MAT1100 LECTURE NOTES

Pre-requisite: O level Mathematics

Course Outline

1. Set theory: Definition; subsets; set operations; De Morgan’s laws; binary operations;
relations; functions; domains and range; composite functions; inverse functions.

2. Sets of Numbers: Natural numbers; integers; rational numbers; real numbers; complex
numbers; arithmetic operations on complex numbers.

3. Linear and Quadratic functions: Completing the square; maximum / minimum values and
graphs of quadratic functions; quadratic equations and inequalities; applications.

4. Polynomial functions: Factor and remainder theorems; graphs; equations, inequalities.

5. Rational functions: Domain; range; graph; equations; inequalities.

6. Modulus functions: Domain; range; graph; equations; inequalities.

7. Radical functions: Domain; range; graph; equations; inequalities.

8. Trigonometric functions: Domain; range; graph; identities; sum angle identities;

equations.

9. Differential calculus: Limits, continuity and derivatives of polynomial, rational and

trigonometric functions; product, quotient and chain rules; implicit differentiation;
tangent lines.

10. Transcendental Functions: Exponential functions; logarithmic functions; inverse

trigonometric functions; hyperbolic functions; properties, graphs and derivatives.

11. Applications of Derivatives: Related rates of change; extreme values of functions; graphs
of rational functions.

12. Integral Calculus: indefinite integrals; substitution; integration by parts; integration of

rational functions; areas between curves.

13. Analytical Geometry: Straight lines, circles; tangent and normal lines; standard cases of
parabola, ellipse and hyperbola.

14. Vectors: Definition; vector addition; vectors in 3-space; dot and cross products and their
applications.

15. Matrices: Transpose, sum, product and determinant of matrices; inverse matrix;
solution of system of linear equations by the inverse method and the Cramer’s rule.

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16. Complex Numbers in Polar Form: Modulus and argument; De-Moivre’s theorem; roots of
a complex number.

17. Binomial Expansions: Factorials; Binomial formula for positive integral exponents;
expansion for (1 + x) n.

18. Principle of Mathematical Induction.

Mode of delivery: 3 lectures, 1 clinic and 1 tutorial per week

Assessment
1. Continuous Assessment 30%
1.1 Assignments 10%

1.2 Tests 20%

2. Final Examination 70%

Total 100%

Prescribed Text Books

1. Calculus; Ross L. Finney and George B. Thomas; Second edition; Addison Wesley;
ISBN 0-201-59120-0

2. Introduction to Multivariate Analysis; C. Chatfield and A.J.Collins; Chapman and

Hall; ISBN 0 412 16040 4

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Term 1

1. Sets

1.1 Set Theory

Sets make a foundation of mathematics. The concept of a set appears in all branches
of mathematics. It formalizes the idea of grouping objects together and viewing them
as a single entity.

1.1.1 Basic Definitions

Definition 1.1.1 A set is any well defined list or collection of objects, called elements
or members.

Sets are denoted by capital letters, say A, B, C,⋯ . The elements or members of a set
are denoted by lowercase letters a, b, c, ⋯ .

Example 1.1.1 If P is a set of all vowels then it is written as P= { a , e , i, o ,u }.

If A is the set of all even integers between 1 and 100, it may be written in set builder
notation as A={ x :1< x <100∧x is an even number }. In this notation x
represent even numbers between 1 and 100.

If p is an element of set A we write p ∈ A . If p does not belong to A we write p ∉ A .

For example, if B is a set of positive numbers then 5 ∈ B . −2 ∉ B since −2 is a

negative integer.

each member of A is also a member of B and vice versa. Thus A=B if x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B

Definition 1.1.2 Two sets A and B are said to be identical or equal, written A=B , if

and if x ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ A .

For example, the sets A={ a , u , e , i, o } and B= {i ,u ,e , o , a } are identical or equal.

Note that the order in which the elements are written does not matter.

Definition 1.1.3 If all the elements of A are in B and A ≠ B (A is not equal to B), then
A is said to be proper subset of B, and we write A ⊂ B.

If all the elements of A belong to B and we are not sure whether A and B are identical,
we simply say that A is a subset of B, and we write A ⊆ B.

For example, if A is the set of all rain days in March and B is the set of all days in
March, then clearly A ⊆ B.

Note: 1. A set A is a subset of B if and only if every element of A is an element of B.

2. If A ⊆ B and B⊆ A then A=B .

Definition 1.1.4 All sets under investigation are subsets of a fixed set called the
universal set. In this course, we shall denote the universal set by U.

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 On the other hand it is also possible to have a set which has no elements. This set is
called an empty set or a null set, and it is denoted by ∅ .

For example, the set P= { x : x 2=−1∧x is a real number } =∅ .

By convention, ∅ is a subset of every set.

The number of elements in a set, say A, is denoted by n( A) . For example, if

A={ a , b , c }, the n ( A ) =3.

Sets can also be represented pictorially in a diagram called a Venn diagram, in which
the sets are depicted by a enclosed areas in a plane.

For example, the universal set is a rectangle and it contains the circular subsets A, B
and C.

U
A B

Definition 1.1.5 A set of sets is called a collection or class or family.

For example, B= { {1 , 2 } , {3 } , {1 , 2, 3 } } is a class and the members of B are the sets

{ 1 , 2 } , { 3 } ,∧ {1 , 2 ,3 }.

Definition 1.1.6 The power set of set A, denoted by ℙ(A) or 2 A ,is the class of all
subsets of A. In particular, if A={ a , b , c }, then

ℙ( A ) ={ A , { a } , { b } , { c } , {a ,b } , { a , c } , { b , c } ,∅ }.

The number of elements in the power set of set, say A is given by n ( P( A) ) =2n( A ).

For example, n ( P( A) ) =2n( A )=23=8 .

Definition 1.1.7 A set is said to be finite if it has exactly m elements, where m is a

positive integer. Otherwise it is said to be infinite.

For example, the set A={ a , e , i , o ,u } is finite while the set ℕ = { 1 , 2, 3 , ⋯ } the set
of
all positive is infinite.

By conversion a null set ∅ is finite.

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1.1.2 Set Operations

There are basically four set operations, namely the union, intersection ,relative
complement and absolute complement or simply complement.

Definition 1.1.8 The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all
elements which belong to A or to B, i.e.,
A ∪ B= { x : x ∈ A∨x ∈ B }.

Example 1.1.2 Let A={ a , b , c ,d , e } and B= { a , e , i, o , u } . Then

A ∪ B= {a ,b ,c , d , e , i, o , u }
In general, A ∪ B can be represented in a diagram called a vein diagram, as follows:

U
A B
A∪B

Clearly, if A and B are finite disjoint sets, then A ∪ B is finite and

n ( A ∪ B )=n ( A )+ n(B) .

Definition 1.1.9 The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of
all elements which belong to A and to B, i.e.,
A ∩ B= { x : x ∈ A∧x ∈ B }.

Example 1.1.2 Let A={ a , b , c ,d , e } and B= { a , e , i, o , u } . Then

A ∩ B= { a , e }
In a vein diagram, A ∩ B can be represented as follows :

U A∩B
A B

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Note that n ( A ∪ B )=n ( A )+ n ( B ) −n( A ∩ B).

Definition 1.1.10 The relative complement of a set B with respect to set A or simply
the difference of A and B, denoted by A−B∨ A ¿, is the set of elements which
belong to A and which do not belong to B, i.e.,
A−B={ x : x ∈ A∧x ∉ B }.

Example 1.1.3 Let A={ a , b , c ,d , e } and B= { a , e , i, o , u } . Then

A−B={ b , c , d }
In a vein diagram, this represented as follows:

U
A B
A−B

Note: 1. A−B and B are disjoint sets i.e. ( A−B ) ∩ B=∅ .

2. A−B ⊆ A .

Definition 1.1.11 The absolute complement or simply the complement of set A,

denoted by A ' , is the set of elements which do not belong to A but belong to the
universal set U, i.e.,
A '={ x : x ∈U , x ∉ A }.

Note: A' =U − A .

U
A'

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1.1.3 Laws of Algebra of Sets

Sets under the above operations satisfy various laws which are listed below.

1. The idempotent laws:

(a) A ∪ A=A
(b) A ∩ A=A

2. The Associative laws:

(a) A ∪ ( B∪ C )=( A ∪ B)∪ C
(b) A ∩ ( B ∩C ) =( A ∩ B)∩C

3. The Commutative laws:

(a) A ∪ B=B ∪ A
(b) A ∩ B=B ∩ A

4. The Distributive laws:

(a) A ∪ ( B∩ C )= ( A ∪ B ) ∩( A ∪ C )
(b) A ∩ ( B ∪ C )= ( A ∩ B ) ∪( A ∩ C)

5. The Identity laws:

(a) A ∪ ∅ = A
(b) A ∩∅ =∅
(c) A ∪ U=U
(d) A ∩U =A
6. The Complement laws:
(a) A ∪ A '=U
(b) A ∩ A' =∅
'
(c) ( A' ) = A
(d) U ' =∅
(e) ∅ ' =U

7. De Morgan’s laws:
(a) ( A ∪ B )' =A ' ∩ B'
(b) ( A ∩ B )' = A ' ∪ B'

8. The Difference law:

A−B= A ∩ B'

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 Example 1.1.4 Let U ={ 1, 2 , 3 ,⋯ , 8 , 9 }, A={ 1 ,2 , 3 , 4 }, B= {2 , 4 ,6 ,8 } and
C={ 3 , 4 ,5 , 6 }. Find
(i) A ' (ii) ( A ∩C)' (iii) B−C (iv) ( A ∪ B ) '

Solution: (i) A' = {5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 }

(ii) A ∩C={ 3 , 4 } ⇒ ( A ∩C )' ={ 1 ,2 , 5 , 6 ,7 , 8 ,9 }
NOTE: A' ∪ C' = {5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 } ∪ { 1, 2 , 7 , 8 ,9 }={ 1 , 2, 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ,9 }=( A ∩ C)'
(iii) B−C= {2 , 8 }
NOTE: B∩ C' = {2 , 4 ,6 ,8 } ∩ {1 , 2 ,7 ,8 , 9 }={ 2 ,8 }=B−C
(iv) A ∪ B= {1 , 2 ,3 , 4 ,6 ,8 } ⇒( A ∪ B )' ={ 5 ,7 , 9 }
NOTE: A' ∩B ' ={ 5 ,6 ,7 , 8 , 9 } ∩ { 1 ,3 ,5 , 7 , 9 }= {5 , 7 , 9 }=( A ∪ B )'

1.1.4 Sets of Numbers

There special symbols used for sets of numbers. These are
ℤ = the set of integers: {⋯ ,−2 ,−1 , 0 ,1 , 2 ,⋯ }
N=¿ the set of natural numbers (positive integers or counting numbers): { 1 , 2, 3 , ⋯ }
ℚ = the set of rational numbers: numbers which can be expressed
as ratios of
integers
Q ' = the set of irrational numbers: numbers which cannot be
expressed as ratios
of integers
ℝ = the set of real numbers
ℂ = the set of complex numbers

NOTE: 1. N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q⊂ R
2. ℚ’ = the set of irrational numbers, like the numbers √ 2, √ 3
, π,
etc.
3. R=Q∪ Q ' .

