PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

CHAPTER 1- VARIATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES

➢ INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN FUNCTIONING

Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variations among people’s characteristics and
behaviour patterns.

Situationism, which states that situations and circumstances in which one is placed influence one’s
behaviour. The situationist perspective views human behaviour as resulting from interaction of
external and internal factors.

➢ ASSESSMENT
✓ Assessment is the first step in understanding a psychological attribute.
✓ It refers to the measurement of psychological attributes of individuals and their
evaluation, often using multiple methods in terms of certain standards of comparison.

Assessment

Formal Assessment Informal Assessment

(Objective, standardised, and organised) (Varies from case to case and is open to
subjective interpretations)

➢ SOME DOMAINS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES

Psychological attributes are not linear or unidimensional. They are usually multi-dimensional. If
you want to have a complete assessment of
a person, you will need to assess how s/he functions in various domains or areas, such as cognitive,
emotional, social, etc. These attributes are categorised on the basis of varieties of tests used in
psychological literature:-

1. Intelligence-
✓ Alfred Binet defined Intelligence as the ability to judge well, understand well, and
reason well.
✓ Wechsler defined Intelligence as the global and aggregate capacity of an individual
to think rationally, act purposefully, and to deal effectively with her/his
environment.

2. Aptitude
✓ An individual’s underlying potential for acquiring skills.

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 ✓ Aptitude tests are used to predict what an individual will be able to do if given
Psychology for proper environment and training.
✓ For e.g. a person having high language aptitude can be trained to be a good writer.

3. Interest
✓ An individual’s preference for engaging in one or more specific activities relative
to others.
✓ Knowledge of interests helps us in making choices that promote life satisfaction and
performance on jobs.

4. Personality
✓ Refers to relatively enduring characteristics of a person that make her or him
distinct from others.

5. Values
✓ Enduring beliefs about an ideal mode of behaviour.
✓ Values help an individual by guiding their actions and also by forming a base for
judging others.

➢ ASSESSMENT METHODS
1. Psychological Test
✓ It’s an objective and standardised measure of an individual’s mental and/or
behavioural characteristics.
✓ It used for the purposes of clinical diagnosis, guidance, personnel selection,
placement, and training.

2. Interview
✓ It involves seeking information from a person on a one-to-one basis.
✓ For e.g. Counsellor talking to a client or journalist interviewing a politician.

3. Case Study
✓ An in-depth study of the individual in terms of her/his psychological attributes,
psychological history in the context of her/his psychosocial and physical environment.
✓ Are based on data generated by different methods, e.g. interview, observation,
questionnaire, psychological tests, etc.

4. Observation
✓ Employing systematic, organised, and objective procedures to record behavioural
phenomena occurring naturally in real time.

5. Self-Report
✓ A method in which a person provides factual information about herself/himself
and/or opinions, beliefs, etc. that s/he holds.

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 ➢ THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

Theories of
Intelligence

A. Psychometric Approach B. Information-Processing

1. Uni-Factor Theory Approach
2. Two Factor Theory 1. Theory of Multiple
3. Theory of Primary Mental Intelligence
Abilities 2. Triarchic Theory of
4. Hierarchical Model of Intelligence
Intelligence 3. PASS Model of Intelligence
5. Structure of Intellect Model

A. PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH

✓ It considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities.

✓ It expresses the individual’s performance in terms of a single index of
cognitive abilities.

1. Uni or one factor theory (Alfred Binet)

✓ Conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities
which can be used for solving any or every problem in an individual’s
environment.

2. Two Factor Theory (Charles Spearman, 1927)

✓ Proposed that intelligence consisted of:- g-factor- includes mental operations
which are primary and common to all performances.
✓ s- factor- Excellent singers, architects, scientists, and athletes may be high on
g-factor, but in addition to this, they have specific abilities which allow
them to excel in their respective domains.

3. Theory of Primary Mental Abilities (Louis Thurstone)

✓ It states that intelligence consists of seven primary abilities, each of which is
relatively independent of the others. These primary abilities are:-
(i) Verbal Comprehension - Grasping meaning of words, concepts, and ideas.
(ii) Numerical Abilities- Speed and accuracy in numerical and computational skills.
(iii) Spatial Relations- Visualising patterns and forms.
(iv) Perceptual Speed- Speed in perceiving details.
(v) Word Fluency- Using words fluently and flexibly.
(vi) Memory- The accuracy in recalling information.
(vii) Inductive Reasoning- Deriving general rules from presented facts.

