Unit-1.

● What is the respiratory system?

The respiratory system is made up of organs that help you to take oxygen out of the air
and get rid of carbon dioxide from your body.

● What is respiration?
Respiration is a series of chemical reactions that happen inside every living cell.

● What is aerobic and anaerobic respiration?

Aerobic respiration
● Respiration that happens inside the mitochondria of our cells is called “aerobic
respiration. It uses oxygen and produces carbon dioxide as a waste product.
● C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Anaerobic respiration
● Respiration that happens inside the cytoplasm of our cells is called “anaerobic”
respiration. It happens when the oxygen is either not available or is in limited
supply.
● Glucose → Lactic Acid

● What is the structure of the human respiratory system?

Inhalation
● Nose/Mouth → Pharynx → Larynx(voice box) → Trachea(windpipe) → Brochus
Bronchiole → Lungs → Air Sacs
Exhalation
● Air Sacs → Lungs → Bronchiole → Bronchus → Trachea(windpipe) →
Larynx(voice box) → Pharynx → Nose/Mouth

● How does air pass through our body?(or)How does the respiratory system work?
○ We inhale the air from our surroundings which gets into our body through our
nose or mouth, both of which are connected to the trachea(windpipe). Before
reaching the trachea they go through the pharynx and larynx(voice box). The
function of the pharynx is to prevent food and drinks from entering the trachea
while breathing. Our trachea has strong rings of cartilage around it to keep the
trachea open and prevent it from collapsing so that air can keep moving in and
out of our body. The trachea branches into two bronchi which the air goes
through. Our body has 2 lungs and each of the bronchi are connected to each
lung so gas exchange and respiration can happen in both of the lungs. Bronchi
branches into smaller tubes called bronchioles, this structure helps the air to
reach deeper into our lungs. The bronchiole ends by branching into tiny
structures called “air sacs” where gas exchange takes place.

● What is the function of diaphragm?

 The function of the diaphragm is to help with breathing by contracting and relaxing,
which changes the pressure in the chest cavity and allows air to move in and out of the
lungs.

● What is the function of rib bones(or)rib cages?

The function of the rib bones and rib cages is to provide protection for the heart and
lungs.

● What is the function of intercostal muscles?

The function of intercostal muscles is to help with breathing by moving the ribs, during
inhalation, they expand the chest cavity to allow air in and during exhalation, they
compress chest cavity to push air out.

Unit-1.2

● Gas
→Particles in the gas are far apart from each other(do not touch each other)
→Particles in the gas move freely
→Gas can be compress
→Gas can flow
→Gas have volume
→Gas have no shape

● What are air sacs/aveoli?

Alveoli (or air sacs) are tiny, balloon-like structures in the lungs where gas exchange
occurs. They are an essential part of the respiratory system.

● The structure of an air sac/alveoli?

Alveoli are tiny sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs. They are surrounded by
capillaries, which are very thin blood vessels that are pressed tightly against the
alveoli. The walls of the capillaries are made from a single layer of thin cells, allowing
oxygen to pass from the alveoli into the blood and carbon dioxide to move from
the blood into the alveoli to be exhaled. The thin walls of the alveoli and capillaries
make this gas exchange process more efficient.

● Gas exchange in the air sacs?

○ Gas exchange is a process where the oxygen from the air goes into the blood
and carbon dioxide from the blood goes into the air.
○ The blood coming from the heart reaches other organs before reaching to the
heart, and other organs contain cells that respire, using up oxygen and making
carbon dioxide. So blood from the capillaries contain a small amount of oxygen
and a lot of carbon dioxide.
○ Inside the alveolus, the air is very close to the blood since there are only two thin
cells between the air and the blood. The oxygen particles in the air are a gas, so
 they are moving freely. The oxygen moves from where there are a lot of them(in
the air or higher concentration)to where there are fewer of them(in the blood or
lower concentration).
○ When the oxygen goes into the blood, it dissolves. It goes into the red blood cells
where it combines with hemoglobin.

● What is expired and inspired air.

○ Expired air is the you breathe out.
○ Inspired air the air you breathe in.

Unit-1.3

● What happens when we breathe in and breathe out?

