.

UNIT 7 WATER QUALITY BASIC

TREATMENT MEASURES
Structure

7.0 Objectives

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Improving Water Quality

7.2.1
.
Sanitary Protection of Water Source and Supply System
7.2.2 Improved Hygienic Practices

7.3 \Yater Treatment Measures

7.3.1 Conventional System
7.3.2 Household Water Treatment System

7.4 Storage and Settlement

7.5 Filtration
7.5.1 Filter Types and Different Features

7.6 Disinfection
7.6.1 Disinfection Process at Household Level

7.7 Let Us Sum Up

7.8 Keywords

7.9 Suggested Reading

7.10 Model Answers to Check Your Progress

7.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:

• enumerate the basic water quality.problems;

• identify solid, liquid and gas contaminants; and

• explain the useful conventional and household treatment measures.

7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you were explained about physical and chemical characteristics
of water and types of micro-organisms present in water and related diseases. You
were also exposed to different methods of water sampling for testing of drinking
water and th measures taken at the Bureau of Indian Standards in this regard.
,

The wafer quality monitoring and surveillance are important steps to map the area
where population is exposed to risk of using contaminated water.The contamination
caused may be inherent in the form (i) by the very nature of geological formation,
viz; excess fluoride, arsenic.brackishness, iron, etc. and (ii) may be caused by
human intervention mainly the bacteriological contamination. Groundwater is less
susceptible to contamination than the surface water whose major quality concern is 31
Water Quality seasonal turbidity. Poor hygienic concmons around the water sources, improper
disposal of sewage, industrial waste water, solid waste and indiscriminate use of
chemical fertilizers in the agricultural sector are the main reasons for chemical and
bacteriological contamination.

Contaminated drinking water is contributing to disease in developing and developed

countries worldwide. According to WHO estimates, around 6% of the global burden
of disease is related to water with infectious diarrhoea being the largest component .
(accounting for about 70%, or l.7 million deaths per year). Water, sanitation and
health interventions typically reduce diarrhoeal diseases by 15-30% and remarkably
reduce other diseases.

The next important step is to adopt preventive measures for ensuring availability of
safe drinking water for the human consumption. These measures may include sanitary .
protection of water sources, better hygienic practices, treatment and disinfection of
water before consumption.

Activity 1
Visit a village pond and observe the colour of water. Do you observe turbidity or
clear water?

7.2 IMPROVING WATERQUALITY

7.2.1 Sanitary Protection of Water Source and Supply
System
You know that the water is used for domestic purposes, drinking, cooking and
personal hygiene. Safe drinking water should meet the World Health Organization
(WHO) guidelines or the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) on drinking water quality
with regard to microbial, chemical and physical characteristics. It is of paramount
importance that drinking water sources such as household connection, public
standpipe, boreholel dug well, spring, rainwater should be protected and maintained
so that every body has access to safe drinking water. It is therefore essential that
water sources, facilities, equipments are operated and maintained properly in order
to produce and distribute safe drinking water to all the localities.

Protected water source means that water source is safe, adequate and reliable. It is
free from microbial contamination and risk of potential future threat is minimum.
Adequate safety measures are taken to prevent the source from an existing or potential
problem of agricultural as well as industrial and commercial chemical contamination.

7.2.2 Improved Hygienic Practices

Do you know that 1.6 million people of which 90% are children under 5 years,
mostly in developing countries die every year from diarrhoeal diseases
(including cholera) due to lack of access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation.
The combination of safe drinking water, hygienic practices and improved sanitation
facilities can drastically reduce the water borne or water related diseases. Improved
hygienic practices help in intercepting transmission routes of diseases and ultimately
preventing a number of water related diseases. Following are some of the main
hygienic practices.

