History of Mathematics continued to expand over the next two centuries, moving into

Egyptian Mathematics modern-day Palestine and Syria

Nebuchadnezzar
Mesopotamian Mathematics  In 626 B.C. the throne was seized by Babylonian public official
Mesopotamia Nabopolassar, ushering in the rule of the Semitic dynasty
 region of southwest Asia in the Tigris and Euphrates river from Chaldea. In 616 B.C. Nabopolassar attempted to take
system that benefited from the area’s climate and geography Assyria but failed.
to host the beginnings of human civilization.  His son Nebuchadnezzar reigned over the Babylonian
 located in the region now known as the Middle East, which  Nebuchadnezzar is known for his ornate architecture,
includes parts of southwest Asia and lands around the eastern especially the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Walls of
Mediterranean Sea. Babylon and the Ishtar Gate. Under his rule, women and men
 formed from the ancient words “meso,” meaning between or had equal rights.
in the middle of, and “potamos,” meaning river.
 fertile valleys between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the The Persian Empire
region is now home to modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, Turkey  Persian Emperor Cyrus II seized power during the reign of
and Syria. Nabonidus in 539 B.C.
 Nabonidus was such an unpopular king that Mesopotamians
Great Cities did not rise to defend him during the invasion.
 Uruk - one of the first major cities in history of the world.  Babylonian culture is considered to have ended under Persian
 Babylon - largest city in the world with populations rule, following a slow decline of use in cuneiform and other
exceeding 200,000 people. cultural hallmarks.
 Nineveh - home to King Ashurbanipal, the last great king of  By the time Alexander the Great conquered the Persian
the Assyrian Empire. Empire in 331 B.C., most of the great cities of Mesopotamia no
 Assur - first capital city of the Assyrian Empire. longer existed and the culture had been long overtaken.
 Akkad - center of the world's first empire, Akkadian Empire.  Eventually, the region was taken by the Romans in 116 A.D.
 Persepolis - the capital of the Persian Empire. and finally Arabic Muslims in 651 A.D.
 Nimrud - home to some of the most magnificent palaces built
in ancient history. Mesopotamian Gods
Ea (Sumerian: Enki) - the god of wisdom and magic
Mesopotamian Civilization Anu (Sumerian: An) - the sky god
 Humans first settled in Mesopotamia in the Paleolithic era. By Enlil (Sumerian:Ellil) - the god of earth, storms and agriculture
14,000 B.C., people in the region lived in small settlements and the controller of fates
with circular houses
 Uruk was the first of these cities, dating back to around 3200 Sexagesimal
B.C.  numeral system with sixty as its base. It originated with the
 It was a mud brick metropolis built on the riches ancient Sumerians in the 3rd millennium BC
brought from trade and conquest and featured public  passed down to the ancient Babylonians, is still used in a
art, gigantic columns and temples modified form for measuring time, angles, geographic
 By 3000 B.C., Mesopotamia was firmly under the control coordinates
of the Sumerian people.  The number 60, a superior highly composite number, has
 Sumer contained several decentralized city-states, Eridu, twelve factors, namely: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, and
Nippur, Lagash, Uruk, Kish and Ur. 60, of which 2, 3, and 5 are prime numbers.
 The first king of a united Sumer is recorded as Etana of  For example, one hour can be divided evenly into sections of
Kish. 30 minutes, 20 minutes, 15 minutes, 12 minutes, 10 minutes,
 It’s unknown whether Etana really existed, as he and 6 minutes, 5 minutes, 4 minutes, 3 minutes, 2 minutes, and 1
many of the rulers listed in the Sumerian King List that minute.
was developed around 2100 B.C. are all featured in  60 is the smallest number that is divisible by every number
Sumerian mythology as well. from 1 to 6; that is, it is the lowest common multiple of 1, 2, 3,
 Etana was followed by Meskiaggasher, the king of the 4, 5, and 6.
city-state Uruk. A warrior named Lugalbanda took
control around 2750 B.C.

