NSCET

E-LEARNING
PRESENTATION
LISTEN … LEARN… LEAD…
The fear of the LORD is the
beginning of knowledge, but
fools despise wisdom and
instruction.
 குறள்
கற் க கசடறக் கற் பவை கற் றபின்
நிற் க அதற் குத் தக.
So learn that you may full and faultless learning
gain, Then in obedience meet to lessons learnt
remain
 கல் வி கற் க நல் ல நூல் கவளக் குற் றமறக் கற் க வைண்டும் , அை் ைாறு கற் ற
பிறகு, கற் ற கல் விக்கு தக்கைாறு நநறியில் நிற் க வைண்டும் .
COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

IV YEAR / VII SEMESTER

OGI352 – Geographical Information System

ARUL JOTHI S/M.E.,MISTE,

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR PHOTO

Nadar Saraswathi College of Engineering & Technology,

Vadapudupatti, Annanji (PO), Theni – 625531.

 TOPIC NAME
UNIT 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS
 UNIT 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS
Introduction to GIS
Basic spatial concepts
Coordinate Systems
GIS and Information Systems
Definitions – History of GIS
Components of a GIS – Hardware, Software, Data,
People, Methods
Proprietary and open source Software
Types of data – Spatial, Attribute data- types of
attributes – scales/ levels of measurements.
 COURSE OUTCOME 1
Have basic idea about the fundamentals of GIS.
 Introduction to GIS
What is geospatial data?
Geospatial data is time-based data that is related
to a specific location on the Earth’s surface. It can
provide insights into relationships between
variables and reveal patterns and trends.
 Introduction to GIS

Geospatial data is information that describes objects,

events or other features with a location on or near the
surface of the earth.
Geospatial data typically combines location information
(usually coordinates on the earth) and attribute
information (the characteristics of the object, event or
phenomena concerned) with temporal information (the
time or life span at which the location and attributes
exist).
 Introduction to GIS