Breathe in:
● When we breathe in, the intercostal muscles between the ribs contract which
means they get shorter, this pulls the ribs upwards outwards. The muscles in the
diaphragm contract which pull the diaphragm downwards. These two movements
make more space inside the chest cavity and increase the volume inside it. When
the volume increases, the pressure inside the chest cavity and lungs decreases.
Air moves down through the trachea into the lungs, to fill the extra space.
Breathe out:
● When we breathe out, the intercostal muscles between the ribs relax which
means they return to normal size. This allows the ribs to drop down into their
natural position. The muscles in the diaphragm relax which allows the diaphragm
to become its normal domed shape. These two movements make less space
inside the chest cavity and decrease the volume and inside it. When the volume
decreases, the pressure increases so the air is squeezed out of the lungs.

Unit-1.4

● What is glucose?
Glucose is a type of sugar and a key source of energy for the body. It is a simple
carbohydrate that comes from the food we eat. It goes into our blood, the blood delivers
glucose to every cell in the body. The cells use the glucose to get the energy that they
need.
Digestive system → Glucose

● Chemical symbol equation and chemical equation

○ Digestive system → Glucose
○ Respiration + Circulatory system = Oxygen
○ Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy (ATP/Adenosine
Triphosphate)
○ Glucose → Latic acid + Energy (Latic Acid Fermentation)
 ○ Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide(CO2) + Energy (Alcoholic Fermentation)
○ The left side of the arrow is the reactants, the right side of the arrow is the
products.
○ Reactants → Products
● What is mitochondria?
Mitochondria are tiny structures found inside cells, most cells have mitochondria inside
them, it releases energy from glucose so the cells can use the energy. Mitochondria
carry out a chemical reaction called aerobic respiration. Aerobic means that it uses
oxygen from the air.

● Releasing energy from glucose

Energy must be transferred or changed to do something. Glucose stores energy, but
before your cells can use it, it needs to be released. Mitochondria carry out a process
called aerobic respiration, which uses oxygen from the air to release energy from
glucose, turning it into ATP for the cells to use.

● Respiration and heat production

During respiration, energy is released from glucose in your cells. This energy is used to
make ATP, but not all of it is used for cell work. Some of the energy is lost as heat. This
heat helps keep your body warm. So, while respiration provides energy for your cells, it
also produces heat as a byproduct.

Unit-1.5

● What is blood?
Blood is a red, liquid substance that flows through your body, carrying important
materials to cells and removing waste.

● What is blood plasma and its function?

Blood plasma is a very pale yellow liquid which carries blood cells, oxygen, glucose and
carbon dioxide.

● What are red blood cells and its function?

The red blood cell is round and red, it does not have nuclei and mitochondria. Their
cytoplasm contains a red pigment called "haemoglobin". The function of a red blood cell
is to carry carbon dioxide(CO2) and water(H2O) around the body.

● What are the two structures that most cells have but that red blood cells do not have?
Two structures that most cells have but that red blood cells do not have are mitochondria
and nucleus.

● Why are there nuclei in the blood?

There are no nucleus, to make room for haemoglobin.
● Why are there no mitochondria in the red blood cell?
There are no mitochondria in the red blood cell
There is no mitochondria to create more space for haemoglobin and not having
mitochondria stops the red blood cells from using up all the oxygen for themselves,
instead of delivering it elsewhere.
● What is white blood cells and its function?
White blood cells are white, round and spikey. The function of white blood cells is to
protect our body from pathogens(bacteria and viruses).

● What is haemoglobin?
Haemoglobin is a red pigment protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen to the body
and carbon dioxide back to the lungs.

● What is oxyhaemoglobin?
Oxyhaemoglobin is a very bright red compound that is produced when the oxygen
diffuses into the red blood cell.

● Describe how the red blood cells transport oxygen to all the cells in the body.
Inside the red blood cell, the oxygen combines with haemoglobin which forms
oxyhaemoglobin and as the blood continues to flow around our body, it passes the cells
that are repairing. The oxyhaemoglobins lets go of its oxygen and gives it to the cells.

● What are the 2 ways to kill pathogens?

Phagocytosis is the first way the body kills pathogens. During this process, white blood
cells change shape and extend their cytoplasm to make a finger which surrounds and
captures a bacterium. The white blood cell then releases chemicals that kill and digest
the bacterium. The second way is to kill them by producing antibodies which is a type of
chemical. It sticks onto the chemicals and either directly it or sticks pathogens together
till they cannot move and kill them.

● What are pathogens?

Pathogens are the bacteria and viruses which can cause illness when they get into the
body.