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4. Hierarchical Model of Intelligence (Arthur Jensen)
✓ Proposed that Intelligence consists of abilities operating at two levels:-
Level I (Associative learning) in which output is more or less similar to the input
(e.g., rote learning and memory).
Level II (Cognitive competence) involves higher-order skills as they transform the
input to produce an effective output.

5. Structure- of – Intellect Model (J.P Guilford)

✓ Classifies intellectual traits among three dimensions:-
Contents refer to the nature of materials or information on which intellectual operations are
performed. These include visual, auditory, symbolic (e.g., letters, numbers), semantic (e.g., words)
etc.
Operations are what the respondent does. These include cognition, memory recording, memory
retention, divergent production, convergent production, and evaluation.
Products refer to the form in which information is processed by the respondent.
✓ Products are classified into units, classes, relations, systems, transformations,
and implications. Since this classification (Guilford, 1988) includes 6X5X6
categories, therefore, the model has 180 cells.

B. INFORMATION- PROCESSING APPROACH

✓ Describes the processes people use in intellectual reasoning and problem

solving.
✓ The major focus of this approach is on how an intelligent person acts.

1. Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)

✓ According to him, intelligence is not a single entity; rather distinct types of

intelligences exist. Each of these intelligences is independent of each other.
But they interact and work together to find a solution to a problem. Gardner
described following eight types of intelligences:-

i. Linguistic: It is the capacity to use language fluently and flexibly. Persons high on this
intelligence are ‘word-smart’. Poets and Writers are high on this type of Intelligence.

ii. Logical-Mathematical: Persons high on this type of intelligence can think logically and
critically. They engage in abstract reasoning, and can manipulate symbols to solve
mathematical problems. Scientists and Nobel Prize winners are likely to be strong in this
component.

iii. Spatial: The person high on this intelligence can easily represent the spatial world in the
mind. Painters, architects, interior decorators, and surgeons are likely to have highly
developed spatial intelligence.

iv. Musical: It is the capacity to produce, create and manipulate musical patterns. Singers
and Music Directors are likely to be high on this type of Intelligence

v. Bodily-Kinaesthetic: This consists of the use of the whole body or portions of it creatively for
solving problems. Athletes, dancers, actors, sportspersons, are likely to have such kind of
intelligence.

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 vi. Interpersonal: This is the skill of understanding the motives, feelings and behaviours of
other people. Psychologists, counsellors, politicians, social workers possess high interpersonal
intelligence.

vii. Intrapersonal: This refers to the knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitations
and using that knowledge to effectively relate to others. Philosophers and spiritual leaders
present examples of this type of intelligence.

viii. Naturalistic: This involves complete awareness of our relationship with the natural
world. It is useful in recognising the beauty of different species of flora and fauna. Hunters,
farmers, tourists possess more of naturalistic intelligence.

2. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert Sternberg)

✓ Sternberg views intelligence as “the ability to adapt, to shape and select

environment to accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and
culture”. According to this theory, there are three basic types of
intelligence:

A. Componential Intelligence (Analytical Intelligence) is the analysis of information to solve

problems. This intelligence has three components:-

i. Knowledge acquisition component- is responsible for learning and acquisition of the ways of
doing things.
ii. Meta or a higher order component- involves planning concerning what to do and how to
do.
iii. Performance component- Involves actually doing things.

B. Experiential Intelligence (Creative Intelligence) is involved in using past experiences

creatively to solve novel problems. It is reflected in creative performance. Persons high on this
aspect integrate different experiences in an original way to make new discoveries and inventions.

C. Contextual Intelligence (Practical Intelligence) involves the ability to deal with

environmental demands. It may be called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’. Persons high
on this aspect easily adapt to their present environment, or modify the environment to fit their
needs.

3. (PASS) Model of Intelligence (J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby, 1994)

✓ According to this model, intellectual activity involves the interdependent

functioning of three neurological systems, called the functional units of
brain, which are as follows:-

i. Arousal/Attention: State of arousal helps us in attending to stimuli. Arousal and attention

enable a person to process information. An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention to the
relevant aspects of a problem. Too much or too little arousal would interfere with attention.

ii. Simultaneous and Successive Processing:

Simultaneous processing takes place when you perceive the relations among various concepts
and integrate them into a meaningful pattern for comprehension.
Successive processing takes place when you remember all the information serially so that the
recall of one leads to the recall of another. For e.g. learning of alphabets, multiplication tables, etc.

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 iii. Planning: It allows us to think of the possible courses of action, implement them to reach a
target, and evaluate their effectiveness. If a plan does not work, it is modified and implemented
again.