Geospatial data typically involves large sets of spatial

data gleaned from many diverse sources in varying
formats and can include information such as census data,
satellite imagery, weather data, cell phone data, drawn
images and social media data.
 Introduction to GIS
 What is Geospatial Analysis?
 Geospatial analysis refers to the quantitative techniques applied
to analyze and interpret geographical data—that is, data that
contains location coordinates or spatial references.
 By combining cartography, spatial modeling, computational
methods and GIS (geographic information systems), geospatial
analysis reveals trends, relationships and patterns that inform
business strategy
 Introduction to GIS
 Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
 GIS provides the fundamental framework to gather, organize, analyze
and visualize geospatial data.
 This is specialized software that integrates many different layers of
location-based information onto digital maps.
 For example, a city’s GIS may combine geospatial data on building
footprints, road networks, subway routes, land-use zoning, utility
infrastructure, climate patterns etc.
 GIS makes it possible to overlay these diverse datasets for a
comprehensive view.
 Advanced GIS capabilities allow users to generate 3D scenes, build data
models, automate workflows, publish interactive web maps and more.
 Leading GIS software tools include ArcGIS, QGIS, Mapbox, CARTO and
Google Earth Engine.
 Basic spatial concepts
 Spatial Data
 Geospatial analysis involves examining and interpreting data with a
geographic component, providing insights into spatial patterns,
relationships, and trends. Various types of data contribute to geospatial
analysis, enhancing our understanding of the Earth’s surface and its
interactions. Here are some key types of data used in geospatial analysis:
 Vector Data (points, lines, polygons) representing discrete features like city
boundaries, roads, landmarks etc.
 Raster Data (gridded cells, e.g., satellite imagery), aerial photos and digital
elevation models.
 GPS Coordinates for precise location information
 Demographic Information
 Climate and Weather Data
 Basic spatial concepts
 Crowdsourced Mapping Information
 Geotagged Social Media Posts.
 Traffic Data
 Transportation Patterns
 Temporal data – Time-series measurements from sensors and IoT
devices, showing how phenomena vary over time.
 Once spatial data has been collected and organized, various
computational techniques can be applied to analyze patterns,
relationships and trends.
 Geospatial analysis utilizes quantitative methods adapted from fields
like statistics, data mining, simulation modeling and image processing.
 Why is Geospatial Analysis Important?
 Location-based context plays an increasingly ubiquitous role in drawing insights from
data across industries and applications:
 Understand consumer behavior based on geography to optimize sales and marketing.
 Plan transportation infrastructure considering existing routes, landmarks, communities.
 Respond quickly to natural disasters by mapping affected populations and
infrastructure.
 Track disease outbreaks and access to healthcare through spatial epidemiology.
 Assess environmental impacts by analyzing geographical patterns and changes.
 Improve agricultural productivity by mapping soil conditions, drainage, and other
location-specific variables.
 Strengthen national security by monitoring borders, critical infrastructure etc.
 Design emergency responses by mapping real-time disasters and vulnerable areas.
 APPLICATIONS
 Disaster Management
 Geospatial technology plays a huge role in disaster monitoring,
preparedness, response and recovery. For example:
 Track wildfires, floods and storms by layering real-time sensor data
onto maps and 3D displays.
 Assess damage to critical infrastructure like roads,
hospitals, power lines based on aerial imagery.
 Identify communities and facilities most vulnerable to disaster impacts
through spatial analysis.
 Coordinate evacuations by mapping evacuation zones, routes and
shelters.
 Develop early warning systems by modeling the spread of disasters.
 APPLICATIONS
 Business Intelligence
 The business potential unlocked by location-based insights is invaluable
across sectors like retail, real estate, transportation, tourism and more. For
example:
 Select optimal locations for new stores or warehouses based on
demographics, competitors, accessibility etc.
 Design sales territories, optimize delivery routes and fleet logistics using
network analysis.
 Analyze customer behavior based on geography to tailor products,
promotions and experiences.
 Enrich market segmentation by layering spatial variables like income,
population, spending habits onto customer data.
 Introduction to GIS

 Environmental Management
 Geospatial analytics help monitor environmental systems to detect
changes and guide conservation efforts. Applications include:
 Create detailed land-use/land cover maps using satellite imagery and
vector layers showing forests, water bodies, soil types etc.
 Model geographic distribution and migration patterns of flora and
fauna.
 Identify biodiversity hotspots and establish protected wildlife corridors.
 Detect illegal activities like mining, logging, poaching through earth
observation.
 Track gradual impacts like deforestation, desertification, melting glaciers
by comparing geospatial data over time.
 Coordinate System

 A coordinate system is a reference system used for locating objects in a

two or three dimensional space
 Geographic Coordinate System A geographic coordinate system, also
known as global or spherical coordinate system is a reference system that
uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to determine locations on the
earth. Any location on earth can be referenced by a point with longitude
and latitude.
 Pole : The geographic pole of earth is defined as either of the two points
where the axis of rotation of the earth meets its surface.
 The North Pole lies 90º north of the equator and the South Pole lies 90º
south of the equator Latitude : Imaginary lines that run horizontally around
the globe and are measured from 90º north to 90º south.
Coordinate System
Coordinate System
 Coordinate System
 Also known as parallels, latitudes are equidistant from each other.
Equator : An imaginary line on the earth with zero degree latitude,
divides the earth into two halves-Northern and Southern
Hemisphere. This parallel has the widest circumference.
 Longitude : Imaginary lines that run vertically around the globe.
Also known as meridians, longitudes are measured from 180º east
to 180º west. Longitudes meet at the poles and are widest apart at
the equator
 Prime meridian : Zero degree longitude which divides the earth
into two halves-Eastern and Western hemisphere. As it runs through
the Royal Greenwich Observatory in Greenwich, England it is also
known as Greenwich meridian
 Coordinate System

 Equator (0º) is the reference for the measurement of latitude. Latitude is

measured north or south of the equator. For measurement of longitude, prime
meridian (0º) is used as a reference.
 Longitude is measured east or west of prime meridian. The grid of latitude and
longitude over the globe is known as graticule. The intersection point of the
equator and the prime meridian is the origin (0, 0) of the graticule.
 Coordinate measurement The geographic coordinates are measured in angles.