(i) Proper Water Handling

32
• Keep water pot covered and in a raised position;
 • Use ladle for water handling or fix tap to the pot; Water Quality Basic
Treatment Measures
• Do not dip hands while handling water; and
• Wash water pot regularly.
(ll) Proper Hand Washing
We should encourage hand washing as a hygienic practice. It can be done in
following ways and different times.
Ways
• Wash both hands with water and soap;
• Rub hands together at least three times; and
• Dry hands with a clean cloth.
Times
• Before cooking or preparing food;
• Before eating or before feeding children; and
• After defecating and after changing or cleaning babies.
In addition to the above, following practices improve the overall quality of
drinking water.
(ill) Safe disposal of Solid Waste
• Provide a dust pit for disposing off waste; and
• Segregate organic and inorganic wastes.
(iv) Safe disposal of animal waste
• Use compost pit for safe disposal of animal waste; and
• Promote vermi-composting and NADEP pit.
(v) Safe disposal of human waste
Use appropriate model of toilet for safe disposal of human excreta.
(vi) Safe disposal of waste water
• Do not allow waste water stagnation in the surrounding; and
• Create kitchen garden/soak pit to avoid waste water stagnation.
Now, you can check your progress.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Compare your answers with those given at the end of unit.
b) Use the space below for your answers.
1) Explain the importance of safe drinking water. List two hygienic practices to
ensure safe drinking water.

33
Water Quality 2) List three different ways of hand washing as an important hygienic practice .

•
3) Explainthe importance of protecting water source and water supply system in
ensuring safe drinking water.

7.3 WATER TREATMENT MEASURES

After studying the importance and techniques of safe drinking water, we will learn
about conventional and household water treatment systems.

7.3.1 Conventional System

The public water supply system for a town/city is based on the conventional treatment
plant which includessedimentation and coagulation, flocculation (additives to
encourage settlement of suspended particles), aeration, filtration, chlorination and
finally the distribution of treated water.
-------

SLOW
SAND
FILTER

RAPID SAND

( RAW WATER )+ AERATION

fiLTER

I SERIES OF OPEARTION FOR TREATING RAW WATER

Fig.7.1: Flow Diagram of Conventtonal Water Treatment Plant

Following steps as shown in Fig. 7.1 are followed in water treatment plant.
Aeration
Aeration is a simple treatment process in which water is brought into close contact
with air for the primary purpose of increasing the oxygen content of the water.
Increased oxygen content helps in removing bad taste and odour and reducing carbon
34 dioxide content of water. It also oxidizes dissolved minerals such as iron and
. manganese so as to form precipitates which can be removed by sedimentation and Water Quality Basic
Treatment Measures
filtration.
CoagulationlFlocculation
- '.

The materials and particles present in drinking water (clay, organic material, metals,
i and micro-organisms) are often quite small and therefore do not settle down on their
I

: own. To help the settling process, "coagulating" compounds are added to the water.
Suspended particles "stick" to these compounds and create large and heavy clumps
of material. These are large enough to settle down.
Sedimentation
The water flows into sedimentation basins where it is left undisturbed to allow the
heavy clumps of particles and coagulants to settle down to the bottom. This step
removes about 85% of the suspended matter in the water. Water for the next step
(filtration) is collected from the top of the sedimentation basins.
Filtration
The water is run through a series of filters containing layers of sand or charcoal
which trap and remove particles still remaining in the water column. Now clean
water flows down through the filters to a collecting system.

Disinfection
, .

The water, now largely free of particles and micro-organisms is treated to destroy
any remaining disease-causing pathogens. This is commonly done with chlorination
(the same process used to eliminate pathogens in swimming pools), ozone, or
ultraviolet radiation.The water is now safe to drink and is sent to pumping stations
. for distribution to homes and businesses.

Some of the salient features of above process are as follows:

• This is mainly surface water (rivers) based system;
• Larger in size - which include storage of water, treatment plant and distribution
network;

• Costly -It involves capital and operating cost;

• Mainly installed by Government or private enterprises and operated by them;
and

• Users have to pay some costs to use the facility.

7.3.2 Household Water Treatment System

Household water treatment and safe storage (HWTS) interventions can lead to
dramatic improvements in drinking water quality and reductions in water borne
diseases-making an immediate difference to the lives of those who rely on water
from polluted rivers, lakes and in some cases, unsafe wells or piped water supplies.
The household treatment is quite handy in remote areas as it involves less complicated
process of treatment and also less capital cost.
"
Following are the salient features of household water treatment system:

• It is ideal for individual household rather than community system;

•• Used in a non-piped system 5-10 l/person/day;

• Lower volumes for drinking and cooking can be filtered through this;

• It involves less interface with other institutions; 35

Water Quality • It is faster to implement and maintain;

• It is more accessible and just as effective; and

• In many cases, it may be the only choice for water purification.