4. The set of real numbers can be represented graphically by

points on a
straight line as follows:
1 1
⋯ -2.5 -2 -1 0 1 √ 2 3⋯

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1.1.5 Intervals
Lat a and b be distinct real numbers with, say, a< b. Then intervals with
endpoints a and b are denoted and defined as follows:

(i) ( a , b )={ x ∈ R :a< x <b }, open interval from a to b.

o o R
a b
Note: 1. Here the numbers a , b ∉(a ,b)
2. (a ,b) is a set which contains all the numbers between a and b, and it is
an infinite set. It contains an infinite number of elements. For example,
for the set (0 , 2), 0 , 2 ∉( 0 ,2). However it contains all the numbers
1 1 10
between 1 and 2, like , , 1, √ 2 , √ 3 , ,etc.
10 2 9

(ii) [a , b]={ x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤b }, closed interval from a to b.

∎ ∎ R
a b

Note: 1. Here the numbers a , b ∈[a , b]

2. [a , b] is a set which contains the numbers a, b and the other numbers
between a and b. It is also an infinite set. It contains an infinite
number of elements.

(iii) ¿={ x ∈ R : a< x ≤ b }, open- closed interval from a to b.

∎ o R
a b
Note: 1. Here the number a , ∉ ¿ but b ∈ ¿

(iv) ¿={ x ∈ R : a ≤ x <b }, closed-open interval from a to b.

o ∎ R
a b
Similarly, here the number a ∈ [ a , b ) but b ∉ ¿.

It should also be noted that

1. An interval is a subset of R and it is infinite.

2. An interval is open if it does not include its end points and is closed if it
includes its endpoints.
3. A parenthesis “( “or “)” is used to indicate that an endpoint does not
belong to the interval, and the bracket “[ “or “]” is used to indicate that an
endpoint does belong to the interval.

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Example 1.1.5 Given the sets A ( 2 ,6], B [ 5 , 3] , C [ 1 , 8) and
X  10 , 10  is the universal set. Find each of the following sets and display it on the
number line:

(i) A (ii) X  A (iii) ( A  C )

 (iv) ( B  A)  C

Now we shall introduce a symbol ∞ , called infinity. It is not a number itself. Thus ∞ ∉ R .
However, it is perceived to be greater than any real number, whereas the symbol
−∞ (minus infinity) is perceived to be less than any real number.

Definition1.1.12 Let a be any real number. Then the set of real numbers x satisfying
x <a , x ≤ a , x >a∨x ≥ a , is called an infinite interval with endpoint a.
The infinite interval is said to be open or closed according as whether the endpoint a
does or does not belong to the interval.

The four intervals may also be denoted and defined as follows:

(−∞ , a)= { x : x< a , x ∈ R }, ¿={ x : x ≤ a , x ∈ R },

(a ,∞ )= { x ; :a> x , x ∈ R } and ¿={ x :a ≥ x , x ∈ R }.

Graphically, the infinity intervals x <a , x ≤ a , x >a∧x ≥ a are represented as

follows:

o { x ∈ R : x< a }=(−∞ , a)
a

 { x ∈ R : x ≤ a }=¿
a

o { x ∈ R : x> a }=(a , ∞ )
a

{ x ∈ R : x ≥ a }=¿
a
Note that the set of real numbers, R , as an infinite interval can be written as (−∞, ∞).

By convention, this interval is both open and closed.

Graphically, R can be represented as follows:

−∞ ∞
R=(−∞, ∞)

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1.1.6 Rational Numbers

p
A rational number is a real number which can be expressed in the form where p
q
and
q are integers and q ≠ 0 . In view of this, any rational number can be represented as a
decimal. Some representations terminate at after a finite number of steps, i.e. all later
terms in the expansion are zero. For example,

1
=0.5000 ⋯
2
1
=0.2500 ⋯
4

But other expansions never terminate, such as

1
=0.3333 ⋯
3
8
=1.14285714257 ⋯
7
1 8
In the expansion of , 3 is repeated after the decimal point and in , 142857 is
3 7
repeating after the decimal point. This is always true for rational numbers.
1 8
Now it is awkward to express non terminating decimals such as and in the form
3 7
given above. To remove this ambiguity, we place a bar over the set of numbers which
is to be repeated indefinitely. In this notation we write, for example,

0.50
0.250
1
0.3
3
8
1.142857
7

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 NOTE: Every repeating decimal expansion is a rational number.

Example 1.1.6 Show that each of the following numbers is a rational number:

(a) 3.3 (b) 25.12 (c) 0.29432

Solution: (a) Let a 3.3 . Multiplying by 10 both sides we have

10a 33.3
 10a  a 33.3  3.3
30
 9a 30  a 
9
30
 3.3 
9 , which is a rational number.

(b) Let p 25.12 . Multiplying both sides by 100, yields

100 p 2512.12
 100 p  p 2512.12  25..12
2487
 99 p 2487  p 
99
2487 829
 25.12  
99 33 , which is a rational number.

(c) Let t 0.29432 . Multiplying both sides by 1000, yields

10000t 29432.432
 100000t  100t 29432.432  29.432
29403 3267 1089
 99900t 29403  t   
99900 11100 3700 , which is a rational
number.

1.1.7 Irrational Numbers

An irrational number cannot be expressed as a ratio of two integers.

p
ℤ
, p, q 
For example, 2 is an irrational number and it cannot be express in the form q
and
q 0 .

To prove this we need the following preliminary theorem:

2
Theorem 1.1.1 If a is divisible by 2, then a is also divisible by 2.

Proof: Every integer a can be written in one of the forms

 2n
a 
2n  1 , where n is an integer.

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  4n 2
a 2  2
Hence, 4 n  4 n  1
2 2 2 2
Since a is divisible by 2, a 4n , since 4n  4n  1 is not a multiple of 2 for all
n  Z . This means that a=2 n, which is divisible by 2. Hence the theorem.

Theorem 1.1.2 2 is not a rational number.

Proof: We shall prove this by contradiction. Suppose that 2 is a rational number. Then it
p
p,q∈Z q≠0
can be expressed in the form q , where , such that p and q have no
2
p p
2 2 2 2 2 p
2

common factor. Now, if q , then q or p 2q . Thus, is divisible

by 2 ⇒ p is also divisible by 2, i.e. p=2r , where r is an integer. Then 4 r 2=2 q 2 or

q =2 r . Hence q is divisible by 2 ⇒q is also divisible by 2. This

2 2 2

means
that p and q have common factor 2, contrary to our
assumption.
Therefore, 2 cannot be expressed as a ratio of two integers, implying that it is
not
a rational number but an irrational number.

Other examples of irrational numbers are 3 ,  , e, 5 etc.

Irrational numbers are also real numbers. For example, 2 is a real number and has a
specific position on the number line.

ℝ
⋯ -1 0 1 √2 2⋯

By construction above, 2 lies on the number line. Hence 2  ℝ.

In general, every irrational number is also a real number.

1.1.8 Complex Numbers

Some problems cannot be solved using real numbers alone. For example, we cannot find a
real number x such that x 2=−1. To handle such problems, the new symbol i had to be
introduced with the property i=√ −1 or i 2=−1. i is called an imaginary number.

Definition 1.1.13 A complex number is an ordered pair of real numbers (a ,b) , and is
written a+ ib . The number a is called the real part of a+ ib, and b is its imaginary part.

Definition 1.1.14 The arithmetic operations on complex numbers are defined as follows:

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 (a) Two complex numbers a+ ib and c +id are equal if and only if a=c and b=d
(b) Addition: ( a+ ib ) + ( c+id )=( a+ c )+ i(b+d )
(c) Multiplication: ( a+ ib ) × ( c+id )=( ac−bd )+i(bc+ ad)

Example 1.1.7 Evaluate each of the following:

(a) ( 4 +i ) + ( 3−5 i )
(b) ( 2+3 i )−( 7+ 4 i )
(c) ( 2−3 i ) (2+5 i)

Definition 1.1.15 The complex numbers a+ ib and a−ib are said to be conjugates of each
other, and they have a property that ( a+ ib ) ( a−ib )=a 2+ b2.

Example 1.1.8 The conjugate of −3+7 i is −3−7 i and the conjugate of −3−7 i is
−3+7 i .
a  ib
a+ ib c +id
Definition 1.1.16 To divide a complex number by i.e. to evaluate c  id , we
multiply both the numerator and the denominator by the conjugate c−id and obtain
a  ib c  id (ac  bd )  (bc  ad )i ac  bd bc  ad
  2 2
 2 2
i 2
c  id c  id c d c d c d2

Example 1.1.9 Express the given complex numbers in the form a+ id.
4  7i  4  2i 6 i
(a) 5  i (b)  6  5i (c) 2i

1.1.9 Surds and Manipulation of Surds

The square root of a prime number is a surd. Surds are used to write numbers exactly. For
example, √ 2 , √ 3+ 4 , √ 11. Surds cannot be evaluated exactly because they give never-ending,
non repeating decimal fractions, for example, √ 2=1.414213562 ⋯ .

We can manipulate surds using the following rules:

1. √ ab=√ a × √ b
a a

2. b b

Note: a  a a

Example 1.1.10 Simplify:

14
 20
5 √ 6−2 √ 24+ √ 294
1. 28 2. 2 3.

Example 1.1.11 Evaluate:

1. ( 2 √ 7 ) (3 √ 7) 2. ¿ 3. ( 2 √ 3−√ 5 ) (2 √ 3+2 √ 5)

4. ( 2 √ 5−3 √ 2 ) (2 √ 5+ 3 √ 2)

1.1.10 Rationalization of the Denominator of a Fraction involving Surds

To rationalize the denominator of a fraction involving surds is to make the denominator free
of surds.