 Coordinate System
 An angle is expressed in Degree Minute Second.
 While writing coordinates of a location, latitude is followed by
longitude. For example, coordinates of Delhi is written as 28° 36′ 50″ N,
77° 12′ 32″ E.
 Decimal Degree is another format of expressing the coordinates of a
location.
 To convert a coordinate pair from degree minute second to decimal
degree following method is adopted :
 28º36’50” = 28 + (36*1)+50(50*1/60*1/60) = 28 + 0.6 + 0.138 = 28.6138
 We have 28 full degrees, 36 minutes - each 1/60 of a degree, and 50
seconds - each 1/60 of 1/60 of a degree.
 Coordinate System
 Local Time and Time Zones With rotation of earth on its axis, at any
moment one of the longitudes faces the Sun (noon meridian), and at
that moment, it is noon everywhere on it.
 After 24 hours the earth completes one full rotation with respect to the
Sun, and the same meridian again faces the noon.
 Thus each hour the Earth rotates by 360/24 = 15 degrees.
 This implies that with every 15º of longitude change a new time zone is
created which is marked by a difference of one hour from the
neighboring longitudes specified at 15º gap.
 The earth's time zones are measured from the prime meridian (0º) and
the time at Prime meridian is called Greenwich Mean Time. Thus, there
are 24 time zones created around the globe.
 Coordinate System
 Date The International Date Line is the imaginary line on the Earth that
separates two consecutive calendar days.
 Starting at midnight and going east to the International Date Line, the
date is one day ahead of the date on the rest of the Earth
 Projected Coordinate system A projected coordinate system is defined
as two dimensional representation of the Earth. It is based on a spheroid
geographic coordinate system, but it uses linear units of measure for
coordinates. It is also known as Cartesian coordinate system.
 In such a coordinate system the location of a point on the grid is
identified by (x, y) coordinate pair and the origin lies at the centre of
grid. The x coordinate determines the horizontal position and y
coordinate determines the vertical position of the point.
Coordinate System
 GIS and Information Systems
 Geographic information systems (GIS) are computer systems
that produce connected visualizations of geospatial data—
that is, data spatially referenced to Earth. Beyond creating
visualizations, GIS is capable of capturing, storing, analyzing
and managing geospatial data.
 “A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based
tool for mapping and analyzing things that exist and events
that happen on earth. GIS technology integrates common
database operations such as query and statistical analysis with
the unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits
offered by maps.” ESRI
 GIS and Information Systems
 Objectives of GIS Some of the major objectives of GIS are to
Maximizing the efficiency of planning and decision making
Integrating information from multiple sources
Facilitating complex querying and analysis
Eliminating redundant data and minimizing duplication
History of GIS
https://www.esri.com/en-us/what-is-gis/history-of-gis

 One of the first instances of spatial analysis happened in 1854,

when British physician John Snow mapped London’s cholera
outbreak locations and other geographic data. He discovered
that cholera cases occurred along water lines.
 But it was not until computers and computational geography
emerged in the 1960s that the field of GIS found its stride. During
this time, Esri—an industry leader in GIS software development—
was also founded. Esri went on to develop many of the GIS
methods and technologies used today, such as ArcGIS.
 In the 1970s, faster, cheaper and more advanced computers
enabled the commercialization of GIS software. This, along with the
rise of satellites and remote sensing technology, encouraged
governments, businesses and academic institutions to adopt GIS.
 History of GIS
 Today’s GIS has become ubiquitous. Open-source GIS data from the
United States Geological Survey (USGS) and other agencies, and GIS
applications (such as QGIS) and their tutorials are easily accessible.
Outside of government and academic settings, GIS is used to track
packages, route trips and hail rideshares.

 https://www.arcgis.com/home/webscene/viewer.html
 Components of a GIS
 Hardware:
It consists of the equipments and support devices that are required to capture, store
process and visualize the geographic information. These include computer with hard disk,
digitizers, scanners, printers and plotters etc.

