LABORATORY MANUAL

M.SC. I SEMESTER
(PHYSICS)

Department of Pure & Applied Physics

Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya

(A Central University)
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:

1. To determine the wavelength of Helium-Neon Laser by

using Diffraction Grating.

2. To show the tunneling effect in tunnel diode using I-V

Characteristics.

3. To determine the value of Planck’s constant and work

function using a photoelectric cell.

4. To determine the first excitation potential of Argon

contained in the tube and hence to compute planks
constant by Frank-Hertz Experiment.
 Experiment no. 1

AIM: -
To determine the wavelength of Helium-Neon Laser by using Diffraction Grating.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: -
He-Ne Laser, Diffraction grating (3 windows: 100, 300,600 lines per mm), Screen holder, Graph paper.

Formula Used: -
When a monochromatic laser beam of wavelength λ is diffracted by a diffraction grating the nth order
maxima formed at θn angle given by
Sinθn = mλN ...(1)
We calculate this value of Sinθn by

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ...(2)

Where 𝑦 = distance between nth order of maxima from the central maxima
D = distance between screen & grating.
And

𝜆 =

Where N = number of line per mm of grating

m = order of maxima

Theory: -
Diffraction refers to various phenomena which occur when a wave encounters a sharp edged
obstacle or a slit. A diffraction grating is an optical device with a periodic structure that differacts light into
several beams travelling in different directions. The gratings we we will use in lab have three windows per
slide. They are generally 100, 300, 600 lines per mm. We will need to calculate D for the 100, 300, & 600
lines per mm.
When laser light is incident on a diffraction grating and diffraction pattern is obtained on the
screen formed by a graph paper. Different Sinθ can be obtained for different order of maxima
We have,

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =

And substituting Sinθ for different orders in formula,

 𝜆 = can be obtained

Diagram: -

Fig. (01)

Fig. (02)

Procedure: -
1. A plane transmission grating (100 lines per mm) is mounted on an
upright next to laser and screen is mounted next to the grating.
2. When we switch on the laser, spectral spot is observed on the
screen.
 3. The central maxima and other maxima are identified as second
order, third order…etc., on the either side of central maximum are
marked.
4. The distance D between the screen and grating is noted.
5. The above procedure will be repeated for other values of N (like
300, 600).
6. We will calculate the value of wavelength by calculating mean value
of λ for each window (100, 300 & 600).
7. After that we will calculate the mean value of wavelength again from three
mean values of λ.
8. Obtained mean λ will be our experimental value of λ for He-Ne laser.

Observation Table: -
1) For N = 100 lines per mm

Serial Order(m) y(cm) y(cm) Mean D (cm) 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽

No. R.H.S. L.H.S. y(cm) 𝒚𝟐𝒏
𝝀 =
𝒎𝑵
𝒚𝟐𝒏 𝑫𝟐
1. m = 1st

2. m = 2nd

3. m =3rd

4. m = 4th

5. m = 5th

2) For N = 300 lines per mm

Serial Order(m) y(cm) y(cm) Mean D (cm) 𝒚𝟐𝒏 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝝀 =
No. R.H.S. L.H.S. y(cm) 𝒚𝟐𝒏 𝑫𝟐 𝒎𝑵

1. m = 1st

2. m = 2nd

3. m =3rd
 4. m = 4th

5. m = 5th

3) For N = 600 lines per mm

Serial Order(m) y(cm) y(cm) Mean D (cm) 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽

No. R.H.S. L.H.S. y(cm) 𝒚𝟐𝒏
𝝀 =
𝒎𝑵
𝒚𝟐𝒏 𝑫𝟐
1. m = 1st

2. m = 2nd

3. m =3rd

4. m = 4th

5. m = 5th

Calculations: -
Obtain the value of λ by calculating mean values of λ from all three observations.

Result:- Wavelength of He-Ne laser is ………….Å obtained.

Standard value of He-Ne laser wavelength is λ = 6328 Å.
Percentage Error: -

Precautions:-
1. The screen must be placed perpendicular to the incident laser beam
2. The grating ruled surface be placed normal to the incident laser beam.
3. The experiment should be conducted with precautions to prevent the reflection of laser beams from any
surface into the eyes, and direct exposure of the eyes to the laser beam should be avoided
 Experiment no. 2

AIM :- To show the tunneling effect in tunnel diode using I-V Characteristics.
APPARATUS :-
● Regulated power supply
● Tunnel diode
● Connecting wires

THEORY :- A Tunnel Diode is a type of semiconductor diode that exhibits

negative resistance. Unlike conventional diodes which conduct current in
any one direction , Tunnel diodes can conduct current in both forward and
reverse biases.