The Epic of Gilgamesh

 is the earliest great work of literature and the inspiration for
some of the stories in the Bible.
 In the epic poem, Gilgamesh goes on an adventure with a
friend to the Cedar Forest, the land of the Gods in
Mesopotamian mythology.
 When his friend is slain, Gilgamesh goes on a quest to
discover the secret of eternal life, finding: "Life, which you look
for, you will never find. For when the gods created man, they let
death be his share, and life withheld in their own hands."
Tiempo
The Babylonians
 Horas (h)
 Choosing Babylon as the capital, the Amorites took control
 Minutos (min)
and established Babylonia.
 Segundos (s)
 Kings were considered deities and the most famous of these
was Hammurabi, who ruled 1792–1750 B.C. Hammurabi
Angulos
worked to expand the empire, and the Babylonians were
 Grados (°)
almost continually at war.
 Minutos (‘)
 Hammurabi’s most famous contribution is his list of laws,
 Segundos (“)
better known as the Code of Hammurabi, devised around
1 right angle = 90 degrees or 90°
1772 B.C.
1° = 60 minutes or 60’
1’ = 60 seconds or 60”
The Assyrian Empire
 under the leadership of Ashur-uballit I rose around 1365 B.C.
Mayan Mathematics
in the areas between the lands controlled by the Hittites and
Ancient Mayan (11800 B.C. to A.D. 250)
the Kassites.
 Mesoamerican Indians occupying a nearly continuous
 Around 1220 B.C., King Tukulti-Ninurta I aspired to rule all of
territory in southern Mexico, Guatemala, and northern Belize
Mesopotamia and seized Babylon. The Assyrian Empire
Mayan Civilization  Ten Classics of Mathematics: the key evidence of Chinese
 The earliest Maya were agricultural, growing crops such as contribution in mathematics where various ways of solving
corn (maize), beans, squash and cassava (manioc). problems had been proposed using different tool like cutting
 They built great stone buildings and pyramid temples. rod, oracle and magic square
 The ancient Mayans, known for their advanced astronomical
and mathematical achievements, developed a unique numeral Writings in Ancient China
system. Oracle script (甲骨文 - jiǎgǔwén) - "shell bone script"

Vigesimal Writing
 A system of writing of Mayan

Bronze Script 金文
- name comes from the bronze cauldrons and pots that they were
carved or casted on after the Bronze Age in China.
- Encompasses four different major types of sccript and many
regional variations.

Mayan Glyphs
 in the 1950s it was discovered that the script combined signs
representing whole words with signs representing syllables.
Certain glyphs were recognized as naming specific people and
cities.

Mayan Calendar
The Maya uses two calendars one was used for religious affairs and
the other one was for ordinary day-to-day use.
1. Tzolk'in - The religious calendar had 260 days a year.
2. Haab - has 365 days, divided into 19 months; 18 equal
months plus one short month.

Mayan Priest System

 developed by the Mayans, one for the common people and
one for the priests. Not only did these two systems use
different symbols, they also used different base systems. For
the priests, the number system was governed by ritual.
 Instead, we will focus on the numeration system of the
“common” people, which used a more consistent base system.
As we stated earlier, the Mayans used a base-20 system,
called the “vigesimal” system. Like our system, it is positional, Seal Script (篆書 zhuàn shū)
meaning that the position of a numeric symbol indicates its - Symmetrical and circular with more uniform stroke.
place value. In the following table you can see the place value - Seal script exists in two major forms
in its vertical format