● What is phagocytosis?
Phagocytosis is a way to kill the pathogens, it happens when the white blood cells
change shape and extend their cytoplasm to make a finger which surrounds and
captures a bacterium then the white blood cell kills them by releasing chemicals that kill
and digest it.

● What are antibodies?

Antibodies are chemicals that stick onto the pathogen, sometimes they kill the pathogen
directly but sometimes they glue lots of pathogens together so that they cannot move
and kill them.
 ● What is the difference between bacteria and viruses?
Viruses are tiny, non-living particles that invade host cells to reproduce, while bacteria
are living single-celled organisms that can grow and reproduce on their own. Antibiotics
kill bacteria but don’t work on viruses, which need antiviral treatments. Some bacteria
are helpful, but viruses are usually harmful.

Unit-1(Check your progress)

Unit-2.1
● Elements
→ An element is made up of only one type of atom.
→ A compound is made up of two or more different atoms chemically joined together.
→ a mixture is made up of two or more different atoms not chemically joined together.

● What is the difference between dissolving and melting?

Dissolving and melting are different, melting requires a high temperature, but both of
them turn from solid to liquid.

● What is solute?
A substance that dissolves in the solvent is called “solute”.

● What is the solvent?

A substance that solute dissolves into is called “solvent”.

● What is a solution?
A “solution” is a mixture where solute dissolves in the solvent.

● What is transparent?
→ All solutions are transparents which means that we could see through them, but
transparent doesn’t mean colorless.
→ Allows light to pass through completely; you can see through it clearly.

● What is opaque?
→ Blocks light completely; you cannot see through it.

● What is conserved?
→ Stays the same or is not lost
→ When the solute dissolves into the solvent, the solute particles stay in the solvent and
do not disappear. The mass of the solution equals the total mass of the solute and
solvent(Mass of solute + Mass of the solvent = Mass of Solution)
→ Does not change
Unit-2.2
● What is concentrated?
→ A concentrated solution has a higher amount of solute compared to the solvent.
→ More amount of solute
→ Least concentrated liquid will have pale color since the drops are less than the other

● What is dilute?
→ A solution that has more solvent compared to solute, making it less concentrated
→ Adding more liquid

● Solubility

● What is saturated?
→ A solution where the solute does not dissolve in the solvent anymore.
→ Solute does not dissolve anymore(m pyaw win, bel laut htae htae m pyaw win)

● What is unsaturated?
→ Solute dissolve in the solvent(bel laut htae” pyaw win)

● Comparing solubility?
High solubility = Dissolve faster(more solute dissolve)
Low solubility = Dissolve slower(less solute dissolve)

● Temperature and solubility

→ Most solutes will dissolve more quickly and easily in hot water than in
cold water.
→ When the temperature increase = Solubility of the solute increase
→The more energy the particles have, the more they vibrate
and move

Unit-2.3
● What are variables?
Factors or conditions that can change or be controlled in an experiment

● Independent variable
The one and only factor that is changed in an experiment

● Dependent variable
The factor which is being measured/observed in the experiment.

● Control variable
All the factors that stay the same in an experiment
Unit-2.4
● What is paper chromatography?
○ Paper chromatography is a technique that you can use to separate out the
colored inks.
● Some inks are NOT soluble in water, for example permanent markers.
● We can use different solvent, such as alcohol to separate the colors in the inks.
● Starting line is drawing with a pencil since it cannot spread
● Finished the highest → Most soluble in the solvent → Able to travel the furthest
● Mobile phrase=Moving
● Stationary phrase=Not moving
● Phrase=Steps between
● Permitted=Cannot be seen easily or classify
● Move fur from the starting line=More soluble
● Furthest from the starting line=Most soluble
● Smallest particle travels the most
● Smallest particle(Most soluble) and Largest particle(least soluble)
● It is important to place the item we are testing above the water line at the start of
the process since it will be carried as the water moves upward and not move into
the solvent at the bottom corner.
● If the substance does not move up the chromatography paper even though the
solvent has moved upward it is because the substance)wasn’t soluble in the
solvent being used.
● We can let the substance dry before adding more to make it more concentrated
● A pure substance will only leave one spot whereas impure substance will leave
more than 2 spots.
● The liquid dissolves in the solvent, different substances have different solubility.
When the solvent moves up the chromatography paper, the solute is carried with
it. The particle of the more soluble substance will be carried further than the
particle of less soluble substance.
● The filtrate of an insoluble solution is usually colorless.
● When you measure the solubility of a solute you must use the same temperature
and type of solvent at a given temperature(this can change according to the
different experiment)
● Interval=A period/time different between two points/situations/events.