A Tunnel diode is a P-N Junction device which differs from other diodes as it
is highly doped in comparison to other semiconductors. As a result of large
no of impurity atoms, the space charge region at the Junction is so thin that
electrical charges move easily through The Junchon by a process called
'Tunneling'.

This device permits both forward & Reverse Bias current, The diode is highly
conductive when reverse Biased, and Even a small reverse Bias Can cause a
large reverse tunnel current.When Forward Bias is Applied and increased,
the tunnel current first increases rapidly to a Peak valve Ip. at a voltage Vp.
Further increase in voltage beyond Vp Causes the tunnel current to fall
rapidly to a minimum value Iv (valley current) at Vv the current then
increases exponentially as in other diodes.
The area to the right of Vv, can therefore be compared with the forward Bias
area of a Junction Diode.
DIAGRAM :-

(fig.1:- I-V Characteristics of Tunnel diodes.) (fig.2:- Circuit Arrangement of Tunnel diode.)

OBSERVATION TABLE :-

S.NO. Observed voltage (V1) Voltage of tunnel diode (V2) Current (in mA)
(in volt) (in volt) I = V1/33

GRAPH :-
Plot yourself with the help of observation table.
b/w forward voltage (V2) and output current.
CALCULATION :-
Do it yourself.
Calculate slope from the curve for positive and negative resistance of the
diode. You will get two resistance values , one +ve and one -ve .

RESULT :-
The characteristic curve of the tunnel diode has been plotted
successfully. From the V-I characteristic curve , we get Ip =

Vp =
Iv =
Vv=
+ve resistance of tunnel diode =
-ve resistance of tunnel diode =

PRECAUTION :-
● Overheating of tunnel diode must be avoided.
● Tunnel diode is to be used in forward bias.
● Check the connecting wires before use.
 Experiment:3
AIM: -
To determine the value of Planck’s constant and work function using a photoelectric cell.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: -
A vacuum type photoelectric cell mounted inside a wooden box with a wide opening on the
side opposite to the cathode, 6-volt DC supply, a voltmeter, a rheostat, a sensitive moving coil
galvanometer with lamp and scale arrangement, a key, a mercury lamp and few light filters.
THEORY: -
When a photon of energy ℎ𝑣 is incident on the emissive surface of the cathode, almost all
of its energy is transferred to the electrons inside the metal. If this energy is greater than the
threshold energy 𝑊 , the electrons is emitted. 𝑊 is also called the work function of the metal.
Above the threshold frequency, corresponding to the 𝑊 (= ℎ𝑣0 ), photoelectrons have a range of
energies from 0 to a certain maximum value, and this maximum energy increases linearly with
increasing frequency. This is because, out of the total incident energy ℎ𝑣, a part 𝑊 is used up as
the threshold energy and the rest is stored in the electrons as its kinetic energy.
Thus
1
ℎ𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑊
2
=𝐸 + 𝑊 ……(1)
This equation is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
As remains constant for a given photoelectric cell, 𝐸 varies linearly with the frequency.
In this experiment, to find out the maximum kinetic energy 𝐸 of the emitted electrons,
we reverse bias the photoelectric cell i.e., its anode is made negative. It therefore, repels the emitted
electrons and the current decreases. The negative potential on the anode is slowly increased till the
stopping potential Vs is reached, when the current stops. When this happens
𝑒𝑉 = 𝐸 …… (2)
𝑉 is called the stopping potential or the cut off potential because it just stops the electrons
from leaving the surface.
From eqn (1) and eqn (2) , we have
ℎ𝑣 = 𝑒𝑉
𝑒𝑉 = ℎ𝑣 − 𝑊

𝑉 = 𝑣− ……(3)

1
 Thus, if we make a graph with the frequency 𝑣 along the x-axis and the stopping potential 𝑉
along the y-axis, it would be a straight line with slope equal to and negative intercept on y-axis
equal to .

Thus, the Planck’s constant ℎ and work function 𝑊 for a given photoelectric cell can be
determined.
DIAGRAM: -
PROCEDURE: -
1. Make the connections as shown in the above figure. C and A are respectively the cathode
and anode of the photocell.
2. Arrange the mercury lamp just in front of the photocell and set the galvanometer so that
the spot moves freely.
3. With no light falling on the photocell, insert the key in K, adjust the voltage in the
voltmeter to zero and adjust spot in the galvanometer to zero position. Remove the key.
4. Fit the violet filter in front of the photocell. Switch on the mercury lamp and plug in the
key. The galvanometer will show deflection. Adjust the position of the mercury lamp so as
to get maximum deflection. Do not move the lamp after this.
5. Increase the potential on anode slowly by the rheostat. The deflection in the
galvanometer decreases. Go on increasing the negative potential applied to anode till the
spot of light in the galvanometer comes back to zero position. Note down the potential.
6. Change the filter one by one from violet to red and repeat the experiment.
7. Make a graph with the frequency of the filter 𝑉 alo0ng x-axis and the stopping potential
𝑉 along y-axis.

