Applied Physics I B.

Tech CSE(AIML)/CSE(DS)/CSE/ECE/EEE/CSBS/ME/CE

UNIT 1: QUANTUM PHYSICS AND SOLIDS

1). BLACK BODY RADIATION:

 A body that completely absorbs radiation of all wavelengths incident on it is referred as a

black body. When such a body is heated, it emits radiations called as black body radiations.
 A cavity is made out of hallow container of any material (preferably iron or copper) with
a narrow opening and painted with black in the inside portion gives a close approximation
to a perfect black body. When any radiation falls on this hole, it enters the cavity, gets
reflected by the wall of the cavity and gets absorbed. If we heat the cavity at various
temperatures, it will emit radiations of all frequencies or wave lengths. The emitted
radiation from a black body is a continuous spectrum, and contains radiations of all
frequencies or wave lengths.
 The experimental results shows that 1) the distribution of frequencies is a function of
temperature of the black body 2) with increase of temperature, the total amount of emitted
radiation increases 3) the position of maximum peak shifts towards lower wavelength with
increasing equilibrium temperature.

2). PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY OR HYPOTHESIS:

Max Planck in 1900 introduced the quantum theory of radiation to explain the distribution of
energy in the spectrum of black body radiation i.e. frequency distribution of thermal radiation.
Planck assumptions are

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1. The atomic oscillators in a body cannot have any arbitrary amount of energy but can have
only discrete units of energy given by E = nhν, where n = 0, 1, 2…… (Any positive integer),
h = Planck’s constant and ν = frequency of the oscillator.
2. The oscillator can emit or absorb energy only in the form of wave packets of energy(hν) in
indivisible discrete units. The emission or absorption of energy occurs only when the
oscillator jumps from one energy state to another along with the energy difference given
by E2-E1= (n2-n1)hν.

The energy of each quantum is a minimum amount of energy that cannot be further sub divided.
The radiation of energy emitted or absorbed in a discontinuous manner and in the form of
quantum is called the Planck’s quantum hypothesis.

3). PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:

 The emission of electrons from a metal plate when illuminated by light radiation of
suitable wave length or frequency is called photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons
are called photo electrons. This effect was discovered by Hertz, when ultraviolet light
falls on zinc plate.
 Alkali metals like Li, Na, K etc. eject electrons when visible light falls on them.
 Millikan investigated this effect with a number of alkali metals over a wide range of
light frequencies and was awarded Noble prize in 1923.

The experimental arrangement to study the photoelectric effect is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1

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 It consists of two photosensitive surfaces A and B enclosed in a vacuum chamber. The

plate A is connected to negative terminal of battery and plate B is connected to positive
terminal through ammeter. In the absence of light, there is no flow of current and hence
there is no deflection in the galvanometer. When monochromatic light is incident on
plate A, a current starts flowing in the circuit shown by ammeter. The current is known
as photo current. This shows that when light falls on the metal plate, electrons are
ejected.
 The number of electrons emitted and their kinetic energy is 1) dependent on the
potential difference between two electrodes i.e. between plate A and B 2) the intensity
of incident radiation 3) the frequency of incident radiation 4) the photo metal used.

EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION:

Following Planck’s idea that light consists of photons. Einstein proposed an

explanation of photoelectric effect as early as 1905. According to Einstein’s explanation, in
photoelectric effect one photon is completely absorbed by one electron, which thereby gains
the quantum of energy and may be emitted from the metal. The photons energy is used in the
following two parts:

(i) Apart of its energy is used to free the electron from the atom and away from the metal
surface. This energy is known as photoelectric work function of the metal. This is
denoted by W0.
(ii) The other part is used in giving kinetic energy ( 𝑚𝑣 ) to the electron.

Thus, hν = W0 + 𝑚𝑣 ---------- (1)

Where v is the velocity of emitted electron. Eq. (1) is known as Einstein’s
photoelectric equation.
When the photon’s energy is of such a value that it can only liberate the electron
from metal, then the kinetic energy of the electron will be zero. Eq. (1) now reduces
to
hν0 = W0 ----------- (2)

Where ν0 is called the threshold frequency.