The rules to rationalize surds are as follows:

1
a , multiply the numerator and the denominator by √ so that
a
1. Fractions in the form of
a
the fraction becomes a .
1
2. Fractions in the form a  b , multiply the numerator and the denominator by the
conjugate a  b of the denominator. Thus
1 a b a b
  2
a b a b a  b .
1
3. Fractions in the form a  b , multiply the numerator and the denominator by the
conjugate a  b of the denominator. Thus
1 a b a b
 
a b a b a2  b .

Example 1.3.2 Rationalize the denominator of each of the following:

3 1 2 3 4 2  5 8 3 2
1. 5 2 2. 1  2 3. 2 4. 3 2 5.

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1.2 Functions

1.2.1 Binary Operations

The usual operations of arithmetic +,−¿ and × are some of the examples of binary
operations because when we choose any two numbers, each operation will generate a
third number. The term ‘binary’ emanates from the fact that the operation acts on two
numbers.

Other examples of binary operations are the set union and intersection, A ∪ B=C and
A ∩ B=D .

We shall use the symbol ¿ to represent a generic binary operation.

Definition 1.2.1 Let S= { a , b , c , ⋯ } be any set. The operation ¿ is a binary operation on

S if and only if to every ordered pair (a ,b) , where a , b ∈ S , there is assigned unique
element a∗b ∈ S . We indicate this assignment using the notation ( a , b ) → a∗b.

Example 1.2.1 Let the binary operation ¿ be defined on the set ℝ as

a∗b=a+ b+2 ab.
Find (a) 2∗5 (b) −5∗3

The following are the delicate points we need to observe in the definition of binary
operation:

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1. The order of a and b may be important, for (a ,b) is an ordered pair and it may
happen that a∗b ≠ b∗a . For example, if A and B are matrices, then
A × B ≠ B × A.
2. For a , b ∈ S the operation ¿ must be defined for every pair (a ,b) .
3. The output a∗b must be an element of S.

Why is the operation ÷ not a binary operation on ℤ.

Definition 1.2.2 The binary operation ¿ on a set is called commutative if and only if for
every ordered pair (a ,b) of elements in S a∗b=b∗a .

Example 1.2.2 Let S be the set of real numbers, ℝ. Then the binary operations
+¿ and × are commutative on ℝ, since for every a , b ∈ S
a+ b=b+a and a × b=b ×a ,
but the operation – is not commutative, since real numbers e.g.
7 , 5 ∈ R,
7−5 ≠5−7.

Exercise 1.2.1 Are set union and intersection commutative?

Definition 1.2.3 The binary operation ¿ on a set S is associative if and only if for every
triple a , b , c ∈ S
a∗( b∗c )= ( a∗b )∗c .

Example 1.2.3 1. Addition and multiplication are associative binary operations on R .

2. Subtraction is not associative on R , since for example,
12−( 8−2 )=6 ≠ ( 12−8 )−2=2.
3. Division is not associative on R , since for example,
24 ÷ ( 6 ÷ 2 )=8 ≠ ( 24 ÷ 6 ) ÷ 2=2

Definition 1.2.3 A binary operation ¿ on a set S has an identity element, denoted by e, if

and only if e is an element of S, and for all elements a of S,
a∗e=a=e∗a.
For example, the identity element for + on a set of real numbers is 0, since
a+ 0=a=0+ a,
and the identity element for × on a set of real numbers is 1, since
a × 1=a=1× a .
Definition 1.2.4 If ¿ is a binary operation on S which has an identity element e, and if a
is any given element of S, then the element, denoted by a−1, of S is called the inverse of
a if and only if
−1 −1
a∗a =e=a ∗a.
For example, the additive inverse of any real number a is – a , since

17
 a+ (−a ) =0=−a+a .
1
The multiplicative inverse of any real number a is , since
a
1 1
a × =1= × a.
a a
1
NOTE: For an operation ¿ on a set S, the inverse a−1 of a in S in not necessarily .
a

1.2.2 Relations
Let A and B be two sets. Then the product or Cartesian product of A and B, written
A × B and read “A cross B”, is the set of all ordered pairs (a ,b) such that a ∈ A and
b ∈ B . i.e.
A × B= { ( a , b ) :a ∈ A ,b ∈ B }.
Example 1.2.4 Let A={ 1 ,2 } and B= { a ,b , c }. Then
A × B= { ( 1 ,a ) , ( 1 , b ) , ( 1 ,c ) , ( 2 ,a ) , ( 2 , b ) ,(2 , c) }
B× A={ ( a ,1 ) , ( a , 2 ) , ( b ,1 ) , ( b , 2 ) , ( c , 1 ) ,(c ,2) }

A × A= A = { ( 1, 1 ) , ( 1, 2 ) , ( 2 ,1 ) ,(2 , 2) }
2

NOTE: R2=R × R is the set of ordered pairs of real numbers.

Definition 1.2.4 Let A and B be two sets. Then a binary relation or, simply a relation
from A to B is a subset of A × B . i.e. R is a relation from A to B if it is the set
of all ordered pairs (a ,b) such that a ∈ A and b ∈ B . i.e.
R={ ( a , b ) :a ∈ A , b∈ B }
When (a ,b)∈ R we say a is R-related to b and we write aRb .

Example 1.2.5 Let A={ 1 ,2 , 3 } and B= { x , y , z } and let R={ ( 1 , y ) , ( 1 , z ) ,(3 , y) }.

Then R is a relation from A to B since
R ⊆ A × B= { ( 1, x ) , ( 1 , y ) , ( 1 , z ) , ( 2 , x ) , ( 2 , y ) , ( 2 , z ) , ( 3 , x ) , ( 3 , y ) ,(3 , z ) }.

The set of all the first components of the ordered pairs is called the domain of the
relation and the set of all the second components of the ordered pairs is called the range
of the relation.

The domain of R in example 1.2.5 is { 1 , 3 } and the range is { y , z }.

NOTE: The domain of R is a subset of A and the range of R is the subset of B.

Relations can be defined by an equation, a rule, a table or an arrow diagram.

Example 1.2.5 Let the relation R : A → B be defined by

R={ ( 1 ,3 ) , ( 2 , 6 ) , (3 , 9 ) ,(4 , 12) }.
Then R can be defined by y=3 x where x ∈ A= {1 , 2 , 3 , 4 } and y ∈ B= {3 , 6 , 9 , 12 }.

18
It can also be defined using an arrow diagram

A R B
1 3
2 6
3 9
4 12

The relation can also be defined using the Cartesian coordinate system.

y
12 ¿(4 , 12)

9 ¿(3 ,9)

6 ¿(2, 6)

3 ¿(1, 3)

x
O 1 2 3 4

The domain of R is the set { 1 , 2, 3 , 4 } and its range is { 3 , 6 , 9 ,12 }.

Example 1.2.6 Find the domain and range of each relation whose defining rule and
graph is given below:
y2 x2
 1 2
(a) 16 9 (b) x  y  3

y y

O x O x

Solution: (a) The domain of R is ℝ and the range is (−∞ ,−4 ] ∪ ¿

(b) The domain of ℝ is ¿ and the range is ℝ.

Definition 1.2.5 Let X and Y be two sets. Then a function f from X into Y is a rule that
assigns each element x ∈ X to unique (one and only one) element y ∈Y . The notation
for the function is f : X → Y . This is read as f maps X into Y.

19
Example 1.2.7 Let X ={ a , b , c , d }and B= { w , x , y , z }. Then the relation defined by the
arrow diagram
(a) (b)
X Y X Y
a w a w

b x b x

c y c y

d z d z

is a function since each is not a function since

element in X is related to an element in X is related
only one element in Y to more than one element
in Y.

(c) (d)
X Y X Y
a w a w

b x b x

c y c y

d z d

is a function since each is not a function since

element in X is related to an element in X is not related
only one element in Y to any element in Y.

(e)
X Y
a

b
z
c

is a function since each

element in X is related to
only one element in Y.

For the function f the unique element y ∈Y assigned to x ∈ X is called the image of x
and it is written f (x). The set of images is called the range of (or image of f) and is
denoted by Ran(f) (or Im(f)). The domain of f is X. The elements of the domain

20
 corresponding to the images are called the pre-images. If X and Y are sets of real
numbers, f (x)∈ R and is the value of the function f at x.

NOTE: 1. To every function f : X → Y there corresponds the relation {( x , f ( x ) ) : x ∈ X }

in A × B i.e. {( x , f ( x ) ) : x ∈ X } ⊆ A × B .

2. f : X → Y is a function if each x ∈ X appears as the first coordinate in exactly

one ordered pair (x , y ) in f.
3. The range of f is denoted by f (X ) and is equal to f ( X )= { f ( x ) : x ∈ X } .

Example 1.2.8 Let f : R → R be a function which relates to each real number its square.
1. This function can be presented as an equation as: For each ∈ R , f ( x ) =x2 . i.e.
{( x , x 2) : x ∈ R }. It is said to be a real valued function.
2. The function can also be represented as a graph as follows:

y
2
y=x

O x

3. The domain of the function is ℝ and its range is f ( R )={ x 2 : x ∈ R }.

Definition 1.2.7 A function f : X → Y is said to be one-to-one (or one-one or 1-1) if

each element in X corresponds to a distinct image in Y. i.e.
f is one-to-one if f ( x 1 ) =f ( x 2 ) ⇒ x 1=x 2.

Example 1.2.9 (a) The function f : X → Y defined by an arrow diagram shown below is
one-one.

X Y

x1 y1

x2 y2

x3 y3

x3 y3

(b) The function f : [ 0 , ∞ ) →¿ defined by f ( x )= √ x is one-one.

21
 y

y= √ x

x
O

Example 1.2.10 Prove that the function f : R → R defined by f ( x )= √ x is one to-to-

one.

Proof: Let x 1 , x 2 ∈ R. Then

f ( x 1 ) =f ( x 2 ) ⇒ √ x 1= √ x 2 ⇒ ( √ x1 ) =( √ x 2 ) ⇒ x 1=x 2.
2 2

Hence, the function as defined is one-to-one.

Example 1.2.11 Prove that the function f : R → R defined by f ( x )=x 2

y
2
y=x

O x

is not one-to-one.