✓ Das and Naglieri have also developed a battery of tests, known as the
Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). It consists of verbal as well as
non-verbal tasks that measure basic cognitive functions. The battery of
tests is meant for individuals between 5 and 18 years of age.

➢ INTELLIGENCE: INTERPLAY OF NATURE AND NURTURE

✓ The evidence for hereditary influences on intelligence comes mainly

from studies on twins and adopted children.
▪ The intelligence of identical twins reared together correlate almost 0.90.
▪ The intelligence of identical twins reared in different environments correlate 0.72.
▪ Those of fraternal twins reared together correlate almost 0.60.
▪ Those of Siblings reared together correlate about 0.50.
▪ While siblings reared apart correlate about 0.25.

✓ The evidence for the role of environment comes mainly from studies
on adopted children. It has been observed that as children grow in age;
their intelligence level tends to move closer to that of their adoptive
parents. Children from disadvantaged homes adopted into families with
higher socioeconomic status display increase in their intelligence scores.
There is evidence that environmental deprivation lowers intelligence
while rich nutrition, good family background, and quality schooling
increases intelligence.

✓ Conclusion- Therefore intelligence is a product of complex interaction

of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture). Heredity can best be
viewed as something that sets a range within which an individual’s
development is actually shaped by the support and opportunities of the
environment.

➢ ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE-

✓ In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon, made the first successful
attempt to formally measure intelligence. In 1908, they gave the concept of
Mental Age (MA).
✓ MA- measure of a person’s intellectual development in comparison to
people of her/his age group.
✓ Chronological Age (CA) is the biological age from birth.
✓ A bright child’s MA is more than her/his CA; for a dull child, MA is
below the CA.
✓ Retardation was defined by Binet and Simon as being two mental age
years below the chronological age.
✓ In 1912, William Stern, devised the concept of Intelligence Quotient
(IQ).
✓ IQ refers to mental age divided by chronological age, and multiplied
by 100.
✓ The number 100 is used as a multiplier to avoid the decimal point.
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➢ DISTRIBUTION OF IQ SCORES IN POPULATION

✓ IQ scores are distributed in the population in such a way that the scores
of most people tend to fall in the middle range of the distribution.
✓ Only a few people have either very high or very low scores.
✓ The frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a
bellshaped curve, called the normal curve. This type of distribution is
symmetrical around the central value, called the mean. This is because the
majority falls in the centre (Average).

Table 1.1: Classification of People on the Basis of IQ

IQ Range Descriptive Label Per cent in the Population
Above 130 Very Superior 2.2
120 – 130 Superior 6.7
110 – 119 High average 16.1
90 – 109 Average 50.0
80 – 89 Low average 16.1
70 – 79 Borderline 6.7
Below 70 challenged/ retarded 2.2

Variations of Intelligence

1. Intellectual Deficiency
American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) views mental retardation as
“significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with
deficits in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the developmental period”. This
definition points to three basic features:-
• People having IQs below 70 are judged to have Intellectual Deficiency.
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 • These people are unable to adapt to their environment.
• The deficits are observed during the developmental period that is between 0 and 18
years of age.

S. No. Levels of Retardation IQ Range Level of Functioning

1. Mild 55-69 They typically slower
than that of their peers
They can function quite
independently, hold jobs
and families

2. Moderate 40-54 Lag behind their peers in

language and motor skills
Can be trained in self-
care skills, and simple
social and communication
skills.

3. Severe 25-39 Incapable of managing

life and need constant care
for their entire lives

4. Profound Below 25 Incapable of managing

life and need constant care
for their entire lives

2. Intellectual Giftedness

Giftedness is the exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in a wide variety
of areas.

Talent is a narrower term and refers to remarkable ability in a specific field (e.g., spiritual,
social, aesthetic, etc.). The highly talented are sometimes called ‘prodigies’.

Characteristics of gifted children are:

• Advanced logical thinking, questioning and problem solving behaviour.

• High speed in processing information.
• Superior generalisation and discrimination ability.
• Advanced level of original and creative thinking.
• High level of intrinsic motivation and self-esteem.
• Independent and non-conformist thinking.
• Preference for solitary academic activities for long periods.

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Identification of the Gifted-

Performance on intelligence tests is not the only measure for identifying the gifted. Many
other sources of information, such as teachers’ judgment, school achievement record, parents’
interviews, peer and self-ratings, etc. can be used in combination with intellectual assessment.