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Threshold frequency is defined as the minimum frequency which can cause photoelectric
emission.

If the frequency of the photon is below threshold frequency no emission of electrons will take
place. Corresponding to threshold frequency, we define long wavelength limit (λ 0). It
represents the upper limit of wavelength for photoelectric effect. Its physical significance is
that radiations having wavelength longer than λ0 would not be able to eject electrons from a
given metal surface whereas those having λ< λ0, will. The value of λ0 is given by

c = ν0λ0

λ0 = =

× × ⋅ ×
λ0 =

. ×
= metre.

Here 𝑤 is expressed in joules. If 𝑤 is expressed in eV, then

. ×
λ0 =
. ×

= A0 ---------------- (3)

From eq. (3), the value of photoelectric work function is given by

𝑤 = eV where λ0 is in A0. --------------- (4)

Substituting the value of 𝑤 = hν0 in equation (1), we have

hν = hν0 + 𝑚𝑣

𝑚𝑣 = (hν - hν0) = h (ν - ν0 ) ---------------------(5)

This is another form of Einstein’s Photoelectric equation.

The Einstein’s Photoelectric equation predicts all the experimental results.

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From eq. (1), we have

𝑚𝑣 = hν - W0

For a particular emitter, work function W 0 is constant and hence

K.E. = 𝑚𝑣 ∝ hν

𝑣 ∝ν

Thus, the increase in frequency ν of incident light causes increase in velocity of

photoelectrons provided intensity of incident light is constant.

An increase in the intensity of radiation is equivalent to an increase in the number of photons

falling on the emitting surface. If the frequency of the incident radiation is above the
threshold frequency ν > ν0 , then the number of emitted electrons will increase. In this way
the intensity of emitted electrons is directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.

From Eq. (5), we have

𝑚𝑣 = hν - hν0

If V0 be the stopping potential, then

eV0 = hν - hν0

V0 = − 𝜗 ------------(7)

As h and e are constant 𝜗 is also constant for

a given photo cathode, eq.(7) shows that
graph between stopping potential V0 and
frequency ν would be straight line of slope
h/e.

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Fundamental Laws of Photo-Electric Emission:

 There is no time lag between incident radiation (photon) and ejected photoelectron.
 The rate of photo-emission is directly proportional to intensity of incident radiation
(light).
 The velocity and hence the kinetic energy of photo-electrons is independent of intensity
of incident light.
 The velocity and hence the kinetic energy of photo-electrons is directly proportional to
frequency of incident radiation.
 The emission of electron take place above a certain frequency known as threshold
frequency. This frequency is characteristic frequency of photo-metal used.

4). WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY: DE-BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS:

An electromagnetic wave behaves like particles, particles like electrons behave like waves called
matter waves, also called de-Broglie matter waves. The wave length of matter waves is derived on
the analogy of radiation.
Based on Planck’s theory of radiation, the energy of a photon is given by

E = hν = ….. (1)
λ

𝑐 = Velocity of light, 𝜆 = Wavelength of the photon, h= Planck’s constant

According to Einstein’s mass energy relation, E = mc …… (2)
m= mass of the photon

Equating equations (1) and (2), 𝑚𝑐 =

λ= = = …… (3), P = momentum of photon

De-Broglie proposed the concept of matter waves, according to which a material particle of mass
’m’, moving with a velocity ’v’ should have an associated wavelength ‘𝜆′ called de-Broglie
wavelength.
𝐡 𝐡
𝛌= = … (4) is called de-Broglie’s wave equation.
𝐦𝐯 𝐩

Wavelength is associated with moving particle and independent of charge of the particles.
Greater the mass and velocity of the particle, lesser will be the wavelength.