Unit-3.1

● What is force
→ A force is a push or pull that causes an object to accelerate, stop or change direction
→ If an object is stationary, it won’t start moving without a force
→ Forces come in pair
→ Forces have a magnitude and a direction
● Effect of force
→ Move a stationary object
→ Stop a moving object
→ Accelerate/decelerate a moving object
→ Change the direction of the a moving object
→ Change the shape of an object
→ Change the size of an object

● Newton’s second law of motion

→ Force = Mass x Acceleration
→ Force and acceleration are directly proportional, the greater the force, the greater the
acceleration
→ Mass and acceleration are inversely related, the greater the mass of an object the
less the acceleration if the same force is applied.

● Force measurement and units

→ SI unit for force is "Newton"
→ We use a spring scale to measure force

● Combining force
→ Net force = The overall force acting on an object after all forces are combined
= Result from combining all the force exerted on an object
→ For the forces in same direction we add them
→ For the forces in opposite direction we subtract the smaller force from the larger force

● Two type of quantity

→ Scalar=Only magnitude
→ Vector=M/d(or)Magnitude/Direction
→ Magnitude is the difference between two forces

● Balanced force
→ Do not cause change in motion
→ Equal in size and opposite in direction
→ Net force of the balance force is always 0.

● Unbalanced force
→ Always cause a change in motion
→ Unequal in size and/or opposite in direction
→ Net force of unbalanced force is greater force-smaller force and we take the
direction of the larger force.
→ The greatest force will always dominate
→ E.g. 10N, right - 4N, left = 6N, right
 Size of forces Direction of forces Balanced or unbalanced Change in movement

Equal Opposite Balanced None

Equal Not opposite Unbalanced Change of direction

Not equal Opposite Unbalanced Increase or speed

Not equal Not opposite Unbalanced Increase/decrease the

speed and change of
direction

● Forces in same direction

→ When the forces are applied in the same direction, they are added to determine the
size of the net force.

● Contact force
→ Force that acts on an objects that are touching each other
→ A force that occurs due to the physical contact between two objects
→ No field linked
→ Normal force, applied force, frictional force, tension force, spring force and air
resistance force are some examples of contact force.

● Non-contact force
→ Force that acts at a distance
→ A force that occurs due to either attraction or repulsion between two objects
→ Filed linked

● Name for forces(for the drawings)

→ Thrust force = Going forward
→ Drag force = Going backward , pulling
→ Lift = Contact force
→ Weight = Drag force

Unit-3.2
● Speed
→ SI unit for speed is metres per second(m/s)
→ Miles per hour(mph) is often used to measure vehicles speed
→ Speed = Distance / Time
→ Speed of an object is the distance it travels each second.(m/s)
→ Speed measure how fast an object move
→ Slower the object travel = Small distance
→ More speed = Faster
→ Less speed = Slower
→ Distance = Speed x Time
 → Distance is a length between two points, usually measured in metres(m).
→ Time = Distance / Speed
→ Time is a duration, usually measured in seconds(s).
→ In physics, neglection refers to intentionally ignoring or disregarding certain factors or
variables when analyzing a system
→ If the objects are traveling the same distance, the object which has a shorter time is
faster.

Unit-3.3
● Analyzing a distance-time graph
→ Scientific use graph to describe how two variables are related
→ By using a graph it is easier to see the trends/patterns, read any value and can be
easily calculated.
→ Distance usually stay on the vertical side(y-axis) of the graph whereas time stay in the
horizontal(x-axis)side of the graph
→ Going up with constant speed(same speed)
→ Nautical mile =
→ As the time go by the distance will increase

→ Not moving = No speed = Stationary = Time won’t stop and change

→ More speed + Less time = Steeper = Greater distance = Sloping Line

→ Positive and negative sloping line

Unit-3.4
● What is moment
→ Moment = How much can an object turn
→ Moment = Turning force
→ SI unit for moment is Newton metre(Nm)
→ More force = More movement
 → Moment = Force x Distance(Further distance)
→ Moment = Force x Distance(Closer distance)
→ There needs to be a distance between the pivot and the place where force is being
applied.
→ Bigger distance = Bigger moment
→ Moment = Force that is being applied x Distance between the force and the pivot
→ Moment = Force(F) x Distance(D)
→ Balanced = Same moment = No turning effect
→ Pivot =
→ Distance = Moment / Force
→ Force = Moment / Distance