Treatment Processes
The treatment of water at household level follows the processes shown in Fig. 7.2.
However, depending on the quality of raw water, some processes may not be
nece sary, Now we will try to understand some of the filtration and disinfection
processes.
Straining

Filtration

Disinfection

Fig. 7.2: General steps in the water treatment processes undertaken at household level

Straining

Pouring water through a clean piece of cotton cloth will remove a certain amount of
the suspended silt and solids. It is important that the cloth used is clean, as dirty cloth
may introduce additional pollutants. The cloth must always be used with the same
uppermost surface. The cloth may be cleaned using soap and clean water.

Aeration

The close contact between water and air required for aeration can be achieved in a
number of ways. At a household level, shake rapidly a container full of water for
about five minutes and then keep the water standing for about 30 minutes to allow
any suspended particles to settle to the bottom.

36 Fig. 7.3: Aerator trays

On a larger scale, aeration may be achieved by allowing water to trickle through Water Quality Basic
Treatment Measures
perforated trays containing small stones as shown in Fig.7.3. Again, the water must
be collected in a container and allowed to stand for about 30 minutes to allow the
suspended particles to settle.

7.4 STORAGEANDSETTLEMENT
At household level when water is stored for a day in safe conditions, more than 50%
of bacteria die. Furthermore, during storage, the suspended solids and some of the
pathogens will settle to the bottom of the container. The container used for storage
and settlement should have a lid to avoid recontarnination, but should ~ave a neck
wide enough to facilitate periodic cleaning. For example a bucket witha lid could be
used for this purpose.

7.5 FILTRATION
Filtration is the passage of polluted water through a porous medium (such as sand)
using the principle of natural cleansing of the soil.

7.5.1 Filter Types and Different Features

Following filters are generally used.

1) Rapid sand filter or simple up-flow sand filter (RSF)

These filters may be put together inside clay, metal or plastic containers. The vessels
are filled with layers of sand and gravel and pipe work arranged to force the water
. to flow either upwards or downwards through the filter, Fig.7.4 shows a modified
simple upward rapid flow filter.
Intel

Cover

......-I---"....-~~
Outlet

Water

Coarse
Sand

I
, ,
•.

Drain ...i Rocks ..•i .1.... Perforated

stopper metal plate

Fig.7.4. A simple up flow rapid sand filter

This filter such could be built using a 200 litre drum. It has a filter bed made up of
coarse sand (of about 0.3 m depth) of grain size between 3 and 4 mm diameter and
supported by gravel covered by a perforated metal tray. The effective filtration rate
of such a filter could be as high as 230 litre per hour.
37
Wawr Quality Such filters must be dismantled regularly to clean the sand and gravel and remove
any settled silt. The frequency of cleaning is dependent on the level of turbidity of the
raw water. Furthermore, such filters are not effective at removing the pathogens.
Therefore, the water must be disinfected or stored for 48 hours in order to make it
safe.

2) Conventional Slow Sand Filters (SSF)'

In slow sand filtration, the water passes slowly (e.g, flow velocity of 0.1 to 0.2 m/h,
i.e. mIh =:= m3/m2/h) downwards, through a bed of fine sand. For efficient functioning
of the filter, there should be no sudden changes in the flow rate and the water should
not be very turbid (cloudy with suspended solids), or the filter will quickly become
blocked. Good slow sand filters can produce good quality drinking water.

There are a number of processes which improve the water quality as it passes through
the filter. However, pathogens are mainly removed in the very top layer of the filter
bed where a biological film builds up. The raw water should contain a fair amount of
oxygen to promote the useful biological activity both in the top layer and further
down into the filter bed.

When slow sand filter is first started, water should be added from below so that it
rises through the sand pushing out the air. If water is added at the top, some air is
likely to become trapped between the sand particles, adversely affecting the
subsequent performance of the filter. Fig.7 .5 shows a design of filter, which uses a
constant flow device with thickness of the sand bed as 600 mm. Table 7.1 gives the
comparison ofRSF and SSF.