Proof: Let x 1 , x 2 ∈ R. Then

f ( x 1 ) =f ( x 2 ) ⇒ (x ¿¿ 1) =(x 2 ) ¿ ⇒ x 1=± √ (x ¿¿ 2)2=± x 2 ¿.

2 2

i.e. x 1=+ x 2 and x 1=−x 2 . ⇒ two different element in the

domain are
mapped to the same element in the range. Hence the function
is not one-to-
one.

Definition 1.2.8 A function f : X → Y is said to be many to one if there are at least two
distinct elements x 1 , x 2 ∈ X such that f ( x 1 ) =f ( x 2 ).

For example,
X Y
x1 f y1
x2 y2
x3 y3
x4 y4
x5 y5

22
 is a many to one function.

some x ∈ X , i.e. if y ∈Y ⇒ there exists x ∈ X for which f ( x )= y .

Definition 1.2.9 A function f : X → Y is said to be onto if every y ∈Y is the image of

Thus, if f is onto, then f ( X )=Y .

Example 1.2.11 The following functions as defined are onto:

(a) (b)
X f Y X Y
a w a f

b x b z

c y c

d z d

is an onto function since is an onto function since

each element in Y is related to each element in Y is related to
some element in X or f ( X )=Y . some element in X or f ( X )=Y .

But the function defined below is not onto since there is an element in z ∈ Y which is
not related to any of the elements in X.

X Y
a f w

b x

c y

d z

Definition 1.2.10 Consider functions f : X → Y and g :Y → Z i.e. where the range of

the
of f is the domain of g. Pictorially is shown below:
f g
XY Z.
or X Y Z

f
g
¿x ¿ f (x) ¿ g(f ( x ) )

g f
Let x ∈ X . Then the image of x under f is f (x)∈Y (the domain of g). Accordingly, we
can find the image of f (x) under g, which is g ( f ( x ) ) ∈ Z . Thus the rule which assigns
each element x in X an element g(f ( x )) in Z is called the composition function of f and

23
g, and it is denoted by g  f . Briefly, g  f : X  Z and it is defined by
( g  f )( x)  g[ f ( x)]

The function f  g is defined by

( f  g )( x)  f [ g ( x)]
Example 1.2.12 Let the function f be defined by f ( x) 3 x  5 and the function g by
g ( x )=x . Find (a) ( g  f )( x) (b) ( g  f )( 2) (c) ( f  g )( x) (d) ( f  g )( 2) .
2

Note that ( g  f )( x)  ( f  g )( x) i.e. the composition of function is not commutative.

The composition of functions can be extended to a composite of more than two

functions.
For example, if f : W  X , g : X  Y and h : Y  Z , then is h  ( g  f ) is defined
by
h  ( g  f )( x) h{g[ f ( x)]} .
Example 1.2.13 Let the function f be defined by f ( x) 5  3 x , the function g by
g ( x )=x+ 2 and h by h ( x )=2 x 2. Find (a) [h  ( g  f )]( x) (b) [( h  g )  f ]( x)

Note that h  ( g  f )( x) [( h  g )  f ]( x) .

Domain of a composite function

x−3 x−4
Example: Let f ( x )= and g ( x )=x+ . Find the domain of the following
x x−1
composite functions:
(i) fog (ii) gof

Solution: (i)
 x  4
x  3
 x  4  x 1
( fog )( x)  f [ g ( x)]  f  x  
 x 1 x 4
x
x 1
2
x  x  x  4  3( x  1)

x2  x  x  4
x 2  3x  1

x2  4
x 2  4x  2

( x  2)( x  2)

Now, fog is not defined at x  2, x 2 . However g ( x ) is not

defined at x 1 . Therefore, the domain of fog is x  R : x   2, 1, 2 .

24
  x  3
  4
 x  3 x  3  x 
( gof )( x)  g[ f ( x)]  g   
 x  x  x  3
  1
(ii)  x 
x  3  4x
x 3 x x  3 3x  3
   
x x  3 x x 3
x
2
x  4x  3

x
Now, gof is not defined at x 0 . And f ( x ) is also not defined at x=0 .
Therefore, the domain of gof is x  R : x 0 .

Definition 1.2.11 A function f : X  Y is said to have an inverse function denoted by

1 1 1
f if it is one – one and onto. f maps Y onto X i.e. f :Y  X .

Pictorially, we have
X Y

1
x f ( f ( x)) f(x)

1
f

1 2 x−3
Example Find the inverse of the function f of the function f ( x )= , x ≠0 .
x
1 1
NOTE: f ( f ( x))  x and f ( f ( x))  x

1 1
Example 1.2.14 Let f ( x) 3 x  4 . Find (a) ( f  f )( x) (b) ( f  f )( x) .

Definition 1.2.12 Let f : X → Y be a function. Then f is said to be an even function if for

each x ∈ X , f (−x ) =f (x ).

2 4
Example 1.2.15 Show that the function f ( x) 3 x  4 x is even.

Solution: f ( x) 3( x) 2  4( x) 4 3 x 2  4 x 4  f ( x) . Therefore, f is an even

function.

Definition 1.2.13 Let f : X → Y be a function. Then f is said to be an odd function if for

each x ∈ X , f (−x ) =−f (x ).

25
 3
Example 1.2.16 Show that the function f ( x) 6 x  4 x is odd.

3 3 3
Solution: f ( x) 6( x)  4(  x)   6 x  4 x   (6 x  4 x)   f ( x) .
Therefore, f is an odd function.

However, a function which is not even may not be odd and a function which is not odd
may not necessarily be even.

3
Example 1.2.17 Determine whether the function f ( x) 6 x  4 x is even or odd or
neither even nor odd.

1.3 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

1.3.1 Linear Functions

Definition 1.3.1 A function is of the form

f ( x) ax  b
where a and b are constants is called a linear function.

The graph of a linear function is a straight line.

y
y  ax  b

0 x
In the Cartesian plane, the constant a is the gradient or slope of the straight line and b is
the y- intercept.

1.3.2 Quadratic Function

Definition 1.3.2 A quadratic function is of the form

f ( x) ax 2  bx  c

where a, b and c are constants and a  0 .

Note that when a 0 , the function becomes a linear function.

A quadratic function can also be expressed in the form
f ( x) a( x  p) 2  q
by completing the square, where p and q are constants, as follows:

f ( x) ax 2  bx  c
 b c
a  x 2  x  
 a a  , by factoring out the coefficient of x 2 .

26
 Divide the coefficient of x by 2 and square the result and write the expression in the
form
 2 b 2
 b   b 
2
c
f ( x) a  x  x        
 a  2a   2a  a 
2 2
2 b  b   b 
x  x     x  
The expression a  2a   2a  , is a perfect square. Therefore
 b 
2
b2 c
f ( x) a   x    2
 
  2a  4a a 
 b 
2
4ac  b 2 
a   x    
  2a  4a 2 
2
 b  4ac  b 2
 a x   
 2a  4a ,

b 4ac  b 2
p q
in which 2a and 4a .

Example: Complete the square of each of the quadratic functions:

 5  5
f ( x)  2 x 2  4 x  5  a  x 2  2 x    a  x 2  2 x  ( 1) 2  ( 1) 2  
1.  2  2
 5  5  3
a  x 2  2 x  1  1   a  ( x  1) 2  1   a  ( x  1) 2  
 2  2  2
2
2( x  1)  3
2.
2 2 2
 2 2
 5  5
2

f ( x) 3  5 x  x   x  5 x  3  [ x  5 x  3]    x  5 x        3
  2  2 
 5
2
25   5
2
37   5
2
37
   x     3    x        x   
  2 4    2 4   2 4

2
 b  4ac  b 2
f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c  a x   
Graph of a Quadratic Function  2a  4a

(a) If a  0 , the graph of the quadratic function opens upward and has a minimum turning
 b 4ac  b 2 
  , 
 2a 4a .
point

y y ax 2  bx  c

27
 c

0 x
 b 4ac  b 2 
  , 
 2a 4a 
(b) If a  0 , the graph of the quadratic function opens downward and has a maximum
 b 4ac  b 2 
  , 
 2a 4a .
turning point
 b 4ac  b 2 
  , 
y  2a 4a 

c
x
0
y ax 2  bx  c

 b 4ac  b 2 
  , 
 2a 4a  and the y -
Note that in both cases, the turning point is given by
intercept is c.

−b
(c) The equation of the line of symmetry is x=
2a

If the graph of the quadratic function cuts the x – axis, the intercepts are found by solving
the quadratic equation f ( x) 0 i.e.
2
 b  4ac  b 2
a x    0
 2a  4a .
2
 b  b 2  4ac
a x   
Thus,  2a  4a

2
 b  b 2  4ac
x  
  2a  4a 2

b b 2  4ac
x 
 2a 4a 2

b b 2  4ac  b  b 2  4ac
x   
2a 2a 2a .

This is the quadratic formula used in finding the solutions of a quadratic equation.

28
  b  b 2  4ac  b  b 2  4ac
x x
One x- intercept is 2a and the other is 2a .

Examples: Complete the square of each of the following quadratic functions. Hence
sketch its graph indicating the turning point and the intercepts, and write down the
equation of its line of symmetry.

1. f ( x) 2 x 2  x  10 2. f ( x) 3  5 x  2 x
2

Solutions:
 2 1   2 1  1 
2
 1 
2

f ( x) 2 x  x  10 2 x  x  5   2 x  x        5 
2

 2   2  4  4 
1.  

2 x  14  
2 1
16
 
 5 2 x  14  
2 81
16
2x  4

1 2
 81
8 .

Since a  0 , the function has a minimum turning point and it occurs at

 1
4 , 81
8
.
The x-intercepts are
 1  12  4(2)(  10)  1  12  4(2)(  10)
x x
2( 2) and 2(2)
 1  81  1  81
x x
i.e. 4 and 4
8  10  5
x  2 x 
i.e. 4 and 4 2 .
The y – intercept is  10 .
y

y 2 x 2  x  10

x
 5
 1
2 4 2

-10
x
 1
4 , 81
8

 1 81
f    
The minimum value of the function is  4  8 and the line of symmetry is
x  14
.

29
  5 3  5
2
 5  5
2
3
f ( x) 3  5 x  2 x 2   2 x 2  x     2 x 2  x          
 2 2  2  4  4 2 
1. 

