Hawassa university

Department of Chemistry
Chemistry of Consumer Products
Course Number: Chem 4073
Credit Hours/ECTS:3 (2+1)/5
Year: IV
Semester: I
•
Introduction
Consumer products include direct product sales of chemicals such as
soaps, detergents, and cosmetics.
• Consumer products, also referred to as final goods, are products that
are bought by individuals or households for personal use.
• In other words, consumer products are goods that are bought for
consumption by the average consumer.
• Examples of consumer products include convenience products like
food, beverages, and personal care products; shopping products
like electronics and household appliances; specialty products such
as gourmet spice blends and designer handbags; and unsought
products, including insurance policies and funeral services.
 Chapter-1 Soaps
• Soaps are mainly used as surfactants for washing, bathing, and
cleaning, but they are also used in textile spinning and are
important components of lubricants.
• It comes in different varieties such as bars, liquid, and powders
(e.g., detergents).

• Soap causes particles that cannot be dissolved in water to

become water-soluble. They attach to soap particles and are
washed away when rinsed with water.
• Think about dirty, greasy dishes. If you only rinse them with
water, they still feel greasy.
• However, if you add soap to the water, the grease washes
away, and the result is clean dishes
• In chemistry, soap is a salt of a fatty acid and fatty acids are
mono that have long carbon chains (at least 10) e.g. reaction
below
• A soap is a salt of a compound known as a fatty acid.
• its molecule consists of a long hydrocarbon chain (composed
of carbons and hydrogens) with a carboxylic acid group on one
end which is ionic bonded to a metal ion, usually a sodium or
potassium.
• The hydrocarbon end is nonpolar and is soluble in nonpolar
substances (such as fats and oils), and the ionic end (the salt of
a carboxylic acid) is soluble in water.

The structure of a soap molecule

The R group is Non-polar hydrocarbon chain (soluble in

nonpolar substances) and the ionic end (soluble in
water)
MICELLES – SOAP MOLECULES

A soap molecule has two ends with

different properties-
1. A long hydrocarbon part which is
hydrophobic (i.e. it dissolves in
hydrocarbon or oils or dirts).
2. A short ionic part containing COONa+
which is hydrophilic (i.e. it
dissolves in water).
 1.1. Saponification of oils and fats