.OWntrQ 1apfjust~ highest

rMf.otNn",

Sand
(0epIh 600mtn
at 3'1at1. 450mm
mil'Jimurn.
~IV8~)

Fig. 7.5: Conventional slow sand filters

38
 Table 7.1: Comparison of RSF and SSF Water Quality Basic
Treatment Measures
Characteristic RSF SSF

Filter media Coarse sand Fine sand

Velocity of water 4and8m1hr 0.1 to 0.2 mIh

Applicability Removes suspended Removes microorganism!

solids from water. pathogens from water.

Effecti veness Effective after coagula No chemical treatment is

tion and flocculation. required for the effectiveness
of the filter.

Precaution Disinfection is required. Disinfection is not required.

Regular cleaning of filter media
I

is required.

3) Ceramic Filters
The purifying element in these filters is a porous, unglazed, ceramic cylinder (often
called a candle) which can be locally produced. Water is purified by allowing it to
pass through a ceramic filter element or candles. In this process, suspended particles
are mechanically filtered from the water. The following models of ceramic filters are
commonly used as shown in Fig.7 .6.
• Manufactured filter units;
• Filter candles fitted to earthenware pots; and
• Using candle with siphon pipe which avoids the need for water tight connections
through the jars.

(a) Manufactured unit (b) Candle with jars (c) Using candle with siphon (d) Porous jar

Fig. 7.6: Different types of ceramic filters

Ceramic filters have following salient features:

• Ceramic filters are appropriate only for fairly clear water;
.
• Their effectiveness depends on pore size;
• Pores block quickly if sediment is present;
.• Cracks adversely affect effectiveness;
• Filters with very small pore sizes can remove all pathogens;
• The impurities are deposited on the surface of the candle which need to be
regularly scrubbed off to maintain a good flow rate;
• Sustainable - minimal outside resources required;
• Water tastes good;
• Removes most pathogens and suspended solids; and
• Easy to use. 39
Water Quality Limitations
• Low flow rate (l-2lJhr);
• Fragile - easy to crack;
• May allow flow of bad water through undetected cracks;
• Turbid water results in plugging of the filter; and
• It is difficult to ensure quality of locally made filters.
4) Bio Sand Filter
The bio sand filter made of local material such as concrete or plastic as shown in .
Fig.7.7 is the improved variety of conventional slow sand filter. It is an ideal filter
based on the combination of biological and mechanical processes for removal of
pathogens. The organic material in water entering the filter is trapped at the surface
of the fme sand forming a biological layer which develops into a highly active food
chain in one to three weeks depending on volume of water passed through the filter
and the amount of nutrients and micro-organisms in the water. Further filtration occurs
in the lower layers of sand and gravel which removes contaminants. It has following
salient features:
• Capacity between 20 and 60 litre of water per hour;
• Caters to the need of 6-15 persons at the household level;
• Durable and minimal maintenance required;
• Removes 95 to 99% of organic contaminants including bacteria, viruses,
protozoa, worms, and particles;
• Removes turbidity, colour, odour;
• Ensures consistent water quality;
• High flow rate; and
• Low cost due to use oflocal construction material.
The filter has the following limitations:
• 100% microbial removal not possible, may require post-disinfection;
• Limited transportation due to weight; and
• Turbidity should not exceed 50 NTU .
....--
Diffuser Plate
Protects the
schmutzdecke from
damage when water is
f('' ' 'Ud Prevents contaminants
from entering the filter

poured into the filter ~ "

\
Standing Water Layer
~eeps the
schmutzdecke alive
- ••
.tu

-
Outlet Pipe
Conducts effluent from
~uring pause periods. filter base to outside

Supporting Sand
Fine Sand ..•.
Permits additional . .
V~eparates fine sand from
underdrain gravel
trapping of contaminants

./
/ Gravel Underdrain
Promotes vertical flow of
. ~ater into collector pipe'

40
Fig. 7.7: Design of bio sand filter
The details of different filter regions are described in Fig.7 .S.' Water Quality Basic
Treatment Measures
f.llnllent Reservoir
Sl.fp~rnatant Air Space OOf)VCthe filter
The standing water' layer media which allows for
present duringche pause difllJsi01l of oxygeuto the
periods when the fillo- is
not in use,
Scmnw.decke
Layer of slime. mud and
8iolo~kaJ Zone
micro organisms which
5 to IQ cm deep develop .a1the sand surface
Living layer of
mierocrganisms
S.ndBed
Cootains virtually no
Gravel UncJerch'ftln living microbes
No living microbes present

Fig. 7.8: Different filter zones

7.6 DISINFECTION
Disinfection is a treatment process to ensure drinking water free ofharrnful organisms
or pathogens.

7.6.1 Disinfection Process at Household Level

Disinfection can be achieved by using following techniques.