 2 x  4

5 2
 25
16  3
2
 2x  4

5 2
 49
16
 2x  4

5 2
 498

The x-intercepts are

 5  5 2  4( 2)(3)  5  12  4( 2)(3)
x x
2( 2) and 2( 2)
 5  49  5  49
x x
i.e.  4 and  4
2 1  12
x   x 3
i.e. 4 2 and 4 .
Since a  0 , the function has a maximum turning point and it occurs at
54 , 498  .
The y – intercept is 3.
y

x
54 , 498 

 1
2 3 x

x  54 y 3  5 x  2 x 2

 5  49
f  
The maximum value of the function is  4  8 and the line of symmetry is
x  54

1.3.3 Applications of Quadratic Functions.

One method of solving a maximum or minimum problem which can be

transformed into a quadratic function is the use of completing the square.

Examples 1. If the selling price x of an item is related to the profit P by the

equation
P 1000 x  25 x 2
Determine the value of x that would yield maximum profit and state the maximum
profit.

Solution: To find the value of x that that would yield maximum profit we have to use
the method of completing the square.

30
 
P 1000 x  25 x 2  25 x 2  40 x 

 25 x  40 x  ( 20)  ( 20) 2
2 2

 25x 2
 40 x  ( 20)  400 
2

 25( x  20) 2  400 

 25( x  20) 2  10000

The maximum profit is attained when x  20 and the maximum profit is 10 000 .

2. A farmer wishes to enclose a rectangular lot of maximum area with a fence 400 m
long. Find the dimensions of the rectangle and state its maximum area.

Solution: Suppose the length of the rectangle is x and the width is y. Then the
perimeter of the rectangle is
2 x  2 y  400
 x  y  200  y  200  x
The area of the rectangle is
A  xy
 A  x(200  x) 200 x  x 2
This is a quadratic function
A( x)  200 x  x 2
 ( x 2  200 x)
 ( x 2  200 x  ( 100) 2  ( 100) 2 )
 (( x  100) 2  10000)
 ( x  100) 2  10000
This means that the maximum area of the rectangle is attained at x 100 .
Therefore, the dimensions of the rectangle are length 100 m and width 100 m
2
and hence, the maximum area is 10 000 m .

1.4 POLYNOMAIL FUNCTIONS

Let n be a nonnegative integer and let

a 0 , a1 , a 2 ,  , a n be real numbers with a n  0 , then
the function defined by
p( x) a n x n  a n  1 x n  1    a 2 x 2  a1 x  a 0
is called a polynomial function of degree n (or simply a polynomial). The numbers
a 0 , a1 , a 2 ,  , a n are called the coefficients and an the leading coefficient of p.

We have already encountered some special polynomials like the linear function
p ( x) a1 x  a 0 , the quadratic function p( x) a 2 x 2  a1 x  a 0 . The constant function is

31
defined by
p( x) a
0 . The quadratic function is of degree 2, the linear function is of degree 1

and the constant function is of the degree 0.

Note that no degree is assigned to a zero function p ( x) 0 .

Polynomials may be added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided. Thus if p and q are
polynomials of degree m and n respectively, then

(i) p q is a polynomial of degree less than or equal to the maximum of m and n.

(ii) p q is a polynomial of degree m  n .
3 2 3 2
Example: Let p ( x)  x  3 x  5 and q ( x)  x  2 x  x  3 . Then
 3 2
 
3 2
(i) p ( x)  q ( x)  x  3 x  5  x  2 x  x  3 
2 x 3  x 2  x  8 ,
a polynomial of degree 3.
 3 2
 
3 2
(ii) p ( x)  q ( x)  x  3 x  5  x  2 x  x  3 
 5 x 2  x  2 ,
a polynomial of degree 2.
 3 2

3 2
(iii) p ( x) q ( x)  x  3 x  5  x  2 x  x  3 
 x 3 x 3  2 x 2  x  3 3 x 2 x 3  2 x 2  x  3 5x 3  2 x 2  x  3

 x 6  2 x 5  x 4  3 x 3  3 x 5  6 x 4  3 x 3  9 x 2  5 x 3  10 x 2  5 x  15
 x 6  x 5  7 x 4  11x 3  x 2  5 x  15 ,
a polynomial of degree 6.

The concept of division involving polynomials is quite similar to that of integers. Thus if p
and h are polynomials, then p is divisible by h if and only if there is a polynomial q such that
p
q
h .
p( x)
q( x)
i.e.
h( x )

or p ( x ) q ( x ) h( x )
3 2
Example: Let p ( x)  x  3 x  5 x  6 and h( x) x  2 be two polynomials. Then p is
2
divisible by h iff there exist a polynomial q ( x)  x  x  3 such that
p( x)
q( x)
h( x )

32
 x 3  3x 2  5 x  6
x 2  x  3
i.e. x 2
Theorem: If p and h are polynomials and h is of degree greater than zero, then there exists
unique polynomials q and r such that
p( x) r ( x)
q ( x ) 
h( x ) h( x ) ,

or p ( x ) q ( x ) h( x )  r ( x )

where r is either a polynomial of degree less than the degree of h or the zero function.

The polynomial p is called the dividend, h is the divisor, q is the quotient, and r is the
remainder.

Long Division of Polynomials

Examples:
4 3 2 2
1. Divide 2 x  4 x  5 x  3 x  2 by x  2 x  3

Solution: 2x 2 1
x  2 x  3 2 x  4 x  5 x 2  3x  2
2 4 3

 (2 x 4  4 x 3  6 x 2 )
x 2  3x  2
 ( x 2  2 x  3)
x 1
Therefore,
2 x 4  4 x 3  5 x 2  3x  2 x 1
2
2 x 2  1  2
x  2x  3 x  2x  3
2
The quotient q ( x ) 2 x  1 and the remainder r ( x) x  1

3 2
2. Divide 12 x  6 x  10 by 2 x  1

Solution: 6x 2  6x  3
2 x  1 12 x 3  6 x 2  0 x  10
 (12 x 3  6 x 2 )
 12 x 2  0 x
 ( 12 x 2  6 x)
6 x  10
 (6 x  3)
7
Therefore,
12 x 3  6 x 2  10 7
6 x 2  6 x  3 
2x 1 2x 1

33
 2
The quotient q ( x) 6 x  6 x  3 and the remainder r ( x) 7

Synthetic Division
There is a shortcut called synthetic division for long division of polynomials when dividing
by divisors of the form x  k . The procedure is given below:

To divide ax  bx  cx  d by x  k , use the following procedure

3 2

k a b c d
Add ka kb  k 2 a kc  k 2 b  k 3 a
a b  ka c  kb  k 2 a d  ck  k 2 b  k 3 a remainder

coefficients of quotient q (x) whose degree

is 1 less than that of that of the dividend.

Vertical pattern: Add terms in columns

Diagonal pattern: Multiply results by k

Hence
q ( x) ax 2  (b  ka ) x  (c  kb  k 2 a )
and
r ( x) d  ck  k 2 b  k 3 a
Therefore,

ax 3  bx 2  cx  d d  ck  k 2 b  k 3 a
ax 2  (b  ka ) x  (c  kb  k 2 a ) 
x k x k

Examples: Use synthetic division to divide each of the following polynomials:

1. 2 x 3  3 x 2  4 x  5 by x  2

Solution:
2 2 3 4 5
Add 4 2 12
2 1 6 17 r
q ( x ) 2 x 2  x  6
r ( x) 17
Therefore,

2 x 3  3x 2  4 x  5 17
2 x 2  x  6 
x 2 x 2

34
2. x 4  3 x 3  x 2  2 x  6 by x  3

Solution:
3 1 3 1  2  6
Add 3 0 3 15
1 0 1 5 9 r

q( x)  x 3  x  5
r ( x) 9
Therefore,

x 4  3x 3  x 2  2 x  6 9
x3  x  5 
x 3 x 3
We have noted that when a polynomial p (x) of degree n is divided by ( x  k ) then there
exists another polynomial q (x) of degree n  1 such that
p ( x) q ( x)( x  k )  r ,

for all x, where r is the remainder.

Now note that

p (k ) q (k )( k  k )  r r ,

which is the remainder. This leads us to the remainder theorem.

Theorem: (Remainder theorem) If the polynomial p (x) is divided by ( x  k ) then the

remainder is
p (k ) r .
Examples: Use the remainder theorem to find the remainder when the polynomial p (x) is
divided by ( x  k ) :
1. 2 x 3  3 x 2  4 x  5 by x  2

2. x 4  3 x 3  x 2  2 x  6 by x  3

3 2
Solution: 1. Let p ( x)  2 x  3 x  4 x  5 . Then
p (2)  2(2) 3  3(2) 2  4(2)  5 16  12  8  5 17 r ,
by the remainder theorem.
4 3 2
2. Let p ( x)  x  3 x  x  2 x  6 . Then
p ( 3) ( 3) 4  3( 3) 3  ( 3) 2  2( 3)  6
81  81  9  6  6 9 r ,
by the remainder theorem.

When a polynomial p (x) is divided by ( x  k ) and the remainder is zero, i.e. p (k ) 0 ,

35
we say that p (x) is divisible by ( x  k ) or ( x  k ) is a factor of p (x) . This leads us to the
Factor theorem:

Theorem: (Factor theorem) If p (x) is a polynomial and k a real number such that p (k ) 0 ,
then ( x  k ) is a factor of p (x) .

Note: If ( x  k ) is a factor of p (x) , then

p ( x) q ( x)( x  k )

Examples: Show that ( x  k ) is a factor of the given polynomial p (x) :

1. p( x) 2 x 3  x 2  4 x  3 ; x  1

2. p( x)  x 4  2 x 3  x 2  x  2 ; x  2

3 2
Solution: 1. Let p ( x)  2 x  x  4 x  3 .Then
p (1) 2(1) 3  (1) 2  4(1)  3  2  1  4  3 0 .

By the factor theorem, ( x  1) if a factor of 2 x  x  4 x  3 .

3 2

Note: Dividing using synthetic division, we have

1 2 1  4 3
Add 2 1 3
2 1 3 0 r

2 x 3  x 2  4 x  3 ( x  1)( 2 x 2  x  3)
4 3 2
2. Let p ( x)  x  2 x  x  x  2 . Then
p (  2)  (  2) 4  2(  2) 3  (  2) 2  (  2)  2
16  16  4  2  2 0

By the factor theorem, ( x  2) if a factor of x  2 x  x  x  2 .