Unit-3.5
● Pressure
→ Pushing effect of a force
→ Less area = More pressure
→ More force = More pressure
→ Less force = Less pressure
→ More area = Less pressure
→ Force = Pressure(Directly proportional)
→ Force Pressure (Directly Proportional)
→ Pressure = Force / Area = Newton per metres square(N/m2)
→ Area = Force / Pressure
→ Force = Area x Pressure

Unit-3.6
● What is pressure in liquid?
→ A liquid in a container exerts pressure because of its weight.
→ Pressure in liquid acts in all directions

→ The pressure at any point in a liquid, at a particular depth, acts equally in all directions
→ The pressure in a liquid does not depend on the area of its surface.
→ Higher column height = More pressure = Bigger(Bottom)
→ Liquid exert equal pressure at the same height
→ Same height = Equal pressure
→ Water pressure increases with depth
→ Deeper into a liquid you go → Greater the weight of liquid above → Higher pressure
→ Deeper water → Greater/Higher pressure

● Relate depth to pressure in a liquid

→ The pressure in a liquid is directly proportional to the depth
 → The pressure in a liquid increases with depth

● Density
→ Density = Arrangement of the particles
→ The pressure in a liquid is directly proportional to the density of the liquid.
→ Denser the liquid = Bigger the pressure
→ D P
→ More participles = More denser

● Pressure in liquid
→ The wall of a dam is much thicker at the bottom than at the top because it must
withstand the increased lateral pressure in depths of the water.
→ Normally a water tank is placed at a higher level so as to supply water at a greater
pressure.
→ Submarine is built with thick wall so as to withstand enormous pressure at greater
depth
→ Liquid solution is at a higher pressure so it has sufficient pressure to flow into the
veins of the patient.

● Gadgets
→ Pressure gauge is used to measure liquid pressure
→ The simplest form of pressure gauge is a manometer which measures pressure
difference.

Unit-3.7

● Gas pressure
→ Kinetic theory of gas = Gases or atmosphere consist of molecules which are far apart
in random motion at high speed.
→ Momentum = Type of motion
= Moving in high/low speed
→ When gas particles hit against the wall, its momentum changes.
→ The rate of change of momentum produces force.
→ Force per unit area produces pressure
→ momentum change , which make it have large force and it
generate to larger pressure

● Atmospheric pressure
→ The earth is surrounded by a thick layer of atmosphere
→ Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the atmosphere on the surface as
well as all objects on Earth, that’s why things aren’t working.
→ Atmospheric pressure act in all direction
→ It is not affected by surface area of the object
→ Hot pressure make the gas particle move
 → Heat and cold are not equal so it conduct
→ Altitude increase = Atmospheric decrease
→ When we suck through a straw, the air pressure in the straw is lowered. Then the
pressure of the atmosphere acting on the surface of the drink in the glass pushes the
water up the straw(drinking straw)

→ When the sucker is pressed into place, most of the air behind it is squeezed out. The
sucker is held in position by the pressure of the atmosphere on the outside surface of
the rubber. If the seal between the sucker and the surface is airtight, the sucker will stick
permanently.(rubber sucker)

→ The atmosphere on the liquid surface then pushes the liquid up into the syringe.
→ If we then hold the plunger in place and lift the syringe out of liquid, none will fall out.
This is again due to atmospheric pressure.
Cleaner(Cylinder)

→ The fan inside the cylinder blows air out of the vents. - less air inside, air pressure
drops.
→ The atmospheric pressure outside then pushes air up the cleaner hose, carrying dust
and dirt with it.(Vacuum cleaner)

● Particle on the move

→ Air move to different direction, speed can change
→ We need to increase the heat to increase the speed of gas
→ Heat make gas particles vibrate more and explode
→ Less space= Less concentration
→ Higher temperature = Quicker diffusion

Unit-4.1
● Keywords definition
→ An ecosystem is made up of all the living organisms in a place, interacting with each
other, and their non-living surroundings.

→ A habitat is the place where an organism lives. It must provide food, shelter and a
place to reproduce.