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De-Broglie wavelength associated with an electron:

If a velocity ‘v’ is given to an electron by accelerating it through a potential difference ‘V’, then
the work done on the electron is ‘eV’, and the work done is converted into the kinetic energy of
an electron.
1
𝑒𝑉 = 𝑚𝑣
2

2𝑒𝑉
𝑣=
𝑚

𝑚𝑣 = √2𝑚𝑒𝑉…. (5) in (4)

𝐡
𝛌= …… (6)
√𝟐𝐦𝐞𝐕
By substituting the values of h = 6.625× 10 𝐽𝑠𝑒𝑐, m = 9.1× 10 𝐾𝑔 and e = charge of
electron=1.6× 10 C
𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟕
𝛌= 𝐀𝟎 …… (8), Where V in volt and λ in A
√𝐕
5). DAVISON AND GERMER EXPERIMENT: Experimental validity for De-Broglie
hypothesis:
The first experimental evidence of the wave nature of particles was provided by C.J Davison and
L.H Germer in 1927.
They were studying scattering of electrons by a metal target and measuring the density of electrons
scattered in different directions.

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From fig, the electron beam from electron gun which consists of a tungsten filament ‘F’ heated by
a low-tension battery ‘B1’ are accelerated to a desired velocity by applying suitable potential from
a high-tension battery ‘B2’.
The accelerated electrons are collimated into a fine beam by allowing them to pass thorough a
system of pinholes in the cylinder ‘A’.
The fast-moving electron beam is made to strike the target (nickel crystal) capable of rotating about
an axis perpendicular to the plane of diagram.
The electrons are scattered in all directions by atomic planes of a crystal and intensity of scattered
electron beam in all directions can be measured by the electron collector and can be rotated about
the same axis as the target.
The collector is connected to a sensitive galvanometer whose deflection is proportional to the
intensity of electron beam entering the collector.
When electron beam accelerated by 54 V was directed to strike the given nickel crystal, a sharp
maximum in the electron diffraction occurred at an angle of 50 0 with the incident beam.
The incident beam and the diffracted beam make an angle of 65 0 with the family of Bragg’s planes.
The whole instrument is kept in an evacuated chamber.
The spacing of planes in Nickel crystal as determined by x-ray diffraction is 0.091nm
From Bragg’s law 2dsinθ = n λ i.e 2 × 0.091 × 10 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛65° = 1 × λ
λ = 0.1648 nm
Therefore, for a 54 V electron beam, the de-Broglie wavelength associated with the electron is
.
given by λ= A° = 0.1668 nm
√

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This wavelength agrees well with the experimental value. Thus, Davison and Germer experiment
provides a direct verification of de-Broglie hypothesis of wave nature of moving particles.
6). HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE:
Heisenberg a German scientist in 1927 gave uncertainty principle which states that “The
determination of exact position and momentum of a moving particle simultaneously is
impossible’’.
In general, if △x represents the uncertainty in measurement of position of particle along x-axis,
and △p represents uncertainty in measurement of momentum, then

△𝒙 . △p = h or
limitation to find the position and momentum of a particle is (△ x). (△ p) ≥ i.e. Heisenberg
π

uncertainty principle states that both the position and momentum cannot be measured
simultaneously with perfect accuracy.

According to Classical mechanics, a moving particle at any instant has fixed position in space and
definite momentum which can be determined simultaneously with any desired accuracy. This
assumption is true for objects of appreciable size, but fails in particles of atomic dimensions.
Since a moving atomic particle has to be regarded as a de-Broglie wave group, there is a limit to
measure particle properties.
According to Born probability interpretation, the particle may be found anywhere within the wave
group moving with group velocity.
If the group is considered to be narrow, it is easier to locate its position, but the uncertainty in
calculating its velocity and momentum increases.
If the group is wide, its momentum is estimated easily, but there is great uncertainty about the
exact location of the particle.