4 3 2

Dividing using synthetic division, we have

 2 1 2 1 1 2
Add  2 0 2  2
1 0 1 1 0 r

x 4  2 x 3  x 2  x  2 ( x  2)( x 3  x  1)
Zeros or Roots of a Polynomial

We have seen from the factor theorem that if p is a polynomial of degree n 1 and k is a
number, then p (k ) 0 implies that x  k is a factor of p. The number k is called a zero
(or root) of p. Geometrically, k represents the point where the graph of p intersects the x-
axis.

36
Clearly, since a polynomial p of degree n cannot have more than n factors, then p has at
most n zero.

For the rational zeros of a polynomial we have the following theorem:

a
Theorem: If b , a rational number in lowest terms, is a zero of the polynomial
p( x) a n x n  a n  1 x n  1    a 2 x 2  a1 x  a 0 ,

where the
a i ' s (i 0,1,2,  , n) are integers and a n 0 , the a is an integral factor of
a0 an
and b is an integral factor of .

It must be noted that this theorem does not guarantee the existence of rational zeros of a
polynomial. It merely enables us to identify the possible rational zeros. These are then
checked using synthetic division or otherwise.

Example: Find all rational zeros of the polynomial

p( x)  2 x 3  5 x 2  4 x  3 .
a
Solution: If b is a rational zero of p, then by the theorem, a must be an integral factor of
3 and b must be an integral factor of 2. i.e.
a  { 1, 3,1,3} and b  { 1, 2,1,2}

and the set of possible rational zeros of p is

a
k   { 3, 32 , 1, 12 , 12 , 32 ,3}
b
Using synthetic division we check each of the possible candidates starting with -3:
3 2 5  4 3
Add  6 3 3
2 1 1 0 r
Thus, 3 is a zero of p.
 3
Next we check 2 :
 3
2 2 5  4 3
Add  3 3 21
2

2 2  7 15
2
r 0

 3
Thus, 2 is not a zero of p.
The remaining possible zeros can be checked the same way.
 3, 1
For this polynomial, the zeros are 2 and 1 .
Factoring a Polynomial

37
To factorize a polynomial we use the factor theorem sometimes combined with repeated
division.
Example: Factorize each of the following polynomials:

1. p ( x) 2 x 4  7 x 3  2 x 2  13 x  6

Solution: Integral factors of 6 are a   6, 3, 1,1,3,6 and integral p (x) factors of 2

are b   2, 1,1,2 . The possible rational zeros of p are

a
k    6, 3, 32 , 1, 1
`2 , 12 ,1, 32 ,3,6
b .
We determine one of the actual zeros of p by using synthetic division:

1 2  7  2 13 6
Add  2 9 7  6
2 9 7 6 0 r
  1 is a zero of p, and by Factor theorem ( x  1) is a factor of p (x) . Thus

p ( x) ( x  1)( 2 x 3  9 x 2  7 x  6) .
3 2
Let q ( x) 2 x  9 x  7 x  6 . Then again the integral factors of 6 are
a   6, 3, 1,1,3,6 and the integral factors 2 are b   2, 1,1,2 .
The possible rational zeros of q are
a
k    6, 3, 32 , 1, 1
`2 , 12 ,1, 32 ,3,6
b
Again we determine one of the actual zeros of q by synthetic division:
2 2 9 7 6
Add 4  10  6
2 5 3 0 r
 2 is a zero of q and by Factor theorem ( x  2) is a factor of q (x) . Thus

q ( x) ( x  2)( 2 x 2  5 x  3)
( x  2)( 2 x  1)( x  3).
Therefore,
p ( x) ( x  1)( x  2)( 2 x  1)( x  3) .

 1
Clearly note that the other zeros of p are 2 and 3 .

When we solve a polynomial equation p ( x) 0 , i.e. say the equation

p ( x) ( x  1)( x  2)( 2 x  1)( x  3) 0 ,

38
 we obtain
x 2, x  1, x  1
2 and x 3 , which are the zeros or roots of p. What this
means is that the zeros or roots of a polynomial indicate where the value of the
polynomial function is equal to zero, i.e. where the graph of the function cuts the x – axis.
Using these x- intercepts and the y - intercept we can sketch the graph of polynomial.

Example: Sketch the graph of each of the following polynomial functions, indicating the
points where the curve cuts the axes.
3 2
(a) p ( x) 2 x  9 x  7 x  6
4 3 2
(b) p ( x)  2 x  5 x  5 x  5 x  3 .
3 2
Solution: (a) The zeros of p ( x) 2 x  9 x  7 x  6 are
x  1, x  1
2 , x 3 . These
3 2
are the x – intercepts the curve y 2 x  9 x  7 x  6 and the y – intercept is 6.
Now note that a polynomial of degree 1 has no turning point, a polynomial of degree 2 has
one turning point, a polynomial of degree 3 has 2 turning point, etc. This curve has 2 turning
points.
Hence, we sketch the curve passing through the intercepts.

6 y 2 x 3  9 x 2  7 x  6

x
1 
1
2 0 3

4 3 2
(b) The zeros of p ( x)  2 x  5 x  5 x  5 x  3 are
 3,  1, 12 and 1 , which are the

x – intercepts of the curve. The y – intercept is y  3 .

x
1
3 1 0 2 1

y  2 x 3  3x 2  8 x  3
3

39
 We will only be able to find the turning points of the graph of a polynomial function of
degree greater than 2 after we have done differential calculus.

1.8 EQUATIONS

Quadratic Equations

Any equation of the form

2
a x +bx +c=0

is called a quadratic equation.

Nature of Roots of a Quadratic Equation

By completing the square of the quadratic function a x 2 +bx +c and equating to zero the
quadratic formula

 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a

for finding the solutions (called the roots) of the quadratic equation can be derived.
2
The expression b  4ac , called the discriminant, determines the nature of the roots of the
quadratic equation.
2
1. If b  4ac  0 , the equation has two and two distinct real roots
 b  b 2  4ac  b  b 2  4ac
x x
2a and 2a .
y
Case 1. a> 0

2
y=a x +bx +c

40
 0 x
 b b 2  4ac  b  b 2  4ac
x x
2a 2a
c
Case 2. a< 0

c
2
y=a x +bx +c

0 x
 b b 2  4ac  b  b 2  4ac
x x
2a 2a
Note that when the quadratic equation has two distinct real roots the graph of the curve
2
y=a x +bx +c cuts the x – axis at two distinct points.

b
2
x
2. If b  4ac 0 , the equation has two equal real roots 2a .
y
Case 1. a> 0

2
y=a x +bx +c

c
x
b
x
0 2a

Case 2. a> 0
y

0 x
b
x
2a
2
c y=a x +bx +c

41
 Note that when the quadratic equation has two equal real roots the graph of the curve
2
y=a x +bx +c touches the x – axis at one point.

2
3. If b  4ac  0 , the equation has no real roots. It has two complex roots which are are
conjugates of each other.
y
Case 1. a> 0

2
y=a x +bx +c

0 x
Case 2. a< 0 y

0 x
c

2
y=a x +bx +c

Note that when the quadratic equation has complex roots the graph of the curve
2
y=a x +bx +c does not cut or touch the x – axis.

Examples: Determine the nature of the roots of each of the following quadratic equations:
1. x 2−6 x +9=0

Solution: a=1 , b=−6 , and c=9.

Using the discriminant, we have

2 2
b −4 ac=(−6) −4 ( 1 ) ( 9 )=36+36=0.

⇒ the equation has two equal real roots.

2. x 2+ 4 x−8=0

42
Solution: a=1 , b=4 , and c=−8.

Using the discriminant, we have

2 2
b −4 ac=( 4) −4 ( 1 ) (−8 )=16+ 32=48 >0.

⇒ the equation has two distinct real roots.

3. 3 x 2+ 4 x +2=0

Solution: a=3 , b=4 , and c=2 .

Using the discriminant, we have

2 2
b −4 ac=(4) −4 ( 3 ) ( 2 )=16−24=−8< 0.

⇒ the equation has two complex roots.

2
4. Prove that kx  2 x  ( k  2) 0 has real roots for any value of k.
2
Proof: If the equation has real roots then b  4ac 0

Now, b  4ac 2  4(k ) (k  2)  4  4k  8k

2 2 2

4k 2  2k  1 4(k  1) 2 0 for any value of k.

Relationships between the Roots and Coefficients of a Quadratic Equation.

Let α and β be the roots of a quadratic equation

2
a x +bx +c=0 .

Then the equations

( x−α ) ( x−β )=0 (I)
and
2
a x +bx +c=0 (II)
have the same roots.
But from (I)
( x−α ) ( x−β )=x 2 ( α + β ) x +αβ .

⇒ x 2−( α + β ) x +αβ =0 (III)

Dividing (II) by a we have

b c
x2  x  0
a a (IV)

Therefore (II) and (IV) have the same roots.

Comparing the coefficients of (III) and (IV) we have

43
 b c
     
a and a.

Example: If the equation

2
2 x −3 x +6=0
has roots α and β , then the sum of roots
b 3 3
     
a 2 2
and the product of roots
c 6
   3
a 2 .
Example: The roots of the equation
2
2 x + x−7=0

1 1 1
α β 
are and . Find the values of   and  .

b 1
    
Solution: sum of roots = a 2

c  7
  
Product of roots = a 2 .

1 1    1
1 1 1 2
   2
  7 
    7
2 7 and   2 7.

Example: If α and β are the roots of the function x ( x −3 )=x +4 , find the values

of α 3 + β 3 and α 3 β 3.

Solution: x ( x −3 )=x +4 ⇒ x 2−4 x −4=0 Thus a=1 , b=−4 and c=−4 .

b  4
     4
sum of roots = a 1
c  4
    4
Product of roots = a 1 .
But
❑
( α + β )3=( α + β )( α + β )2=(α + β )(α ¿ ¿ 2+ 2 αβ + β 2) ¿
3 2 2 3
¿ α + 3 αβ +3 α β + β

⇒α + β =( α + β ) −3 αβ ( α + β ) =(4) −3 (−4 ) ( 4 )=64 +48=112

3 3 3 3

3 3 3 3
and α β =(αβ ) =(−4 ) =−64

Now, we can note from equations (III) and (IV) that a quadratic equation can be written as

44
 x −( ∑ of roots ) x + product of roots=0
2

1 2

Examples: Write down the quadratic equation whose roots are 3 and 3 .
2
Solution: x −( α + β ) x +αβ =0

1  2 1 1  2 2
        
3 3 3 and 3 3 9

Therefore, the equation is

1 2
x 2  x  0
3 9

or 9 x 2  3 x  2 0

Polynomial Equations

Polynomial equations are of the form

a n x n  a n  1 x n  1    a 2 x 2  a1 x  a 0 0 ,

where
a 0 , a1 , a 2 ,  , a n are real numbers and a n  0 .