Special Educational Intervention-

To reach their full potential, gifted children require special attention and different educational
programmes beyond those provided to normal children in regular classrooms. These may
include life enrichment programmes that can sharpen children’s skills in productive thinking,
planning, decision-making, and communication.

Types of Intelligence Tests

A – Based on administration

S. No. Individual Test Group Test

1. Can be administered to one person at a time. Can be administered to several
people together.
2. Rapport can be established with the subject & his Rapport can’t be established
feelings and expressions can be observed during the with the subject & his feelings
test. and expressions can’t be
observed during the test.
3. Questions have to be answered orally/ in a written Is usually in a multiple-choice
form or through manipulation of the objects. format.

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B – Based on nature of items used

S No. Verbal Test Non- Verbal Test Performance Test

1. The answers are in The questions are in the
Require subjects to
oral/written form. form of pictures andmanipulate objects and
illustrations. other materials to
perform a task.
2. The subject should be The subject should be The subject need not be
literate. literate enough to at literate.
least read & understand
the instructions.

C – Based on Culture

S No. Culture Fair Test Culture Biased Test

1. A test that does not discriminate Tests show a bias to the culture
examinees on the basis of their in which they are developed.
culture experiences.

CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE

Culture is a collective system of customs, beliefs, attitudes, and achievements in art and literature.
According to Vygotsky while elementary mental functions (e.g., crying, attending to mother’s voice,
sensitivity to smells, walking, and running) are universal, the manner in which higher mental
functions such as problem solving and thinking operate are largely culture-produced.

Technological Intelligence- Technologically advanced societies foster skills of generalisation and

abstraction, speed, minimal moves, mental manipulation & achievement orientation. It is valued in
western cultures unlike Asian and African Societies.

Non-western societies value self-reflection and collectivistic orientation as opposed to personal

achievement and individualistic orientation in the western societies.

Integral Intelligence- Intelligence in the Indian Tradition

Indian thinkers view intelligence from a holistic perspective where equal attention is paid to
cognitive and non-cognitive processes.

Buddhi, according to J.P. Das, includes such skills as mental effort, determined action, feelings,
and opinions along with cognitive competence.
Following competencies are identified as facets of intelligence in the Indian tradition:

• Cognitive capacity (sensitivity to understanding, discrimination, problem solving, and effective

communication).
• Social competence (respect for social order, commitment to elders, the young and the needy).
• Emotional competence (self-regulation and self-monitoring of emotions, honesty, politeness etc).
•Entrepreneurial competence (commitment, patience, hard work, vigilance, and goal-directed
behaviours).

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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

According to Salovey and Mayer emotional intelligence is “the ability to monitor one’s own and
other’s emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s
thinking and actions”.
Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional intelligence in the same way as IQ is used
to express intelligence.

SPECIAL ABILITIES

• Aptitude- is individual’s capacity to acquire some specific knowledge or skill after training.
• Interest- is a preference for a particular activity; aptitude is the potentiality to perform that
activity.

In order to be successful in a particular field, a person must have both aptitude and interest.
Aptitude tests are available in two forms: independent (specialised) aptitude tests and multiple
(generalised) aptitude tests. Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT), the General Aptitude Tests Battery
(GATB), and the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) are well-known aptitude
test batteries.

CREATIVITY

Is the ability to produce ideas, objects and solutions that are novel and appropriate?
Creativity is not just limited to a selected few — the artist, the scientist, the poet or the inventor. An
ordinary individual who is engaged in simple occupations like pottery, carpentry, cooking, etc. can
also be creative. However, it has been said that they are not working at the same level of creativity.

CREATIVITY: INTERPLAY OF NATURE AND NURTURE

Creative potential are set by heredity. How much of the creative potential can be realised, when and
in what specific form and direction is largely determined by environmental factors such as
motivation, commitment, family support, peer influences, training opportunities, etc.

CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE

Terman, in the 1920s, found that persons with high IQ were not necessarily creative. At the same
time, creative ideas could come from persons who did not have a very high IQ.
Other researches have shown that not even one of those identified as gifted, followed up throughout
their adult life, had become well-known for creativity in some field. Intelligence, therefore, by itself
does not ensure creativity.

All creative acts require some minimum ability to acquire knowledge and capacity to
comprehend, retain, and retrieve. Creative writers, for example, need facility in dealing with
language.
Hence, a certain level of intelligence is required for creativity but beyond that intelligence does
not correlate well with creativity.

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S. No. Creativity Tests Intelligence Tests
1. Open ended Close Ended
2. There can be multiple answers There is only one correct answer
to questions
3. Involves Divergent thinking Involves Convergent thinking
4. Involves ability to see new The focus is on assessing abilities such as
relationships between seemingly memory, logical reasoning, accuracy,
unrelated things, ability to guess perceptual ability, and clear thinking.
causes and consequences, ability
to put things in a new context,
etc.