a. Large Seal Script

 includes various official scripts and some bronze
scripts
Chinese Mathematics  its linear composition became more regular, seal
Key Points script inscriptions were used mostly for
1. Writing In Ancient China commemorative records.
2. Value of pi b. Small Seal Script
3. 3rd Century  often used for official inscriptions on stone
4. 5th Century monuments
5. 16th Century  characterized by a symmetrical structure formed
6. Math in Ancient China (SHANG) with thin, even lines executed with balanced
7. Chinese Abacus movements.
 Chinese Civilization - Ancient China produced what has
become the oldest extant culture in the world. The name
'China' comes from the Sanskrit China (derived from the
name of the Chinese Qin Dynasty)
Clerical Script (隸書)
Chinese Mathematics - its name implies, clerical script was frequently used in preparing
Contribution: official records and documents, and it was utilized for both public
 The contribution of the Chinese civilization in mathematics monuments and private correspondence.
around the world is taken as the most remarkable and
unforgettable work in the history of mathematics.
 Their way of life learning and practical use of mathematical
knowledge and logical interpretation of solving problems
might be one of the greatest achievements of Chinese
Mathematics.
Cursive Script (草書) • Liu Hui (3rd century), commented on the Nine Chapters,
- sometimes known as “grass” script. - Developed around the end of
the Han dynasty (AD 220). π = 3.14159 from 96,192-gon, Exhaustion for circles, Gave method
for Vcyl (Cavalieri’s Principle).

• Zu Chongzhi (5th century), Mathematical astronomy

- Da Ming Li calendar. π = 3.141592 using 12,288-gon, Remained

the most accurate value almost 1000 years.
π ≈ 355 113
- Gave method (Cavalieri’s principle) for Vsphere
Running Script

Regular Script
16th Century Chinese Mathematics
The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art
- A practical handbook of mathematics consisting of 246 problems
intended to provide methods to be used to solve everyday problem.

Chapter 1: Land Surveying - 38 problems (Add, Subtract,

Multiply, Division)
Chapter2: Millet and Rice - 46 problems (Exchange Rate)
Chapter 3: Distribution by Proportion - 20 problems
(Proportion, Ration, Taxes)
Ancient Chinese Numerals Chapter 4: Short Width -
Counting Rods Chapter 5: Civil Engineering
Chapter 6: Fair Distribution
Chapter 7: Excess and Deficit
Chapter 8: Calculation by Square Tables
Chapter 9: Right Angle Triangles

Wucao Suanjing (Mathematical Manual of the Five

Administrative Department)
Five Administrative Department:
The Calculation of π from ancient China 1. Tiancao 田 曹 (Arable Land Category): This category gives
- Before 221BC, China already knew the circle, and gave a procedures for various land shapes in 19 problems, all of
definition, which seem to be practical problems in real-world arable land
- Cutting circle to calculate π. shapes.
- regular 3072 polygons, and thus obtained two approximate values 2. Bingcao 兵曹 (Military Category): This category uses mainly
of π, 3.1415 and 3.1416. This result was the most accurate data for simple multiplication and division to allocate military-related
pi calculation in the world at that time. LiuHui commodities or soldiers in 12 problems.
3. Jicao 集 曹 (Assembly Category): There is a total of 14
3rd Century / Han Dynasty problems in this category involving exchange between
Early works different kinds of grains according to pre-determined ratios.
- construction techniques and statistics 4. Cangcao 倉曹 (Warehouse Category): This category contains
- Fractions, measurements, angles, geometry, limit. 12 problems related to tax collection, stacked grain volumes
- Increased productivity in Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE). and warehouse capacities. Tax collection problems are also
about simple multiplication and division.
Education 5. Jincao 金 曹 (Valuables Category): There is a total of 10
- Six Gentlemanly Arts (Zhou Li - The Zhou Rites). problems in this category. Similar to the Assembly Category,
• Ritual • Music • Archery these problems are also about exchanges. The difference is
• Horsemanship • Calligraphy • Mathematics that the commodities being exchanged in this category are
relatively valuable, such as different kinds of silk, currency, or
precious metal. Like the Assembly Category, the main method
in this category is also jinyou procedure.