• Boiling;
• Chemical disinfection using chlorine; and

• Solar water disinfection (SODIS) using solar UV-Aradiation.

Fig. 7.9: Boiling process for disinfection

Boiling

Boiling as shown in Fig. 7.9 is a very effective though energy consuming method to
destroy various pathogens such as viruses, spores, cysts and worm eggs. The water 41
Water Quality should be boiled for at least five minutes and preferably up to a period of twenty
minutes. The boiling has following advantages:

• kills all pathogens;

• simple;
• common knowledge; and
• uses locally available materials.

Boiling has following limitations:

• requires much energy; .

• contributes to indoor pollution and deforestation;

• costly and time consuming; and

• does not remove suspended or dissolved compounds.

Chemicals- Disinfection using chlorine
Chlorine is the most widely used chemical for the disinfection of drinking water
because of its ease of use, ability to measure its effectiveness, availability and relatively
lower cost. If used correctly, chlorine kills all viruses and bacteria but some species
of protozoa and helrninthes are resistant.

There are several different sources of chlorine for home use; in liquid, powder and
tablet form. Chlorine is commonly available to households as liquid bleach (sodium
hypo chlorite), usually with a chlorine concentration of 1%. Liquid bleach is sold in
bottles or sachets available on a commercial basis.

5 gm bleaching powder of grade-l (34% chlorine) is sufficient to disinfect 1000 litre

of water. The required ~ount of bleaching powder should be mixed in a bucket of
water, the lime be allowed to settle down and then poured the soluble in the storage
tank. In properly disinfected water, the residual chlorine should be around 2 parts .
per million (ppm). This can be~hecked with chloroscope. Chlorine has the following
advantages:

• Kills bacteria and viruses effectively; and

• Rresidual chlorine protects water for a period of time.
It has following limitations:

• Requires clear water to be most effective;

• May not be effective for killing parasites;

42 Fig. 7.10: Inactivation of micro-organism by UV-Aradiation and thermal treatment

.-+--
 • Chlorine forms complex compounds with organic material which may be Water Quality Basil
detrimental to health over time; Treatment Measures

.• Taste unacceptable to some;

• Chlorine degrades with time;

• Contact time required;

• Chemical dosage required varies with water quality; and

• Chlorine purchase is a continuous process.

Solar Water Disinfection (SODIS)

This is a low-cost technology with a great potential to improve the health of those
still without access to safe drinking water. It improves the microbiological quality of
drinking water, using solar UV- A radiation as shown in Fig.7.1 0 and temperature to
inactivate pathogens causing diarrhoea. It has following operational requirements.

• Requires 6-12 hours of sunlight;

• Clear PET bottles are placed in sunlight for the above specified time; and

• Low turbidity water is ideal for this method.

Solar water disinfection has the following advantages:

• Kills most pathogens;

• Simple and easy to handle;

• No consumables required;

• Convenient for storage and transportation;

• Reduced risk of recontarnination; and

• No chemical change in water.

Solar water disinfection has the following limitations:

• Water needs to be clear;

• Cannot remove suspended particles or dissolved compounds;

• Requires bright sunlight;

• Waiting period;
'"
• Needs to be cooled;

• Several bottles needed per day; and

• Water has to be used immediately.

43
Water Quality
Check Your Progress 2

Note: a) Compare your answers with those given at the end of unit.

b) U se the space below for your answers.

1) Distinguish between conventional and household water treatment systems.

2) What does coagulation mean? How is it achieved?

3) What do you understand by disinfection process in household water treatment?

In what ways can it be accomplished? Which one is the easiest and effective
disinfection process?

4) What is filtration? Distinguish between the characteristics of Rapid Sand and

Slow Sand Filters .

...................................................................................................................

7.7 LET US SUM UP

• The accessibility of safe chinking water to everyone is of paramount importance
to ensure good health and well being of the people.