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7). PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF 𝛙(𝐰𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐟𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧): Born’s interpretation:

The wave function 𝛙 is unable to give all possible information about the particle. 𝛙is a complex
quantity and has no direct physical meaning. It is only a mathematical tool in order to represent
the variable physical quantities in quantum mechanics.
Born suggested that, the value of wave function associated with a moving particle at the position
co-ordinates (x,y,z) in space, and at the time instant ‘t’ is related in finding the particle at certain
location and certain period of time ‘t’.
If 𝛙 represents the probability of finding the particle, then it can have two cases.
Case 1: certainty of its Presence: +ve probability
Case 2: certainty of its absence: - ve probability, but –ve probability is meaningless,
Hence the wave function 𝛙 is complex number and is of the form a+ib
Even though 𝛙 has no physical meaning, the square of its absolute magnitude |𝛙 | gives a definite
meaning and is obtained by multiplying the complex number with its complex conjugate then
|𝛙 |represents the probability density ‘p’ of locating the particle at a place at a given instant of
time. And has real and positive solutions.
𝛙(𝐱, 𝐲, 𝐳, 𝐭) = 𝐚 + 𝐢𝐛
𝛙∗ (𝐱, 𝐲, 𝐳, 𝐭) = 𝐚 − 𝐢𝐛
𝐩 = 𝛙𝛙∗ = |𝛙 | = 𝑎 + 𝑏
Where ‘P’ is called the probability density of the wave function.
If the particle is moving in a volume ‘V’, then the probability of finding the particle in a volume
element dv, surrounding the point x, y, z and at instant ‘t’ is Pdv
∞

𝛙𝟐 𝒅𝒗 = 𝟏 𝑖𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡
∞

= 0 if particle does not exist

This is called normalization condition.
Briefly:
 The wave function has no direct physical significance as it is not an observable quantity. It
is a complex quantity which connects the particle nature and its associated wave nature
statistically.

 𝛙𝛙∗ = |𝛙 | is the probability density function.

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 𝛙 can be considered as probability amplitude since it is used to find the location of the
particle.

8). SCHRODINGER TIME INDEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION:

Schrodinger describes the wave nature of a particle in mathematical form and is known as
Schrodinger’s wave equation.
Consider a plane wave moving along +ve x- direction with velocity ‘v’. The equation of the wave

is written in the from 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)….. (1) or 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(ω𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

λ

Where λ = wavelength of the wave, a = amplitude of wave, w = angular frequency = 2πν

y = displacement of wave in y- direction
x = displacement along x- axis at any instant of time ‘t’.
Taking first order derivative w.r.to ‘x’ on both sides of eqn (1)
𝑑𝑦 2𝜋 2𝜋
= 𝑎 cos (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)
𝑑𝑥 λ λ

= −𝑎 sin (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)….(2)
λ λ

Substitute (1) in (2)

+ 𝑦 = 0…… (3)
λ

This is known as differential plane wave equation.

In complex wave, the displacement ‘y’ is replaced by ‘ψ’ and wavelength’ λ’ is replaced by de-

Broglie’s wavelength λ’ = in eqn (3)

𝑑 ψ 2𝜋
+ ψ=0
𝑑𝑥 λ

ψ
+ ψ = 0…… (4)

For a moving particle, the total energy is 𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝑉 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑈 = 𝐸 − 𝑉…... (5)

Where E= total energy, V= potential energy, U= kinetic energy = 𝑚𝑣

2𝑚𝑢 = 𝑚 𝑣 …. (6), substitute (5) in (6)

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2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉) = 𝑚 𝑣 …. (7) Substitute (7) in (4)

𝑑 ψ 4𝜋 2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉)
+ ψ=0
𝑑𝑥 ℎ
𝒅𝟐 𝛙 𝟖𝝅𝟐 𝒎(𝑬 𝑽)
+ 𝛙 = 𝟎…... (8)
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒉𝟐

This equation is known as Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation in ONE dimension.
In THREE dimensions, it can be written as
( )
∇ ψ+ ψ = 0…… (9)
𝟐𝒎(𝑬 − 𝑽)
𝛁𝟐𝛙 + 𝛙=𝟎
ℏ𝟐
For a free particle, the P.E is equal to zero i.e. V=0 in equation (9)
Therefore, the Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation for a free particle is
𝟖𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝑬
𝛁𝟐𝛙 + 𝛙=𝟎
𝒉𝟐