• Saponification is a process that involves conversion of fat, oil,

or lipid into soap and alcohol by the action of heat in the
presence of aqueous alkali (e.g. NaOH).
• Vegetable oils and animal fats are the traditional materials that
are saponified.
• Fats and oils are esters of triglycerols and fatty acids.
• Hydrolysis can break down a fat or oil and release the
triglycerol and fatty acids.
• If the hydrolysis is carried out under alkaline conditions a soap
can be made. The reaction is known as saponification.
 1.2. Manufacture of soaps
Raw Materials of The Soap Production
• Mainly, four basic raw materials are involved in the
manufacture of soap.
1. Oils and fats
2. Soda lye or potash lye
3. Brine (for glycerin recovery)
4. Additives (sodium carbonate, sodium silicate, dyes, perfumes,
etc.) as secondary products.
Oils and Fats
• The natural fats used for soap making are triglycerol. The
suitability of triglycerol for soap product saponification can be
determined by using two main chemical parameters. They are
explained below.
Iodine Number
• The Iodine number of a fat express the weight of Iodine in
grams which can be fixed from 100g of them. It shows the
presence of double links, thus the degree of unsaturation of the
carbonic chain.
• Its value varies between 10 to 200. Soap made from high
Iodine Number fat has the tendency to be soft.
•
Saponification Value
• The Saponification Value of a fat is the quantity of caustic
potassium (KOH) in mg needed to transform 1g of fat into
soap. An easier transformation of the fat into soap indicated by
a high Saponification value.
• The INS factor (Iodine Number-saponification Value), which
represents the difference between these indicates, is an
essential parameter and is characterized as a soap derived from
fat (mixture).
With increasing value of this factor, the following properties
can be observed.
1. The fat tends to be solid
2. The soap tends sharply to become rancid
3. The solubility of soap tends to decrease
4. The soap made are irregular
5. The bleaching and forming properties tend decrease
Soda lye or Potash lye
• We need to put strongly basic solution (alkali) in the water for
direct saponification of neutral fats (triglycerols). Caustic soda
and caustic potash are most used for this goal.
Caustic soda | Soda lye (NaOH)
• Sodium soaps are harder and less soluble than potassium
soaps, and are the most commonly used alkali for neutralizing
fat due to its ability to return air humidity.
• The concentrated caustic soda solutions are harmful to the skin
and can cause serious burns.
Caustic potash | Potash lye (KOH)
• It is a strong base, which like caustic soda, allows direct
saponification of neutral fats. Potassium hydroxide is a type of
lye specifically used to make liquid soap, and also, KOH is
used in baby soaps because it is more environmentally
friendly, water-soluble, and gentle for babies.
Brine
• A concentrated brine solution is added to separate the
glycerin from the soap. Soap made from fats such as
copra, palm, or castor oil contain high levels of salt. In
this case, salt can be used as a filler material.
• Also, the addition of salt to soda soaps can lead to very
strong soaps. This method is based on the fact that
saltwater is not foamy.
Additives
• Additives are used for a variety of purposes and to
enhance the quality of soaps. Adds pigments, fragrances,
preservatives, fillers, etc. as additives.
 Soap Manufacturing Processes
Considering the soap manufacturing processes, there are three
basic process methods that are used industrially.
1. Cold process (the reaction takes place substantially at room
temperature)
2. Semi boiled process (the reaction takes place near the boiling
point)
3. Hot process/ Fully boiled process (the reactors are boiled at
least once and the glycerol is recovered)
These three processes differ mainly in the saponification
temperature. From these processes, the cold process and the hot
process are the most commonly used. In these three processes,
soap production is mainly done in four steps.
1. Saponification
2. Glycerin removal
3. Soap purification
4. Finishing
But first, we have to clean the oils and fats used as raw materials.
The Pretreatment of Oils and Fats
• In general, some fats have strong odors and more or less intense colorations
when raw state. Soaps made from these materials are of poor quality. Oil is
purified by following treatments.
1. Bleaching
2. Refining
3. Deodorization
Bleaching
• Ingredients such as palm oil require some bleaching when making soaps
such as toilet sap. But the majority of good quality oils and fats do not
require bleaching.
• One method is to send the oil through an "Active fuller iron" clay at a
temperature of 90 degrees Celsius. Here the dirt, pigments etc. are
removed. The clay particles in the oil are then removed. Similarly,
bleaching is carried out by oxidation of oil, which is obtained through a
stream of hot air at high temperatures.
Refining
• This is a technology that is rarely used in the manufacture of pure soaps to
refine the oil by treating it with alkali to remove free fatty acids.
Deodorization
• This is a costly process, in which a superheated vapor stream passes
through the oil.
• Considering the three processes of making soap, the hot and cold processes,
the first of these three processes is saponification.