 Software
Software is at the heart of a GIS system. The GIS software must have the basic capabilities
of data input, storage, transformation, analysis and providing desired outputs.
The interfaces could be different for different software’s. Key software components are
Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information
A database management system (DBMS)
Tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization
 Components of a GIS
 Data
The data is captured or collected from various sources (such as maps, field
observations, photography, satellite imagery etc) and is processed for analysis
and presentation.
 Methods/Procedures
These include the methods or ways by which data has to be input in the system,
retrieved, processed, transformed and presented.
People
This component of GIS includes all those individuals (such as programmer,
database manager, GIS researcher etc.) who are making the GIS work, and also
the individuals who are at the user end using the GIS services, applications and
tools
Components of a GIS
 https://geosat.space/
 https://www.satimagingcorp.com/applications/engineering-and-construction/
 https://www.esri.com/en-us/arcgis/geospatial-platform/how-arcgis-works

 LIST OF SOFTWARE
 https://gisgeography.com/commercial-gis-software/
 TYPES OF DATA
MEASUREMENT
 https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog160/c3_p8.html
 https://www.esri.com/en-us/arcgis/products/arcgis-location-platform/services/spatial-
analytics
 ARCGIS FEATURES
 Map Creation: Users can create maps by adding layers of
various geographic data types, such as shapefiles, raster
images, and feature classes.
 Data Visualization: ArcMap allows users to symbolize and
visualize data through various styles, colors, and labels. It
supports both quantitative and qualitative data
representation.
 Spatial Analysis: The software provides tools for performing
spatial analyses, such as overlay operations, proximity
analysis, network analysis, and terrain modeling.
 Geoprocessing: ArcMap includes a wide range of
geoprocessing tools that enable users to manipulate and
analyze geographic data. These tools can be used to
perform tasks like buffer creation, spatial joins, and data
conversion.
 Cartography: ArcMap offers advanced cartographic tools for
designing and creating aesthetically pleasing maps suitable for various
purposes, including presentation and publication.
 Layout Design: Users can create map layouts by arranging map
elements such as legends, scale bars, titles, and north arrows. This is
useful for generating final map outputs for printing or digital sharing.
 Data Editing: ArcMap provides tools for editing geographic data,
allowing users to add, modify, and delete features in vector datasets.
 Integration with Data Sources: ArcMap supports various data formats
and can connect to various data sources, including databases, web
services, and other GIS software.
 Spatial Database Management: ArcMap can be used to manage and
query spatial databases, enabling users to store, organize, and retrieve
spatial data efficiently.
 Proprietary and Open Source Software
 Open-Source GIS Software Many GIS tasks can be accomplished with
open-source GIS software, which are freely available over Internet
downloads.
 Most widely used open source applications:
GRASS - Originally developed by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers,
open source : a complete GIS
MapServer - Web-based mapping server, developed by the University
of Minnesota.
Chameleon - Environments for building applications with MapServer.
GeoNetwork opensource - A catalog application to manage spatially
referenced resources
GeoTools - Open source GIS toolkit written in Java, using Open
Geospatial Consortium specifications.
gvSIG - Open source GIS written in Java
 Proprietary Software

 Proprietary Software With proprietary software there is one point of contact,

with the open source software the support comes from the community.
License cost versus capacity development : potentially save enough money
on software to save jobs.
 Most widely used notable proprietary software applications and providers :
ESRI - Products include ArcView 3.x, ArcGIS, ArcSDE, ArcIMS, and ArcWeb
services.
GRAM++ GIS - Low-cost GIS software product developed by CSRE, IIT
Bombay.
Autodesk - Products include MapGuide and other products that interface
with its flagship AutoCAD software package.
Cadcorp - Developers of GIS software and OpenGIS standard
 Proprietary Software