We solve the polynomial equations the same way we find roots or zeros of a polynomial
function.

Example: Solve the polynomial equation

2 x 3  5 x 2  x  2 0 .

3 2
Solution: Find a zero of f ( x)  2 x  5 x  x  2

f (1)  2(1) 3  5(1) 2  (1)  2  2  5  1  2 0

 1 is a zero of f (x) .

 ( x  1) is factor of f (x) .

1 2 5 1 2
Add 2 3  2
2 3  2 0 r

2
 f ( x) ( x  1)( 2 x  3 x  2) ( x  1)( 2 x  1)( x  2)

45
 ( x  1)( 2 x  1)( x  2) 0  x 1, x  12 , x 2 .

1.5 RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

A rational function is one that is written in the form of
p( x)
f ( x) 
q( x)

where p (x) and q (x) are polynomials and q (x) is not the zero polynomial.

We shall assume that p (x) and q (x) have no common factors.

1 x 3x 2  4 x
2
Examples of rational functions are x , x  1 , 2 x  1 , etc.
The domain of a rational function of x includes all real numbers except x – values that make
the denominator zero.
Examples
1
f ( x) 
1. The function x is not defined at x 0 and thus the domain of the function is the
set x  R : x 0 .

x
f ( x) 
2. The function x  1 is not defined at x 1, and thus the domain of the
2

function is the set x  R : x   1,1 .

3x 2  4 x
f ( x) 
2 x  1 is not defined at x 
1
3. The function 2 and thus the domain of the

function is the set

x  R : x  12  .
The vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the graph of a rational function

1. The line x a is a vertical asymptote the graph of y  f (x) if

y  f (x)   or y  f (x)  

as x  a , either from the right or from the left.

2. The line y b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of y  f (x) if

y  f ( x)  b
as x   or x   .

Examples

1
f ( x) 
(a) Let x . This function is not defined at x 0 and as x  0 from the right
f (x)   and as x  0 from the left f (x)   . Therefore the line x 0

46
 1
f ( x) 
(y – axis) is the vertical asymptotes for the graph of x.
As x   , y  f ( x )  0 and as x   , y  f ( x )  0 therefore the line y 0 is
a horizontal asymptote.

vertical asymptote

0 x

horizontal asymptote

x2
f ( x) 
(b) Consider the function x 2  1 . This function is not defined at x 1 . As
x   1 from the left f (x)   and as x   1 from the right f (x)   . This
means that x  1 is one of the vertical asymptote. Also as x  1 from the left
f (x)   and as x  1 from the right f (x)   . This means that x 1 is the
other vertical asymptote.
2x 2 2
f ( x)  2  2
Note that
2
x 1 x  1 , and as x   or x   , y  f ( x)  2 .

Therefore, the line y 2 is a vertical asymptote.

horizontal asymptote 2 y 2

x
0

vertical asymptote vertical asymptote

47
 x  1 x 1

NOTE:
If f is the rational function given by
p( x) a n x n  a n  1 x n  1    a1 x  a 0
f ( x)   , a n 0, bm 0
q ( x) bm x m  bm  1 x m  1    b1 x  b0 ,

in which p (x) and q (x) are polynomials with no common factors, then

1. the graph of f has a vertical asymptotes at the zeros of q (x)

2. the graph of f has one or no horizontal asymptotes determined by comparing the degrees

of p (x) and q (x) .

(a) When n  m , the graph of f has the line y 0 (the x – axis) as a horizontal
asymptote.
an
y
(b) When n m , the graph of f has the line
bm (the ratio of the leading
coefficients) as a horizontal asymptote.
(c) When n  m , the graph of f has no horizontal asymptote.

Guidelines for Graphing rational functions

Let
p( x)
f ( x) 
q( x)

where p (x) and q (x) are polynomials with no common factors and q ( x) 0 .

1. Find and plot the y – intercept (if any) by finding the value of f (0) .

2. Find the zeros of the numerator (if any) by solving the equation p ( x) 0 . Then plot the
corresponding x – intercepts.

3. Find the zeros of the denominator (if any) by solving the equation q ( x) 0 . Then sketch
the corresponding vertical asymptotes.
4. Find and sketch the horizontal asymptote (if any) by using the rule for finding the
horizontal asymptote of rational function.
5. Test for symmetry.
6. Plot at least one point both between and beyond each x – intercept and vertical asymptote.
7. Use smooth curve to complete the graph between and beyond the vertical asymptotes.

Example Sketch the graph of each of the following rational functions:

x
f ( x)  2
1. x  x 2

48
 x x
f ( x)  2

Solution: x  x  2 ( x  1)( x  2)

f (0) 0  y – intercept is y 0 .

x – intercept is x 0 .

q ( x) ( x  1)( x  2) 0  x  1, x 2 . Thus the vertical asymptotes are

x  1 and x 2 .

Horizontal asymptote is y 0 , since degree of p (x)  degree of q (x) .

Additional points:

x -3 -1 -0.5 1 2 3
f(x) -0.3 undefined 0.4 -0.5 undefine 0.75
d

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x

-1

-2

-3

2( x 2  9)
f ( x)  2
2. x  4
2( x 2  9) 2( x 2  9)
f ( x)  2 
Solution: x  4 ( x  2)( x  2)
f (0)  92  y  92 .
y – intercept is
2 2
x – intercept: p ( x) 2( x  9) 0  x  9 ( x  3)( x  3) 0 .

 ( x  3)( x  3) 0

49
  x  3, x 3 .

Thus the x – intercept are x  3 and x 3

The vertical asymptotes: q ( x) ( x  2)( x  2) 0  x  2, x 2 .

Thus the vertical asymptotes are x  2 and x 2 .
2 x 2  18 10
2
2  2
Horizontal asymptote: x  4 x  4 . Thus the horizontal asymptote is
y 2 .

Additional points:

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
f(x) 0 undefined 5.3 4.5 5.3 undefined 0

2( x 2  9)
y
x2  4

-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x

-2

-4

A rational Function with a Slant Asymptotes

If the degree of the numerator is exactly one more that the degree of the denominator, then the
graph of the function has a slant (or oblique) asymptote.
Example: Sketch the graph of the function

x2  x
f ( x) 
x 1
x2  x 2
f ( x)  x  2 
Solution: x 1 x 1 .

50
 Slant asymptote is y x  2
f (0) 0  y – intercept is y 0 .
2
x – intercept: p ( x)  x  x 0  x( x  1) 0 .
 x 0, x 1 .
Thus the x – intercept are x 0 and x 1

The vertical asymptote: q ( x)  x  1 0  x  1 .

Thus the vertical asymptote is x  1 .
Horizontal asymptote: Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of
the denominator, the function has no horizontal asymptote.

Additional points:

x -3 -2 -1 -0.5 2 3 4
f(x) -6 -6 undefine 1.5 0.67 1.5 2.4
d

x2  x
y
x 1

Y
3
vertical asymptote Slant asymptote
2
y x  2
1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

-6

-7

1.6 MODULUS FUNCTION

Modulus or (Absolute Value) of a Number

k
The modulus (or absolute value) of a number k, written is defined by

51
  k if k 0
k 
 k if k  0.
3 3,  3  ( 3) 3, 0 0
For example, .
The modulus (absolute value) of a number can be interpreted as the distance of
6 6
between the number and zero on the number line. For example, because the
 10 10
distance between 6 and 0 is 6 units. Also because the distance between
 10 and 0 is 10 units.

Modulus Function
A modulus function is a function of the form
f ( x)  g ( x)
,

where g (x) is a function.

g ( x)  g ( x)
Note: 1. When g ( x) 0 , .
g ( x )  g ( x )
2. When g ( x)  0 , .

The domain of a modulus function is the same as that of the function g (x) and its
range is  y  f ( x)  R : y  f ( x) 0 .
Graph of a Modulus Function

Examples: Sketch the graph of each of the following modulus functions:

f ( x)  x
1. .
 x if x 0
y  x 
Solution:  x if x  0.

Step 1. Sketch the graph of y  x

Step 2. For the part of the line below the x – axis ( i.e. where y  0 ), reflect the line
in the x – axis.
f ( x)  x
y
y  x y x

x0 x 0
0 x

y  x 0.
Note: (a) For both x  0 and x 0 ,

52
 is ℝ and its range is { y  R; y 0}
f ( x)  x
(b) Domain of
1
f ( x) 
2. x .
y

1
y
x

x
0 x 0
x0

1
f ( x) 
Domain of x is x  R : x 0 and its range is { y  R : y  0}

f ( x)  3  5 x  2 x 2
3.
y
54 , 498 
y  3  5x  2 x 2

x
 1
3
2 0

f ( x)  3  5 x  2 x 2
Domain of is R and its range is { y  R : y 0}

1.7 RADICAL FUNCTIONS

Radical functions are functions involving roots (square roots, cube roots etc.)
For example,
f ( x)  x , g ( x)  2  x h( x) 3 x  4 etc
are all radical functions.

In this course we shall only consider radical functions involving the square root.

The domain of a radical function is the set of values of x for which the function is defined.

53
Examples: The domain of
1. f ( x)  x is the set x  R : x 0 .

2. f ( x)  2  x is the set x  R : x 2 since for x 2 , 2  x 0 .

3. f ( x)  x 2  4 is the set x  R : x  2 or x 2 since the function is defined for

values of x for which x  4 0 i.e. ( x  2)( x  2) 0 i.e. x  2 or x 2 .

2

y x 2  4

-2 0 2 x

-4

The range of a radical function y  f (x) is the set of values y takes for all values of x
within the domain of f.

Examples: The range of

1. f ( x)  x is the set  y  f ( x)  R : x 0 [0, ) .

2. f ( x)  2  x is the set  y  f ( x)  R : x 2 ( ,0] .

3. f ( x)  x 2  4 is the set  y  f ( x)  R : x  2 or x 2 [0, ) since the value of

the function is greater or equal to zero for all x  2 or x 2 .