→ Microhabitat = Small habitats

→ Habitats provide: Food, Shelter, A place to reproduce(Reproduction)

→ An adaptation is a feature that organisms have to help them live in a particular place

→ Biotic factors are the living components of an ecosystem.

 → Living things that affect other living things are called biotic factors.

→ Non-living things that affect living things are called abiotic factors.

→ A population is the number of organisms of one type that live in a specific area.

→ Abiotic factors are the non-living components of an ecosystem.

→ A living part of an ecosystem are made up of communities
→ Communities are interactions between populations of different organisms in a
specific area.

→ Coral reef form naturally from waste product and remains of dead animals

→ How does the rock pool provide organisms with food, shelter and a place to
reproduce?
● Rocks provide a firm base for seaweeds to attach themselves to. The seaweed is
a producer. This means that there is food for organisms that are found in a rock
pool food web diagram.
● Cracks in between rocks, in seaweeds and under boulders provide organisms
with shelter when the tide comes back in, and also provide places to reproduce.

→ Antibiotic factors
● Soil type
● Light intensity
● Water availability / Humidity
● Climate / Temperature
● Altitude / Levels of oxygen

→ Salmon adaptations
● Sharp teeth to help catch and eat prey.
● Good eyesight to help spot and catch prey.
● Muscles to help it swim fast to help catch prey, escape predators and to swim
against the current.
● Streamlined shape to help the salmon move through the water more easily.
● Camouflaged to help it to blend into the surroundings to prevent being spotted by
predators.

Unit-4.2
● There are two different types of adaptation, physical and behavioral
● Nature
○ Terrestrial(Land-based)
■ Forest(Temperature, Taiga(Boreal), Tropical)
■ Dessert
■ Grassland
 ■ Tundra

○ Aquatic(Weather-based)
■ Fresh water and marine
■ Fresh water = Lentic(Still water), Lotic(Flowing water, Wetlands

● Food web is a diagram which shows how different plants and animals(living things)in an
ecosystem are connected through their feeding relationship. Food webs are complex
and they include tons of connections.

● A food chain is a simple linear sequence that shows how energy flows from one
organism to another, whereas a food web is a complex diagram of an interconnected
food chain. IT shows multiple feeding relationship and energy flow paths within an
ecosystem.

● An ecosystem is considered to be in equilibrium when the populations of plants and

animals are stable, which means that there is enough food, water and shelter for all of
the organisms, and none of the species are overpopulating. There shouldn’t be any
environmental issue such as weather events which disrupt the balance.

● Producer(or)Autotrophs(or)Self-feeder: They can make their own foods/organic molecule

● Consumer(or)Heterophs: They get food/organic molecules by eating other organisms
● Food chain: A linear sequence of organisms through which nutrients and energy
transfer/pass as one organism eat another.

● Trophic level
1. Primary consumer(Herbivorce)
2. Secondary consumer(Carnivorce)
3. Tertiary consumer
4. Quaternary consumer
5. Apex(On top of the food chain)

● Photographs → Mostly plants, they use energy from sunlight to make organic
compounds(sugars)out of carbon dioxide.(Examples: Algae and cyanobacteria)
● Chemotrophs → They use energy from chemical
→ Biochemical engineering
→ Use to make vaccines
→ To build organic compound out of carbon dioxide and similar molecules
Example: Hydrogen sulfide-oxidizing chemoautotrophic bacteria found in undersea vent
communities where no light can reach

Unit-4.3
● What is native specie?
 Native species are those that normally live and thrive in a particular community. They
occupy specific habitats and have specific niches in their native environment. They have
natural predators that help to keep their populations in check.

● What is non-native species?

A species living outside its native distributional range, which has arrived there by human
activity, either deliberate or accidental. Non-native species are not necessarily invasive.

● What is non-native invasive species?

A non-native species that adversely affects habitats and biodiversity.

● Common characteristic of invasive specie

○ Have few natural predators, competitors, parasites or diseases
○ Have high reproductive
○ rates
○ Are long-lived, generalists and pioneer species

● Characteristic of invasive plants

○ Self-compatible
○ Flowers early
○ Produces abundant seeds
○ Disperses seeds widely
○ Grows rapidly
○ Spreads asexually
○ Strong competitors

Unit-4.4
● Pesticides are chemicals that are used to control pests (organisms that compete with
humans for food supplies).

● A toxic substance is one which is poisonous to organisms.