 Intergraph - Products include GeoMedia, GeoMedia Profesional,

GeoMedia WebMap
 ERDAS IMAGINE - A proprietary GIS, Remote Sensing, and
Photogrammetry software developed by Leica Geosystems
Geospatial Imaging.
 SuperGeo - Products include SuperGIS Desktop & extensions,
SuperPad Suite, SuperWebGIS & extensions, SuperGIS Engine &
extensions, SuperGIS Network Server and GIS services.
 Types of data – Spatial, Attribute data- types of
attributes – scales/ levels of measurements.
 Spatial Data Geospatial data, spatial information or geographic
information.
 Spatial data - describes the absolute and relative location of geographic
features. It is represented by vector and raster forms (including imagery).
 Spatial data are generally multi-dimensional and auto correlated. Spatial
data also refers to all types of data objects or elements that are present in
a geographical space or horizon.
 It is the data or information that identifies the geographic location of
features and boundaries on Earth, such as natural or constructed features,
oceans, and more.
 Spatial data is usually stored as coordinates and topology, and the data
that can be mapped. It enables the global finding and locating of
individuals or devices anywhere in the world.
https://spatialvision.com.au/blog-raster-and-vector-data-in-gis/
https://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/latest/manage-data/geodatabases/feature-class-basics.htm
RASTER IMAGES
DIGITAL ELEVATION MODEL-RASTER
SPATIAL RESOLUTION VS SCALE
 Representation of Space Burrough & McDonnell (1998) described two
ways to represent the space (an area, landscape or some bigger unit),
which are as follows :

 a. Discrete Entities : The space could be seen as occupied with entities

that are described by their properties and can be located on earth
using coordinate systems.
The entities have a clear boundary. Buildings, roads, land parcels etc.
are the example of discrete entities.
 b. Continuous fields : The variation of an attribute over the space as a
continuous field. No physical boundary can ever be observed in such
case.
 Temperature, pressure, elevation etc. across an area are the examples
of continuous fields
 Types of Data Representation The data can be
represented in any of the format
 Numeric data
 Vector data
 Raster data
 Numeric data