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 Things to Remember

A – Key Definitions

1. Individual differences (physiological and psychological): Distinctiveness and variations in

people characteristics and behaviour pattern.
2. Assessment: The measurement of psychological attributes of individuals and their evaluation
often multiple methods in terms of certain standards of comparison.
3. Psychological assessment uses systematic testing procedures to evaluate abilities, behaviour
and personal qualities of individuals.
4. Aptitude: Refers to special abilities in a particular field of activity. It is a combination of
characteristics that indicate an individual’s capacity to acquire some specific knowledge or
skill after training.
5. Interest: Interest is a preference for a particular activity. An individual can either have
aptitude or interest and 1 does not guarantee the existence of the other.
6. Intelligence is the global capacity to understand the world; think rationally and use available
resources effectively when faced with challenges.
7. Mental retardations: AAMD “significantly sub average general intellectual functioning
existing concurrently with deficits in adoptive behaviour and manifested during development
period.”
8. Giftedness is exceptional general ability shown in wide variety of areas.
9. Creativity: The ability to produce ideas, objects and problem solutions that are novel and
appropriate.
10. Emotional Intelligence is a set of skills that underline accurate appraisal, expression and
regulation of emotions. Saloney and Mayer “the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s
emotions, to discriminate among them and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and
actions.”

S. Name Contribution
No.
1. Albert Binet Definition of intelligence; I.Q.; Uni factor theory
2. David Definition of intelligence; I.Q. tests; Wechsler adult intelligence
scale, Wechsler
Wechsler Intelligence scale for children and Wechsler preschool and
primary intelligence scale
3. Charles 2 factor theory
Spearman
4. Louis Thurstone Theory of primary mental abilities
5. Arthur Jenson Level theory
6. J P Guildford Structure of intellect model
7. Howard Gardner Multiple intelligence theory
8. Robert Triarchic theory of intelligence
Sternberg
9. Das, Naglieri PASS Model; cognitive assessment, Buddhi
and Kirby
10. William Stern I.Q. equation
11. Terman Correlation between intelligence and creativity

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 Diagrams to remember

1. Triarchic theory of intelligence

a.) CONTEXTUAL INT. /

PRACTICAL INT.

Specifies the behaviours

considered intelligent in a
particular culture, dealing
with environmental
demands on a daily basis

b.) EXPERIENTIAL INT. / c.) COMPONENTIAL INT. /

CREATIVE INT. ANALYTICAL INT.

Specifies how experiences Specifies the cognitive

affect intelligence and how processes that underline all
intelligence affects a person’s intelligent behaviour.
experiences, using past
experiences creatively to
solve problems

METACOMPONENTS PERFORMANCE COMPONENTS KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION

COMPONENTS
Control, monitor and Execute strategies assembled
evaluate eugnitive by metacomponents Encode, combine and compare
processing information

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2. Pass Model (Dass, Naglieri and Kirby)

ATTENTION/arousal

Arousal and attention enable a person to process information. Optimal level of arousal
helps us to attend to stimuli

PROCESSING

SIMULTANEOUS SUCCESSIVE

Involves the perception of relationship among Refers to recall of information serially

various concepts and integrates them into a so the recall of one leads to the recall

meaningful pattern comprehension. of another.

Eg. Raven’s progressive matrix Eg. Multiplication tables

PLANNING

It allows us to think of possible course of actions implement and reach a target and
evaluate their effectiveness. An ineffective plan can be modified to suit the requirements
of the task.

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 3. Gardener’s Multiple Intelligence Theory

LINGUISTIC MUSICAL INTRAPERSONAL

Skills involved in production Sensitivity to musical rhythm Awareness of one’s own

and use of language E.g and pattern. E.g musicians feelings, motives and desires
authors e.g philosophers

LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL BODILY-KINESTHETIC NATURALISTIC

Skills involved in scientific Using whole or portions of Sensitivity to the features of

thinking and problem solving. the body flexibly and the natural world. E.g
E.g scientists creativity. E.g dancers Hunters

SPATIAL INTERPERSONAL

Skills in forming visual images Sensitivity to the subtle

and patterns. E.g decorators aspects of others behaviours.
E.g. psychologists

Note:

1. Refer the following links for detailed explanation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1u6xqERenbM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=czwHKuY2IbA

2. Assignments given below to be done in Psychology practice register

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