• Poor hygienic conditions around the water sources, improper disposal of sewage,
industrial waste water, solid waste and indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers
. in the agricultural sector are the main reasons for chemical and bacteriological
contamination of water.
44
• It is absolutely essential to create hygienic conditions, protect the water sources, Water Quality Basic
treat and disinfect the water before it is used. Treatment Measures

• Boiling water is the easiest, the cheapest and most effective method of
disinfection.

• Water treatment method should be selected in such a way so that it is not only
effective but also affordable. To achieve this, local material particularly for filters
is used.

7.8 KEYWORDS
BIS Bureau of Indian Standards.

Coagulation/Flocculation Flocculation is a process where a solute

comes out of solution in the form of floc or
flakes. Coagulation and Flocculation are
synonymous.

Diarrhoeal Diseases Abdominal diseases generally caused by

unsafe drinking water.

Inorganic Waste Chemical waste.

Nadep Composting method named after a farmer

named N.D. Pandharipande (also popularly
known as "Nadepkaka").

NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Units as measured

by Nephelometer.

~Organic Waste Waste of or relating to or derived from living

organisms.

Pathogen A disease-producing agent (especially a virus

or bacterium or other micro-organism).

PET Polyethylene terephthalate.

Pit A sizeable hole (usually in the ground).

Sedimentation Sedimentation is a physical water treatment

process used to settle out suspended solids
in water under the influence of gravity.

Vermi Composting A method of producing a mixture of decaying

vegetation and manure; used as a fertilizer.

WHO World Health Organization.

7.9 SUGGESTED READING

http://www.sodis.ch

htt;p:llwedc.lboro.ac.uk

Tech Brief'- Sanitary Surveys, Winter 2005, Vol. 4, Issue 4; A National Drinking
Water Clearing House Fact Sheet
Training Material prepared by Centre for Affordable Water and Sanitation
Technology (CAWST)-(2004)-Module 1.5, 1.7&1.9 45

Water Pollution by P.K.Goel (http.z/books.google.co.in)

Water Quality
7.10 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR
, PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1

1) Safe drinking water is the water which is free from all pathogens and microbial
contamination. It is very essential to ensure good health and well being of the
people by avoiding water borne disea es. Following hygienic practices go a
long way in ensuring safe drinking water.

~ Proper Water Handling

ii) Proper Hand Washing

2) Hand washing, as a hygiene practice should be done in following ways and

different times.

Ways
•
• Wash both hands with water and soap;

• Rub hands together at least three times; and

• Dry hands well with clean cloth.

Tnnes
• Before cooking or preparing food;

• Before eating or before feeding children; and

• After defecating and after changing or cleaning babies.

3) The drinking water sources and supply system such as household connection;
public standpipe, borehole/ dug well, spring, rainwater should be protected
from contamination and maintained properly so as to ensure safe drinking water
to the people.

Check Your Progress 2

1) The conventional water supply system is a large river based system used for a
community/town whereas the household water supply system is ideal for
individual household and used in a non-piped system oflow discharge.
2) Coagulation is the process of creating large and heavy clumps from fine and
small particles present in drinking water like clay, organic material, metals, and
micro-organisms. Coagulating compounds are added to the water to achieve
this.
3) Disinfection is the process to destroy any remaining disease-causing pathogens
in the water free of particles and micro-organisms. Disinfection can be achieved
by using following techniques.

• Boiling;
• Chemical disinfection using chlorine; and

• Solar water disinfection (SODIS) using solar UV-Aradiation.

Boiling is the simplest, cheapest and most effective technique of disinfection.

46
4) Filtration is the passage of polluted water through a porous medium (such as Water Quality Basic
"sand) using the principle of natural cleansing of the soil. The comparison of Treatmeut Measures
characteristics of RSF and SSF is as follows.

Characteristic RSF SSF

Filter media Coarse sand Fine sand

Velocity of water 4 and 8m1hr 0.1 to 0.2m1h

Applicability Removes suspended Removes micro-organismJ

solids from water. pathogens from water.

Effecti veness Effective after No chemical treatment is

coagulation and required for the effectiveness of
flocculation. the filter.

Precaution Disinfection is required. Disinfection is not required.

Regular cleaning of filter media is
required.

47