amplifiers are usually untuned;
that is, their ac load is resistive.
•Radio frequency amplifiers: operate in the band of frequencies that is normally associated
with radio signals (e.g. from 100 kHz to over 1 GHz). They are frequency selective. They are
restricted to narrow band of frequencies. Narrowband amplifiers are usually tuned RF
amplifiers, which means
that their ac load is a high-Q resonant tank tuned to a radio station or television channel.

•Low-noise amplifiers: Low-noise amplifiers are designed so that they contribute

negligible noise (signal disturbance) to the signal being amplified. These amplifiers are
usually designed for use with very small signal levels (usually less than 10 mV or so).
Amplifier characteristics - Gain
•It indicates amount of amplification
•Gain is simply the ratio of output voltage to input voltage, output current to input current, or output power
to input power
Amplifier characteristics - Input and
output resistance
•Input resistance is the ratio of input voltage to input current and it is expressed in ohms.
It is resistive in the mid band frequency band. In other cases it is complex quantity, then it is
referred as input impedance considering the effect of capacitance in parallel with it.

•Output resistance is the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-circuit output

current and is measured in ohms. In the presence of reactive component it is referred to as
output impedance.

•Input and output resistance are internal to the amplifier

Problem 5
An amplifier produces an output voltage of 2 V for an input of 50 mV. If the input and
output currents in this condition are, respectively, 4 mA and 200 mA, determine: (a) the
voltage gain; (b) the current gain; (c) the power gain.
 Assignment
1. An amplifier produces an output voltage of 5 V for an input of 20 mV. If the input
and output currents of the amplifier are 5mA and 200mA respectively. Determine
voltage gain and power gain in dB.
2. The following measurements were made during a test on an amplifier:
Vin = 250 mV, Iin = 2.5 mA, Vout = 10 V, Iout = 400 mA

Determine: (a) the voltage gain; (b) the current gain; (c) the power gain; (d) the
input resistance.
3. An amplifier has a power gain of 13.79dB and identical input and output
resistances of 600 Ω. Determine the input voltage required to produce an output
of 10 V.
Multi-stage amplifiers
•In order to provide sufficiently large values of gain, it is frequently necessary to use a
number of interconnected stages within an amplifier.

•The overall gain of an amplifier with several stages (i.e. a multi-stage amplifier) is simply the
product of the individual voltage gains.

•Bandwidth of a multistage amplifier will be less than the bandwidth of each individual
stage.

•An increase in gain can only be achieved at the expense of a reduction in bandwidth.
R–C coupling
•The stages are coupled together using capacitors having a low reactance at the signal
frequency and resistors. Can be used in audio applications.

•As it uses cheaper coupling devices such as resistors, capacitors, it is low-cost and
economical.

•The main disadvantage is it has very poor impedance matching characteristics. It provides
low voltage and power gain.
L–C coupling
•Inductors have a high reactance at the signal frequency. This type of coupling is generally
only used in RF and high-frequency amplifiers. (helps in tuning and impedance matching)
Transformer coupling
• Transformers are used to couple the different stages of amplifier. Transformer coupling is
used in high power audio amplifiers.

•It provides a very good impedance matching property. These amplifiers have high
efficiency and low losses.

•These amplifiers are costly because of using the transformer as a coupling device. These
amplifiers have poor frequency response, the gain decreases with an increase in
frequency.
Direct coupling
•Direct coupling: DC levels are preserved
• This circuit can amplify both the AC and DC signals. It does not use any coupling elements and
hence the circuit is very simple and easy to make. The cost is very low.
• It has a very low bandwidth. The operating point is not stable.