9). PARTICLE ENCLOSED IN ONE-DIMENSIONAL POTENTIAL BOX:

Assume that the particle is freely moving inside the box. The motion of the particle is restricted
by the walls of the box. The particle is bouncing back and forth between the walls of the box at x
= 0 and x = L. For a freely moving particle within the potential box, the potential energy is zero,
but abruptly to infinity at x = 0 and x =L as shown in fig.
0, 0<𝑥<𝐿
i.e., 𝑉(𝑥) =
∞, 𝑥 ≥ 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≤ 0
The Schrödinger one – dimensional time independent eqn. is
( )
+ ψ = 0 ------ (1)

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For freely moving particle V = 0,

( )
+ ψ = 0 ------ (2)

( )
Taking =𝑘 ---------- (3)

Equation (2) becomes + 𝑘 ψ = 0 ------ (4)

The solution of above eqn. is written as

Ψ(x) = A sin kx + B cos kx ----------- (5)
where A, B and k are unknown quantities and to calculate them it is necessary to construct
boundary conditions.
Hence boundary conditions are
i. When x = 0, ψ(x) = 0, since V(x) is infinite at x = 0,
ii. When x = L, ψ(x) = 0, since V(x) is infinite at x = L
Substituting the first boundary condition in equation (5), we get,
0 = A sin k(0) + B cos k(0) ⟹ B = 0 ----- (6)
Substituting, the second boundary condition in eqn. (5) we get,
0 = A sin kL + B cos kL -------- (7)
But from eqn. (6) B = 0, therefore eqn (7) may turn as
⟹ A sin kL + 0 × cos kL = 0
⟹ A sin (kL) = 0
⟹ sin (kL) = 0 (since A ≠ 0)
i.e., kL = nπ ⟹ 𝑘 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … -------- (8)

Substituting the value of k in equation 3, we get

𝐸 = where n is a positive integer, n

= 1, 2, 3, …. ( n ≠ 0 )

When n = 1, 𝐸 = it is the lowest

energy of the system.

n = 2, 𝐸 = or 𝐸 = 4 𝐸

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Therefore, the particle in the box can have discrete values of energies. These values are quantized.
The values corresponding to each 𝐸 value is known as Eigen energy values.
Substituting the eqn. (6) and eqn. (8) in eqn. (5), we get,
𝒏𝝅𝒙
𝝍(𝒙) = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ----------- (9)
𝑳

In order to find the value of A, then we must normalize the wave function. We recognize that the
particle is definitely present inside the box. |ψ|2 is the probability of finding the particle at a
particular point in space, so the integral of this value over all x must be equal to 1:
𝑳
∫𝟎 |𝛙(𝒙)|𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏 ------- (10)
Substituting eqn. (9) in eqn. (10), we get,
𝑳 𝒏𝝅𝒙 𝑳𝟏 𝟐𝒏𝝅𝒙
∫𝟎 𝑨𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝑳
𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏 ⟹ 𝑨𝟐 ∫𝟎
𝟐
𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔
𝑳
𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏
𝟐𝒏𝝅𝒙 𝑳
𝑨𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝑨𝟐
or 𝒙− 𝟐𝒏𝝅
𝑳
=𝟏 ⟹ [(𝑳 − 𝟎) − (𝟎 − 𝟎)] = 𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
𝑳 𝟎

𝑨𝟐 𝑳 𝟐
or =𝟏 ⇒𝑨= --------- (11)
𝟐 𝑳

From eqn’s (9) and (11), we get,

𝟐 𝒏𝝅𝒙
𝝍𝒏 (𝒙) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ----------- (12)
𝑳 𝑳

Eqn.(12) represents the probability amplitude of the particle in n th level of the given potential
region.
The wave function is given by eqn. (12).
The normalized wave functions Ψ1, Ψ2, Ψ3
given by eqn. (12) is plotted. The values
corresponding to each En value is known as
Eigen value and the corresponding wave
function is known as Eigen function.
The wave function Ψ1, has two nodes at
x = 0 & x = L.
The wave function Ψ2, has three nodes at
x = 0, x = L/2 & x = L.
The wave function Ψ3, has four nodes at x = 0, x = L/3, x = 2L/3 & at x = L.