Numeric data
 Numeric data is statistical data which includes a geographical
component or field that can be joined with vector files so the data
can be queried and displayed as a layer on a map in a GIS.
 The most common type of numeric data is demographic data from
the US Census.
 Vector data
 Vector data is a data that has a spatial component, or X,Y
coordinates assigned to it.
 Vector files can contain sets of points, lines, or polygons that are
referenced in a geographic space. There are three types of features :
 Point (vertex, node) is a 0-dimensional object and has the property
of location (x,y).
 Line (edge, link, chain, arc) is a one-dimensional object that has the
property of length. An arc starts with a node, has zero or more vertices,
and ends with a node.
 Polygon is a two-dimensional object with properties of area and
perimeter.
Vector data
 Raster data
 Raster data is a data in a .JPG, .TIF, .GIF or similar format.
 Items scanned using a flatbed scanner like the map given
below is examples of raster files.
 Images taken with a digital camera produce these same types
of files
 Data Content
 Data Content Based on data content, spatial data can be
classified as :
 Temporal - Constantly changing data, i.e. data that represents the
dynamic variables at different time frames (t1 , t2 ).
 Example of temporal data layers would be rainfall, stream
discharge, and land use.
 Thematic - Contains information on some unique aspect or
attribute class; i.e. watershed boundaries, soils, geology.
 Discrete Data - Discrete Data is object-based, categorical or
discontinued data. It represents objects defined as points, lines, or
areas.
 Examples are weather stations, rivers, lakes.
 In addition, we can find exact spatial objects (discrete features with
well-defined boundaries) and inexact spatial objects (discrete
features also called “fuzzy entities” with no precise boundaries, i.e.
the boundaries are transitional).
 Continuous Data - Continuous Data is field-based or surface data. It
covers a continuous space, represented by a large number of
discrete units.
 An example is an elevation map (represented as a raster).
 Attribute Data Attribute data describes characteristics of the spatial
features. Also called as Non spatial data and characteristic data
 These characteristics can be quantitative and/or qualitative in
nature. Attribute data is often referred to as tabular (Numeric) data.
 Non-spatial data are generally one-dimensional and independent.
It’s a separate data model used to store and maintain attribute data
for GIS software.
 These data models may exist internally within the GIS software, or
may be reflected in external commercial Database Management
Software (DBMS).
 Variety of different data models exist for the storage and
management of attribute data. The most common are :
 Tabular Model
 Hierarchical Model
 Network Model
 Relational Model
 Object Oriented Model
 Most early GIS software packages stored their attribute data in
Tabular model. The next three models are those most commonly
implemented in Database Management Systems (DBMS).
 Scales/ Levels of Measurements
 Measurement is defined as application of rules to assign numbers to
objects (or attributes). Measurement rules are the procedures used
to transform the qualities of attributes into numbers (e.g., type of
scale used).
 Three important properties :
 Magnitude is the property of “moreness”.
 Higher score refers to more of something.
 Equal interval is the difference between any two adjacent
numbers referring to the same amount of difference on the
attribute?
 Absolute zero is the scale have a zero point that refers to having
none of that attribute?
 Measurement Scales
 The scale determines the amount of information contained in the
data.
 The scale indicates the data summarization and statistical analyses
that are most appropriate.
 The attributes shown in a thematic map can be recorded by four
different scales.
 Nominal scales - Qualitative, not quantitative distinction (no absolute
zero, not equal intervals, not magnitude) o
 Ordinal scales - Ranking individuals (magnitude, but not equal intervals
or absolute zero)
 Interval scales - Scales that have magnitude and equal intervals but
not absolute zero o
 Ratio scales - Have magnitude, equal intervals, and absolute zero (so
can compute ratios)
 Measurement Scales
Nominal Scale
 Nominal Scales - There must be distinct classes but these classes
have no quantitative properties.
 Therefore, no comparison can be made in terms of one
category being higher than the other.
 For example - There are two classes for the variable gender -
males and females.
 There are no quantitative properties for this variable or these
classes and, therefore, gender is a nominal variable.
 Other Examples : Country of origin Biological sex (male or
female) Animal or non-animal Married vs. Single Sometimes
numbers are used to designate category membership
 Example : Country of Origin 1 = United States 3 = Canada
 Measurement Scales
Ordinal Scale
 Ordinal Scales - There are distinct classes but these classes have a
natural ordering or ranking.
 The differences can be ordered on the basis of magnitude.
 For example - Final position of horses in a race is an ordinal variable.
The horses finish first, second, third, fourth, and so on.
 Measurement Scales
Interval Scale
 The data have the properties of ordinal data, and the interval
between observations is expressed in terms of a fixed unit of measure.
 Designates an equal-interval ordering - The distance between, for
example, a1 and a2 is the same as the distance between a4 and a5.
 Example - Celsius temperature is an interval variable.
 It is meaningful to say that 25 degrees Celsius is 3 degrees hotter than
22 degrees Celsius, and that 17 degrees Celsius is the same amount
hotter (3 degrees) than 14 degrees Celsius. Notice, however, that 0
degrees Celsius does not have a natural meaning. That is, 0 degrees
Celsius does not mean the absence of heat!
Measurement Scales
 Measurement Scales
 Ratio Scales - captures the properties of the other types of scales,
but also contains a true zero, which represents the absence of the
quality being measured.
 Has an absolute zero that is meaningful. Can construct a
meaningful ratio (fraction), for example, number of clients in past
six months.
 It is meaningful to say that “...we had twice as many clients in this
period as we did in the previous six months.