Saponification in soap manufacturing
• Let's first consider the general process of saponification step.
• The refined oils or fats with soda lye ( NaOH(aq) ) or potash lye ( KOH(aq)
)is added in the reaction chamber. Sodium hydroxide or potassium
hydroxide granules are not used here and only aqueous solutions are used.
• First sodium hydroxide is taken and dissolved in water. Here, too, some
heat is generated and released. Similarly, when sodium hydroxide reacts
and becomes inert, heat is released freely.
In the reaction chamber, the reaction chamber consists of two
layers of sodium lye or potash lye and oils or fats. The interface
here reacts to lye and oils or fats.
In this reaction chamber, there is a constant stirring of reactors.
It breaks down into small droplets in the reactant, increasing
the surface area of the reactant molecules. At this point, the
reaction rate increases as the surface area of the reactors
increases.
Then the saponification process takes place quickly and
effectively.
Soap production can take place in three main processes, as
mentioned earlier, depending on the temperature at which the
saponification takes place in the reaction chamber. Let's now
talk about those processes which are cold, semi-boiled and hot
processes.
 Saponification: Cold Process
• As the name implies, heat is not used to make soap. But in the cold process
the soap is saponified at room temperature and does not heat or wash. That
is, the removal of waste or the removal of glycerin produced is not included
in this process. The cold process is the most elementary batch process.
• This process is a relatively long process compared to the hot process. The
mixture is kept vigorous agitation for approximately 2 hours, and the dyes,
perfumes and additives are generally added at this stage.
• As soon as most of the mixture has solidified, the crude soap is removed
and poured into cooling frames. There, too, the saponification process
continues for a day or more.
• The crude soap (fat content: 58%) is then removed from the frame, cut into
chunks, and sent to the finish line.
• It is advisable to use 1/3 of coconut oil or palm kernel oil to facilitate
filtration and emulsification of fatty acids and to facilitate saponification to
prevent contamination. This process is a simple, inexpensive method and is
not highly mechanical.
Saponification: Semi-Boiled Process
This process differs from the cold process in that it uses a heated coil to heat
the saponification mixture to a temperature of 70-900C. This causes the
saponification reaction to complete faster.
This process allows the amount of baking soda to be adjusted before removing
the dirty soap. The process also allows for better recycling of product waste,
better integration of additives, and wider selection of raw materials. The semi-
boiled process does not discharge any effluent into the environment.
Saponification: Full Boiled Process / Hot Process
This process is slightly different from the semi-boiled process. In this process,
the saponification reaction usually takes place at temperatures as high as
1000C. Here, too, the fat ingredient allows for a wide range of uses. The
glycerin is then separated from the soap by rinsing with alkali.
This process allows the production of a wide range of soaps, from basic
household soaps to high-grade toilet soaps. we can identify some advantages
and limitations of the cold and hot process of soap.
Advantages and limitations of the cold and hot process of
soap
Glycerin Recovery in Soap Production
• The final mixture obtained after saponification contains two
parts, a solid zone, and an aqueous zone. Considering the
aqueous zone, its alkalinity is low because of the reaction of
sodium hydroxide.
• Also, glycerin is dissolved in aqueous phase. Also, a small
amount of soap is dissolved and slightly ionized. Glycerin is
more expensive than soap, so glycerin is removed.
• The amount of glycerin left over gives the soap a smooth and
soft texture.
• Most of it is set aside for the production of more value-added
beauty products. The mixture obtained after saponification is
in the following equilibrium.
• If Na+ is added to the aquifer, the equilibrium reaction is reversed to
minimize Na+ according to the Le Chatelier's principle. At this point, the
density of the glycerol increases and the density of the soap decreases.
• The soap then rises to the top and glycerin deposited on the bottom.
Glycerin is recovered from the bottom of the tank.
• Here the glycerin is separated by a difference in density.
• A concentrated brine solution is usually added to the aqueous zone as a
Na+.
Soap Purification
• The mixture obtained by removing glycerin further contains impurities
such as H2O, NaCl and NaOH. Therefore, in this step, the resulting
mixture is centrifuged. That is, the mixture is further rotated with the
impurities at high speed in a perforated vessel. It removes most of the water
and salt that are the main product. But the final soap product contains about
NaCl 0.5% (w/w).
•
• There may be further unreacted sodium hydroxide. Sodium
hydroxide can cause itching of the skin and damage to the
delicate tissues of the eye. Therefore, any remaining sodium
hydroxide should be removed.
• Sodium hydroxide can be removed by neutralizing existing
caustic soda by adding a weak acid such as citric acid. In