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SOLIDS
Origin of energy bands in solids:
Solids are usually moderately strong, slightly elastic structures. The individual atoms are
held together in solids by inter-atomic forces or bonds. In addition to these attractive forces,
repulsive forces also act and hence solids are not easily compressed. The attractive forces between
the atoms are basically electrostatic in origin. The bonding is strongly dependent on the electronic
structure of the atoms. The attraction between the atoms brings them closer until the individual
electron clouds begin to overlap. A strong
repulsive force arises to comply with Pauli’s
exclusion principle. When the attractive force
and the repulsive force between any two
atoms occupy a stable position with a
minimum potential energy. The spacing
between the atoms under this condition is
called equilibrium spacing.
In an isolated atom, the electrons are
tightly bound and have discrete, sharp energy
levels. When two identical atoms are brought
closer, the outermost orbits of these atoms overlap and interact. When the wave functions of the
electrons on different atoms begin to overlap considerably, the energy levels corresponding to
those wave functions split. if more atoms are brought together more levels are formed and for a
solid of N atoms, each of the energy levels of an atom splits into N levels of energy. The levels are
so close together that they form an almost continuous band. The width of this band depends on the
degree of overlap of electrons of adjacent atoms and is largest for the outermost atomic electrons.
In solid many atoms are brought together so that the split energy levels form a set of bands of very
closely spaced levels with forbidden energy gaps between them.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS :
The electrons first occupy the lower energy bands and are of no importance in determining
many of the electrical properties of solids. Instead, the electrons in the higher energy bands of
solids are important in determining many of the physical properties of solids. Hence the two

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allowed energy bands called valence and conduction bands are required. The gap between these
two allowed bands is called forbidden energy gap or band gap since electrons can’t have any
energy values in the forbidden energy gap. The valence band is occupied by valence electrons
since they are responsible for electrical, thermal and optical properties of solids. Above the valence
band we have the conduction band which is vacant at 0 K. According to the gap between the bands
and band occupation by electrons, all solids can be classified broadly into two groups.
In the first group of solids called metals
there is a partially filled band immediately
above the uppermost filled band. This is
possible when the valence band is partially
filled or a completely filled valence band
overlaps with the partially filled conduction
band.
In the second group of solids, there is a
gap called band gap between the completely
filled valence band and completely empty
conduction band. Depending on the magnitude
of the gap we can classify insulators and
semiconductors.
Insulators have relatively wide forbidden band gaps. For typical insulators the band gap Eg
> 7 eV. On the other hand, semiconductors have relatively narrow forbidden bands. For typical
semiconductors Eg ≤ 1 eV.

Questions:

Short answer questions:

1. State De-Broglie hypothesis.

2. What are matter waves?
3. Define black body radiation.
4. State photo electric effect.
5. State Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

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Applied Physics I B. Tech CSE(AIML)/CSE(DS)/CSE/ECE/EEE/CSBS/ME/CE

Long answer questions:

1. Explain black body radiation.

2. Write a short note on Planck’s quantum theory.
3. Explain photoelectric effect and derive an expression for Einstein Photoelectric equation.
4. What are matter waves? Derive an expression for De-Broglie wave length associated with
an electron.
5. Describe De-Broglie hypothesis in detail. Provide an experimental (Davison and Germer
experiment) validity for De-Broglie hypothesis or Explain the experimental verification of
matter waves by Davison and Germer experiment.
6. Describe Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
7. Explain the physical significance of Wave function.
8. Derive an expression for Schrödinger’s time independent wave equation.
9. Obtain a solution for particle enclosed in one-dimensional potential box or Derive an
expression for the energy states of a particle trapped in one-dimensional potential box.
10. Classify the materials into conductors, semiconductors and insulators based on origin of
energy bands.

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