Graphs of a Radical Functions

Examples: Sketch the graph of each of the following functions:

1. f ( x)  x

Solution: Step 1: Plot the points.

x 0 1 4 9 16 25
f (x) 0 1 2 3 4 5

Step 2: Sketch the curve of the function passing through the plotted points.

54
 y

0 5 10 15 20 25 x

2. f ( x )  2  x

Solution: Step 1: Plot the points in the table.

x -23 -14 -7 -2 1 2
f (x) -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0

Step 2: Sketch the curve of the function passing through the plotted points.
y

-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 2 5

x
-1
-2
-3

-4

y  2  x -5
Domain = { x ∈ R : x ≤ 2 }=[−∞, 2]
Range = { y ∈ R : y ≤0 }=[−∞ , 0]

55
3. f ( x )  2  x  3

Solution: Step 1: Plot the points in the table.

x -3 -2 1 6 13 22
f (x) -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Step 2: Sketch the curve of the function passing through the plotted points.

2
1

-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 x
-1
-2

y  2  x  3

Domain = { x ∈ R : x ≥−3 }=¿

Range = { y ∈ R : y ≥−2 }=¿

Equations Involving the Absolute Value

Examples: Solve each of the following equations:

2 x  3 6
1.

 2 x  3 if x  32
2 x  3 
 (2 x  3) if x  
3
Solution: Method 1: 2

y  2 x  3 y y 2 x  3

y=6

56
 9 3 3

2 2 2

3 9
2 x  3 6  x   (2 x  3) 6  x 
 2 and 2

x
Method 2: It must be noted that can also be defined as

x  x2

Thus,
2 x  3 6  (2 x  3) 2 6   (2 x  3)  6
2
2
2

 (2 x  3) 2 36  4 x 2  12 x  9 36

 4 x 2  12 x  27 0  (2 x  3)( 2 x  9) 0

3 9
 x or x 
2 2.

2x  7  x  3
2.

 2 x  7 if x  72
2 x  7 
 (2 x  7) if x 
7
Solution: Method 1: 2

 x  3 if x  3
x  3 
and  ( x  3) if x   3

y  2 x  7 y 2 x  7

y  x  3

y x  3

4 7
-3 0 3 2 10 x

4
 2x  7 x  3  x 
 2 x  7  x  3  x 10 and 3

57
 x  72
Note that 2 x  7 is only defined for and  ( x  3) is only defined for x   3 ,

thus
2 x  7   ( x  3) for x   3 and x  72 .

Method 2:
2x  7  x  3   (2 x  7)   ( x  3) 
2
2
2
2

 (2 x  7) 2 ( x  3) 2  4 x 2  28 x  49  x 2  6 x  9

 3 x 2  34 x  40 0  (3 x  4)( x  10) 0

4
 x or x 10
3 .

x  2 x  4
3.

 x  2 if x 2
x  2 
Solution: Method 1:  ( x  2) if x  2

y  x  2 y x  4
4

y x  2

-1 2 x

 ( x  2)  x  4   2 x  2  x   1

Note that x  2  x  4 is not possible because the lines y x  2 and y x  4 do

not intersect since they have the same gradient and they are parallel.

Method 2
x  2 x  4  ( x  2) 2  x  4   ( x  2)   ( x  4)
2
2
2

 ( x  2) 2 ( x  4) 2  x 2  4 x  4  x 2  8 x  16  12 x  12  x  1

Equations Involving Radicals

Examples: Solve each of the following equations:

1. 3x  8  x  2 0

Solution: 3x  8  x  2

58
  3 x  8  
2
x 2 
2

 3 x  8  x  2  2 x 6  x 3

Test the root: When x 3 , LHS =

3(3)  8  3  2 1  1 0 RHS
 x 3 is a root of the given equation.

2. 3 x  1  2 x  4 3 .

Solution: 3 x  1 3  2x  4

  3x  1 3 
2
2x  4 
2

 3x  1 9  6 2 x  4  2 x  4
 x  12  6 2 x  4
 
( x  12) 2   6 2 x  4 
2

 x 2  24 x  144 36(2 x  4) 72 x  144

 x 2  96 x 0  x( x  96) 0  x 0 or x 96
3(0)  1  2(0)  4 1  2 3 
Test the roots: When x 0 , LHS = RHS
 x 0 is a root of the given equation.
3(96)  1  2(96)  4 17  14 3 
When x 96 , LHS = RHS
 x 96 is not a root of the given equation.
Therefore, the equation on has one root x 0 .

3. x 2 2 x  11  x  5

Solution: x  2  2 x  11  x  5

  x 2   2 x  11 
2
x 5 
2

 x  2 2 x  11  2 2 x  11  x  5  x  5
 2 x  14 2 2 x  11  x  5
 
(2 x  14) 2  2 2 x  11  x  5 
2

 4 x 2  56 x  196 4(2 x  11)( x  5) 8 x 2  84 x  220

 4 x 2  28 x  24 0  x 2  7 x  6 0  ( x  1)( x  6) 0
 x 1 or x 6
1  2  2(1)  4
Test the roots: When x 1 , LHS = is not defined.
 x 1 is not a root of the given equation.
6 2  2(6)  11 2  1 1
When x 6 , LHS =

RHS  6  5 1 RHS

59
  x 6 is a root of the given equation.
Therefore, the equation on has one root x 6 .

System of Equations in Two unknowns

Elimination Method

Examples: Solve the system of equations by elimination method:

1. 3 x  2 y 1; 5 x  2 y 23

Solution: 3 x  2 y 1
+ ( 5 x  2 y 23 )
8x 24  x 3 and 3(3)  2 y 1  y  4

Substitution Method

Examples: Solve the system of equations by substitution method:

1. 3 x  2 y 1; 5 x  2 y 23

2. y 2 x; y x 2  1

3. 3 x  7 y  6 0; x 2  y 2 4

4. x 2  y 2 25; 2 x  y 10

1.9 INEQUALITIES

Linear Inequalities
Examples: Solve each of the following inequalities:
x 4 x 2 5
 
1. 6 9 18
x x 1 x2
   4
2. 2 5 10
4x  3
 3 1
3. 2
7 x
3 1
4. 2

Quadratic Inequalities
Examples: Solve each of the following inequalities:

1. x2  x  6  0
Graphical method

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Table Method

2. 3   5 x  2 x 2 0
Graphical method
Table Method

3. ( x  1)( x  3) ( x  1)( x  7)
Graphical method
Table Method
Inequalities Involving Polynomials
Examples: Solve each of the following inequalities:

1. x 3  2 x 2  3x  0

2. ( x  1)( x  3)( x  7) 0

Inequalities Involving Rational expressions

Examples: Solve each of the following inequalities:
x2
0
1. x4
x 3
1
2. x 7
2 3

3. x 1 x  4
x 2
 2 4
4. x 3
Inequalities Involving the Absolute Value
Definitions
k  0, x k   k  x k
1. For any real number .
k  0, x k  x  k or x k
2. For any real number .
Examples: Solve each of the following inequalities:
2 x  1 7
1.
x 1
3
2. x2

t 6
3
3. t 2

x 1
3
4. x 2

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Inequalities Involving Radicals
To solve inequalities involving radicals we follow three steps:
Step 1: Identify the values of the variable for which the radicand is nonnegative.
Step 2: Find critical points.
Step 3: Test values to check the solution or find intervals which contain values that
satisfy the inequality.
Examples: Solve each of the following inequalities:

1. 3  2 x  7 6
Solution:
7
2 x  7 0  x 
Step 1: The radicand must be nonnegative i.e. 2
Step 2: Critical points:

3  2 x  7 6  2 x  7 3  2 x  7 9  x 8
7
x  and x 8
Thus critical points are 2 .
Step 3: We test some values which satisfy the given inequality:

7 7 x 8
x  x 8
2 2

Take say x 0 : Take say x 4 : Take say x 9 :

3  2(0)  7 6 3  2(4)  7 6 3  2(8)  7 6

3   7 6 . Not defined 3  1 6 i.e. 4  6 , which 3  11 or  6 .

is true Not true

At critical points:
7
x  , 3  2( 72 )  7 3  0 3  6
2 , which is true.
7
x
Thus 2 is part of the solution set.

x 8, 3  2(8)  7 3  3 6 6  RHS

, which is true.

Thus x 8 is also part of the solution set.

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  7  7 
 x  R :  x 8   ,8
Therefore the solution set is  2  2  .

2. 2x  5  9  x
Solution:

Step 1: The radicand for both 2 x  5 and 9  x must be nonnegative i.e.

2 x  5 0 and 9  x 0
5
x  and x  9
2
5
x 
Both 2 x  5 and 9  x are defined for values of 2.
Step 2: Critical points:

2x  5  9  x  2 x  5 9  x  x 4
5
x  and x 4
The critical points are 2 .

Step 3: We test some values which satisfy the given inequality:

5 5 x4
x  x4
2 2

Take say x 0 : Take say x 5 :

Not defined
2( 0)  5  9  0 2(5)  5  5  9

5 3 , which is true 15  14
Not true

At critical points:
5
x  , 2( 52 )  5  9  ( 52 )  0  13
2 , 2
, which is true.

x 4, 2(4)  5  9  4  13  13
, which is not true. Thus x = 4 is not
part of the solution set.
 5 
 x  R :   x  4 [ 2 ,4)
5

Therefore the solution set is  2  .

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3. x 3  x 7  4
Solution:

Step 1: The radicand for both x  3 and x  7 must be nonnegative i.e.

x  3 0 and x  7 0
x  3 and x  7

Both x  3 and x  7 are defined for values of x  3 .

Step 2: Critical points: x  3 is one the critical points.

To find other critical points we solve the equation

x  3  x  7 4

  x 3  4 
2
x7 2

 x  3 16  8 x  7  x  7

 8 x  7 20 or 2 x  7 5  4( x  7) 25  x  3
4 .
3
x  3 and x 
The critical points are 4.
Step 3: We test some values which satisfy the given inequality:

x3 3 3
 3 x x
4 4

Take say x  2 : Take say x :

Not defined 03  07  4
 23   27  4

1  5  4 , which is not true 3  7  4 , which is true.

At critical points:

x  3,  3  3   3  7  4 ,  0  2 2  4 , which is not true. Thus

x  3 is not part of the solution set.

x  34 ,  3
3   3
7  4  3
 52 4  4
4 4 2
, which is not true. Thus

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 x  3
4 is not part of the solution set.

Therefore the solution set is

x  R : x   34  ( 3
4 , ) .

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