addition to citric acid, phosphoric acid can also be used as a
weak acid for this process.
Finishing
• By cleaning the soap (the soap from the third step) is heated to
a temperature of about 1200C. Then, the soap is send out into
a low-pressure chamber. Next, the water in the soap particles
evaporates. That is the temperature of the soap decrease by
absorbing the temperature of the soap particles. Then the soap
is settled. That is, dry soap is produced. Dry soap is about 12%
(w/w) water. Fragrances, fillers, pigments, preservatives, etc.
are then added.
Adding Salt to soap
• Hard soap can be made by adding salt to soap. That is, it can be used as a salt filler.
Additives in soap
• These products are added to soap in order to either increase the quantity or to give it a hard
consistency. For that purpose, usually added kaolin or clay or starch or silicates of soda or
potassium etc. Also, for produce transparent soaps, add additives like alcohol, sugar, and
glycerin.
Adding colors to soap
• Various chemical compounds are used to color soaps. Natural pigments can also be used.
Among them can use the extracts from niebe leaves (vina sp) for the green color and extracts
from red sorgo (Sorghum sp) for colors going from red-brown to orange.
Scents
• The use of various chemical compounds and uses the extract from plants such as citrus and
limes used as fragrances.
Skin protecting agents
• Soaps made from certain fats are harmful to the skin. For that reason, it is necessary to add
skin protection agents. For this purpose, added natural wax (about 3-5% of beeswax for
example).
 1.3. Mechanism of action of soap
• Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids like
stearic, palmitic and oleic acids can be either saturated or
unsaturated.
• They are surfactants (compounds that reduce the surface
tension between a liquid and another substance) and therefore
help in the emulsification of oils in water.
• They contain a long hydrocarbon chain of about 10-20 carbon
with one carboxylic acid group as the functional group.
• A soap molecules ends have different polarities.
• At one end is the long hydrocarbon chain that is non-polar and
hydrophobic, i.e., insoluble in water but oil soluble. At the
other end is the short polar carboxylate ion which is
hydrophilic i.e., water soluble but insoluble in oil and grease.
• Most of the dirt is oily in nature and oil does not dissolve in
water. The molecule of soap constitutes sodium or potassium
salts of long chain carboxylic acids.
• When soap is shaken with water it becomes a soap solution
that is colloidal in nature. Agitating it tends to concentrate the
solution on the surface and causes foaming.
• This helps the soap molecules make a unimolecular film on
the surface of water and to penetrate the fabric.
• In the case of soaps, the carbon chain dissolves in oil and the
ionic end dissolves in water. Thus the soap molecules form
structures called micelles
• In micelles, one end is towards the oil droplet and the other
end which is the ionic faces outside.
• Therefore, it forms an emulsion in water and helps in
dissolving the dirt when we wash our clothes.
FIG: When a dirty cloth is put in water
containing soap then the hydrocarbon
ends of the soap molecule in the micelle
attach to the oil or grease particles present
on the surface of dirty cloth.
In this way the soap micelles entraps the
oily particles by using the hydrocarbon
ends.
The ionic ends of the soap molecules
remain attached to the water when the
dirty cloth is agitated in soap solution.
The oily particles presents on its surface
gets dispersed in the water due to which
the cloth gets clean.
• Soaps are less effective in hard water, which is water that contains a
significant concentration of Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions.
• These ions form precipitates with soap molecules, and this precipitate is
often seen as a gray line on a bathtub or sink and is often called “soap
scum”.
• Since soap forms a precipitate with these ions, it means that many of the
soap molecules are no longer present in the solution. Therefore, soap will
form fewer foams in hard water.
• “Soft water” is water that contains very few or no ions that precipitate
with soap. Soap will therefore be much more effective in soft water than in
hard water.
 Types of Soaps
Soaps are classified into four:
1. Personal: These are bar soaps, gels, liquid soaps and hand
cleaners. It has lathering characteristics, and it can be rinsed
when used, giving you that smooth feeling after. You use
these soaps to cleanse your hand, face, and body. Some of the
ingredients used in these products can moisturize your skin
and kill bacteria that can cause odor or disease.
2. Laundry: Laundry detergents and laundry aids can be liquid,
powder, bars, sheets, pumps, sprays, sticks and gels.
These are designed to remove soils and stains, as well as
bleaching and fabric conditioning and softening. These are
suitable for washable fabrics that can make your clothes and
linens clean, softened and conditioned.
3. Dishwashing: Dishwashing products can be in form of
solids, powders, gels or liquids.
These detergents remove food soils in your tableware, leaving
your kitchenware clean and free of that can harm your health.
4. Household cleaning: Household cleaners are used on
painted, metal, porcelain, glass, plastic and other washable