● An increase in the concentration of a chemical within an organism is called

bioaccumulation.

● When DDT gets into an animal’s body, it stays there for the whole life of the organism – it
never breaks down

● The longer the organism lives, and the more DDT it takes in, the more DDT it gets in its
body. This process is called bioaccumulation.

● Biomagnification = Gradually building up

● PPM=Parts per million(used to measure the concentration of DDT)
 ● Herbicides(weedkillers)=Toxic to plants
● Insecticides=Toxic to insects.
● Fungicides=Toxic to moulds and fungi

Unit-5.1
● What are atoms?
Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter. They are so tiny and everything around us
whether it is living or non-living things are made out of them including solid, liquid, gas
and so on.

● The structure of the atom

→ The structure of an atom is a central nucleus surrounded by electrons which orbit
around the nucleus in rings(also known as shells). The nucleus is made up of different
types of particles, protons and neutrons which are tightly packed together in a ball. The
protons and electrons should be balanced, if not they will become ions.

● What are function of each structure in the atom

Protons Determine the atom’s identity as an element and contribute

positive charge in the nucleus.

Neutrons Stabilizes the nucleus by reducing repulsion between protons.

Electrons Contribute in chemical reaction by forming bonds with other

atoms.

Nucles It is the central part of the atom, containing both protons and
neutrons, and mostly holds the atom’s mass.

Electron shells Allow electrons to orbit and can determine how the atom interacts
with others.

→ Atoms are pure substance

→ Atom + Atom = Molecule
→ Different elements = Compound(Chemically-bound)(Cannot be separated)
= Mixture(Can be separated)
→ Element can be solid/liquid/gas
→ = Hydrogen molecule
→ = Chlorine molecule
→ = Compound
→ Every atoms have nucleus in the center
 - 2 particles inside it which are proton and neutron
- Proton + Neutron → Nucles

→ Without any sign = Neutral / Neutralize

= Neutron
= Does not react

● 3 basic particles
→ Proton(negative)( )Charge=
→ Electron(positive)( )Charge=
→ Neutron(not male nor female)
→ Sub atomic particles are proton, electron and neutron
→ Electron is always orbiting around nucleus
→ Proton + Neutron = Atom’s mass *Not weight*
= Atomic mass(no gravitational effect)

● Difference between particle

→ Mass
→ Proton and neutron same mass
→ In order to be stable the charge should be zero
→ Charge =

→ Uranium(unstable)
→ Electricity come from electric current
→ Electrostatic force = A force between electron and proton
→ Electrosatatic attraction
→ Electron, proton and neutron can change according to the atomic number

● A → Mass No
● X → Symbol of element
● Z → Atomic No

● Mass No-(A) = Nucleon no:(no. off protons + no.of neutrons)

● Atomic No(Z)=No- of protons

=No- of neutrons
=No- of electrons

● One of Thompson’s students was originally from New Zealand. His name was Ernest
Rutherford. Rutherford discovered the proton in 1909 and the nucleus in 1911.
 ● Rutherford’s most famous experiment was the gold foil experiment.

● In this experiment Rutherford fired fast moving particles, smaller than an atom, at very
thin gold foil. Most of the particles passed straight through the foil. Only a few of the
particles (about 1 in 8000) were deflected in various directions. (Deflected means that
the direction of the particle was changed.)

Unit-5.2

● Pure elements
→ If an element is pure; it means that every one of its atoms is exactly the same and
made of just one type of atom.

→ When you buy gold it is usually marked to state if it is pure gold (24 carat) or an alloy
such as 18 carat or 9 carat.

→ The more gold it has, the higher its purity. 1

→ 8 carat gold has 18 parts out of 24 that are gold; the rest (6 parts out of the 24) is
made up of other metals such as silver or copper.

→ Diamonds are made from the element carbon. The carbon atoms are arranged in a
particular way. If they are pure, diamonds contain no other elements. Pure diamonds are
colourless and translucent (lets the light through)

→ If diamonds have other elements mixed in with the carbon atoms, they can be
different colours.

→ If a few carbon atoms per million are replaced with nitrogen, the diamond will be
yellow.

→ If some carbon atoms are replaced by atoms of the element boron, then the diamond
will be blue.

→ The rarest of all is a green diamond, formed when one atom per 1000 of carbon
atoms is replaced by nitrogen, nickel or hydrogen.