OBSERVATION TABLE: -
S.NO. COLOUR FILTER WAVELENGTH 𝝀 (Å) FREQUENCY STOPPING
𝑽𝟎 = 𝑪 𝝀 (𝑯𝒛) POTENTIAL (𝑽)
1. Red 6300 4.76*1014
2. Orange 6152 4.87*1014
3. Yellow 5500 5.45*1014
4. Green 5200 5.76*1014

2
 5. Blue 4700 6.38*1014

GRAPH: -
Plot a graph between frequency (X-axis) and stopping potential(Y-axis).

CALCULATION: -
The graph between the frequency along the x-axis and the slopping potential along y-axis is a
straight line. Slope of line = =⋯

= slope

Therefore, Planck’s constant ℎ = 𝑒 x slope

= 1.6*10-19 x ...
= … J/s
Negative intercept on y-axis = 𝑂𝐷 = … V
Work function 𝑊 = 𝑂𝐷 = … eV
PERCENTAGE ERROR: -
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
= × 100
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆

=…

RESULT: -
1. The Planck’s constant, ℎ = … J/s
Actual value= …
% error= …
2. Work function, 𝑊 for the given photoelectric cell= … eV

PRECAUTION: -
1. Handle the Apparatus Carefully: The photoelectric cell, mercury lamp, and other equipment
are delicate and can be damaged easily. Handle them with care to avoid any damage.

2. Avoid Ambient Light: Perform the experiment in a dark room or cover the setup to avoid
interference from ambient light. This ensures that only light from the mercury lamp hits the
photoelectric cell.
3
3. Proper Calibration: Ensure that the voltmeter, galvanometer, and other measuring
instruments are properly calibrated before starting the experiment. This helps in obtaining
accurate readings.

4. Safety Measures: Mercury lamps can get very hot and pose a burn risk. Always switch off
the lamp and allow it to cool before handling. Also, since you’re working with electrical
equipment, ensure that your hands are dry to avoid electric shock.

4
 Experiment – 4
Aim:-
To determine the first excitation potential of Argon contained in the tube and hence to compute planks
constant by Frank-Hertz Experiment.

Apparatus:-
Tetrode tube filled with experimental Argon gas, filament, power supply three variable voltage sources,
nanoammeter.

Theory:-
From the early spectroscopic work it is clear that atoms emit radiation at discrete frequencies; is related to
the change of energy levels throughfrom Bohr’s model, the frequency of the radiation . It is then to be
expected that transfer of energy to atomic electrons by any mechanism should hE always be in discrete
amounts. One such mechanism of energy transfer is through inelastic scattering of low- energy electrons.
Franck and Hertz in 1914 set out to verify these considerations. (a) It is possible to excite atoms by low energy
electron bombardment. (b) The energy transferred from electrons to the atoms always had discrete values. (c)
The values so obtained for the energy levels were in agreement with spectroscopic results. The Franck–Hertz
experiment elegantly supports Niels Bohr's model of the atom, with electrons orbiting the nucleus with
specific, discrete energies. Franck and Hertz were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1925 for this work.

Operating principle:-

The Frank-hertz tube in this instrument is a tetrode filled with the vapour of the experimental substance Fig.1
indicates the basic scheme of experiment. The electrons emitted by filament can be accelerated by the
potential VG2K between the cathode and the grid G2. The grid G1 helps in minimizing space charge effects.
The grids are wire mesh and allow the electrons to pass through. The plate (A) is maintained at a potential
slightly negative with respect to the grid G2. This helps in making the dips in the plate current more
prominent. In this experiment, the electron current is measured as a function of the voltage VG2K. As Voltage
increases, the electron energy goes up and so the electron can overcome the retarding potential VG2A to
reach the plate (A). This gives rise to a current in the ammeter, which initially increases. As the voltage further
increases, the electron energy reaches the threshold value to excite the atom in its first allowed excited state.
In doing so, the electrons lose energy and therefore the number of decreases. This decrease is proportional to
the number of inelastic collisions that have occurred. When the VG2K is increased further and reaches a value
twice that of the first excitation potential, it is possible for an electron to excite an atom halfway between the
grids, loose all its energy, and then gain a new enough energy to excite another atoms resulting in a second
dip in the current. The advantage of this type of configuration of the potential is that the current dips are
much more pronounced, and it is easy to obtain five fold or even larger multiplicity in the excitation of the first
level i.e. one can get 5 peaks (dips) or more. The Franck–Hertz experiment elegantly supports Niels Bohr's
model of the atom, with electrons orbiting the nucleus with specific, discrete energies. Franck and Hertz were
awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1925 for this work.