floor coverings and surfaces.
They are available as pads, sheets, solids, powders and gels that
can disinfect, clean and sterilize any surfaces in your home.
These cleaners can be used in your sink, bathroom, floor,
windows – almost everywhere.
It has an ingredient that can truly decontaminate places in your
home that are full of dirt, soil, and smut.
 Medicated soaps and herbal soaps
• Antibacterial activity is significant with respect to the human
body in preventing skin infections.
• Soaps are cleaning agents, which may be liquid, solid,
semisolid or powders. Soaps are used to remove dirt, including
dust, microorganisms, stains and bad smells in order to
maintain health, beauty and remove bad odor from the body or
inanimate objects, including clothes.
• Medicated soaps contain additional ingredients, usually for the
treatment of skin disorders and have germicidal substances
that are added in a specific amount and their percentages are
always stated on the soap case or booklet which contains the
information on how to use the soap for various purposes.
• Medicated soaps can be used to prevent skin infections and
transmission of skin and wound pathogens.
• Medicated soap has germicidal substances in addition to
ordinary soap base in order to increase their antibacterial
activity.
• Herbal soap are soap containing plant extracts
 1.6. Soft soaps: shaving soaps and creams
• Shaving soap is a hard soap that is used to produce lather with a shaving
brush. The lather it produces is used to coat the face during shaving,
softening the hair in preparation for shaving.
• Shaving creams are a category of male-oriented toiletry product that is
used prior to the shaving to wet and soften the body hair. The rich foam it
produces helps to prepare the hair directly for cutting.
• Shaving creams are basically soaps composed of sodium and potassium
stearate, mixed with water and glycerol to give a creamy texture.
• Tallow has been a popular ingredient in shaving soaps and is still in use in
some traditional products. Palm oil is frequently used as a substitute for
tallow where animal fats are not desired.
• Other oils such as coconut oil are commonly used. Component fatty acids
such as stearic acid are also used in shaving soaps for the properties which
they contribute; stearic acid contributes to a more stable dense lather.
• The primary advantages of shaving soap over aerosol shaving
creams is the additional hydration provided by shaving soaps.
• The principal disadvantages of shaving soap is lack of
convenience and space.
• Creating the lather and preparing the face is more time-
consuming than with other shaving creams.
• In addition, use of a shaving mug and optionally a lather
bowl, consumes more space and takes more time than most
shaving creams do.
 1.7. Quality testing
Quality testing procedures
Soap shall not cause skin irritation and shall have good lathering
and cleansing properties.
• When creating soap formula, ingredients can be adjusted in
order to control the qualities of the soap produced. There are
five qualities of soap.
1. Cleansing
• Cleansing is the ability of soap to remove dirt and oil from the
skin. It is the most critical property of soap, as it is why most
people use soap in the first place. Good cleansing requires two
elements:
• The ability to remove dirt and oil
• The ability to clean without stripping the skin of its natural oils
• The most effective soaps can also remove water-soluble and
oil-soluble dirt.
2. Hardness
• Hardness is an essential property of soap because it determines its duration.
If soap is too soft, it does not last long, so users need frequent replacement.
On the other hand, a too-hard soap is difficult to use and may cause skin
irritation.
• The perfect hardness for soap is somewhere in the middle. The amount of
fatty acids in the soap determines the soap’s hardness. The more fatty
acids, the more complex the soap.
• The type of fat used to make soap also affects the hardness of the soap.
Hard fats, such as tallows, make soaps harder than soft fats like olive oil.
Soap makers can also use butter such as cocoa butter.
3. Lather
• When soap mixes with water, bubbles and foam form the soap’s lather. The
lather is essential because it helps remove dirt and oil from the skin. A soap
that creates much lather is usually more effective at cleansing.
• The lather is also essential because it makes the soap more enjoyable. Who
doesn’t love a good bubble bath? The type of fat in the soap again
determines the amount of lather a soap creates. Soaps made with hard
fats create more lather than soaps made with soft fats.
4. Fragrance
• A good-smelling soap is more appealing to use. When
choosing a soap, it is essential to consider the fragrance. Some
people prefer a strong odour, while others prefer a light scent.
• The type of fragrance used in soap is also necessary. Some
scents, such as essential oils, can benefit the skin, while
synthetic fragrances may cause skin irritation.
5. Conditioners
• Conditioners are ingredients that make the soap gentler on the
skin. Standard conditioners include glycerin, honey, and
oatmeal. These ingredients help to moisturize the skin and
make the soap gentler. When choosing a soap, consider the
type of conditioners. The conditioners mentioned above are all
excellent choices for those with sensitive skin.
•End