Franck-Hertz Experiment Set-up, Model : FH-2558, consists of the following:

→ Argon filled tetrode.
→ Filament Power Supply : 2.6 -3.3V continuously variable.
→ Power Supply For VG1K : 1.3 – 5V continuously variable.
→ Power Supply For VG2A : 1.3 – 15V continuously variable.
→ Power Supply For VG2K : 0 – 80V continuously variable.
→ Mul range Analogue Voltmeter.
Range : 0-5V, 0-15V & 0-100V
→ Mul range Analogue Voltmeter.
Range : 0-1 (50 divisions)
Range Multiplier : 10 , 10 , 10 & 10
The instrument can lead to a plot of the amplitude spectrum curve by means of point by point measurement.

Experiment Setup:-
The experimental set up involves a tube containing low pressure experimental gas fitted with four electrodes:
an electron-emitting cathode (K), a mesh grid (G1) for minimizing space charge effects a mesh grid (G2) for
acceleration, and an anode (A). The anode was held at a slightly negative electrical potential relative to the
grid G2 (although positive compared to the cathode), so that electrons had to have at least a corresponding
amount of kinetic energy to reach it after passing the grid and thereby making the dips in the plate current
more prominent. Instruments were fitted to measure the current passing between the electrodes, and to
adjust the potential difference (voltage) between the cathode (negative electrode) and the accelerating grids
Fig (1).

Fig.(1)
Formula Used:-
If Vn is the potential corresponding to nth peak and V1 is the potential corresponding to 1st peak then

Mean 1 excitation potential(𝑉𝑠) =

Where (n-1) is the number of dips between 1 and 𝑛 peak.

𝐸 = 𝑒𝑉𝑠 = ℎ𝑣 (𝑣 = )

( )

ℎ=𝑒

where, λ is Wavelength of Argon ,c is speed of light ,e is charge of electron.

Procedure:-

1. Before the power is switched ‘ON’ make sure all the control knobs are at their minimum position and
Current Multiplier knob at 10 𝑜𝑟 10 𝑜𝑟 10 (whichever suitable) position.

2. Switch ‘ON’ the power.

3. Turn the manual- Auto Switch to manual and check that the Scanning Voltage Knob is at its minimum
position.

4. Turn Voltage Display Selector to 𝑉𝐺1𝐾 and adjust the VG1K knob until voltmeter reads 1.5V.

5. Turn Voltage display selector to VG2A and adjust the VG2A knob until the voltmeter reads 7.5V.

When you have finished step 1-5, you are ready to do the experiment. Rotate VG2K knob and observe the
variation of plate current Ip with the increase of VG2K . The current reading would show maxima and minima
periodically. The magnitude of maxima could be adjusted suitably by adjusting the filament voltage and the
value of Current Multiplier. Now take the systematic readings, VG2K vs. Plate current (Ip). For better
resolution, the reading may be taken at an interval of 1V (1/2 division). Plot the graph with output current Ip
on Y-axis and accelerating voltage VG2K at X-axis.

Observation Table:-

VG1K = 1.5V
VG2K = 7.5V

S.No. Acceleration potential VG2K Plate Current Ip

(Volts) (nano Amperes)
1.
2.
 3.
..
..
..

Results:-

1. Graph with output current on Y-axis and accelerating voltage VG2K at X-axis is plotted which shows series of
dips in current at approximately 12.1 volt (say) increments (fig 2).

2. At low potential differences—up to 12.1 volts when the tube contained argon vapour—the current through
the tube increased steadily with increasing potential difference. The higher voltage increased the electric field
in the tube and electrons were drawn more forcefully towards and through the accelerating grid.

3. At 12.1 volts the current drops sharply, almost back to zero.

4. The current increases steadily once again if the voltage is increased further, until 24.2 volts is reached
(exactly 12.1+12.1) volts.

5. At 24.2 volts a similar sharp drop is observed.

Graph:-

Precautions:-

1. During the experiment (manual), when the voltage is over 60V, please pay attention to the output current
indicator, if the ammeter reading increase suddenly, decrease the voltage at once to avoid the damage of the
tube.

2. If you want to change the value of VG1K , VG2A and Filament Voltage during experiment, please first adjust
the value of VG2K to ‘Zero’.

3. Whenever the filament voltage is changed, please allow 2-3 minutes for its stabilisation .

4. When the Frank-Hertz Tube is already in the socket, please make sure the following before the power is
switched ‘ON’ or ‘OFF’, to avoid damage to the tube.

5. Manual – Auto switch is on Manual and Scanning and Filament Voltage knob at its minimum position (rotate
it anticlockwise) and current multiplier knob at 10 .