Algebraic correspondence and the concept of function in the

Gōugū Theorem Wucao suanjing
- known as Pythagorean Theorem - Algebraic relations and the concept of function are usually taught
Shadow gauges - vertical stakes for observing sun shadow in Zhou at the end of elementary school or the beginning of high school.
Ex: There is a piece of seat mat on which 12 guests can sit. Now
Liu Hui (c. 225-295), mathematician and Li Chunfeng (602-670), there are 1538 pieces of such seat mats. How many guests can sit
astronomer and mathematician, known for commentaries on The on them?
Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art.
Formula of assembly category:
 Before Han Dynasty - Addition. Subtraction, Multiplication, number of seat mats × guests per mat = number of guests number
Division of guests / guests per mat = number of seat mats
 After Han Dynasty - Square roots and cube roots.
 Liu Hong (129-210) Calendar, Motion of moon Military Category:
The group of four problems in the Assembly Category is not the
Computing π only case in the Wucao suanjing that might be interpreted as
• Liu Xin (d. 23 AD), π ≈ 3.1457. suggesting algebraic relations or the concept of function. Problems
• Zhang Heng (78–139), π ≈ 3.1724, 3.162 using √ 10.
3 to 6 of the Military Category is another group of problems with
similar ideas Arabic to Greek System
Hindu-Arabic System History

Suan shu shu

- an ancient Chinese text on mathematics approximately seven
thousand characters in length written on 190 bamboo strips.
- the author(s) are unknown, they made a huge contribution in the
eastern world
How Indians introduced the Hindu-Arabic numerals to
Gao Gu - is a Chinese mathematics book, its oldest archaeological Europe?
date being 179 AD (traditionally dated 1000 BC)  introduced to Europe through the writings of Middle Eastern
mathematicians, especially al Khwarizmi and al-Kindi, about
Chinese Abacus the 12th century.
- According to Chinese history, the abacus as we know it was
invented sometime during the Ming Dynasty by mathematician
Cheng Dawei. The Ming Dynasty lasted from 1388 to 1644 and was
a period of cultural exchange and economic prosperity, at least in
part
- The Chinese abacus, also known as the suanpan ( 算 盤 / 算 盘 , lit.
"calculating tray"), comes in various lengths and widths, depending
on the operator.It usually has more than seven rods

Punyin - traditional name of Abacus

Suanpan - Chinese name of Abacus

Greek Mathematics Roman Mathematics

The word “mathematics” itself derives from the ancient Greek
(Mathema), meaning “subject of instruction”
Islamic Mathematics
Origins of Greek Mathematics
Ancient Geek numeral system - knows as Attic or Herodianic
numerals, was fully developed by about 450 BCE, and in regular Indian Mathematics
use possibly as early as the 7th Century BCE.

Medieval Mathematics

Renaissance Mathematics

16th Century Mathematics (1501 - 1696)

Achievements
Symbol for Plus and Minus
Contributions and Achievements of Greeks
 Luca Pacioli (1446-1517), an Italian, who made an influential
I. Thales of Miletus
book on arithmetic, geometry and bookkeeping, and also
 Ionian Easter
introduced standard symbols for plus (p) and minus (m).
 one of the seven sages of the Ancient
 known for his mathematical contribution called “Thales
Golden Ratio
Theorem”
 Pacioli also investigated the Golden Ratio of 1 : 1.618… in his
II. Pythagoras
1509 book “The Divine Proportion”, concluding that the
 a well-known Greek mathematician known for his three
number was a message from God and a source of secret
great contributions in mathematics
knowledge about the inner beauty of things.
 Pythagorean Tetractys
 Pythagorean Theorem
Decimal Point
 Musical Universal or Music of the Spheres
 John Napier (1550-1617), a British, invented the natural
logarithms, popularized the use of the decimal point.
III. Plato
 Napier’s Bones tool for lattice multiplication.
 known for the five regular, symmetric and three-
dimensional shapes called Platonic Solids. These
Supermagic Square
platonic solids are Tetrahedron, Cube, Icosahedron,
 During the Renaissance Europe, the German artist Albrecht
Dodecahedron, and Octahedron.
Dürer invented a magic square with magic constant 34 used
in an engraving entitled Melencolia I
 Parthenon is a symbol of Ancient Greece and Western
civilization. But its greatness extends beyond its cultural
Mathematical Notation
significance
 During the 16th and early 17th Century, the equals,
multiplication, division, radical (root), decimal and inequality
IV. Archimedes
symbols were gradually introduced and standardized.
 the greatest mathematician of Greek antiquity.
 He is known for the approximation of the area of the
Decimal Notation
circle, and the Archimedes' Quadrature.
 In the late 16th Century, Simon Stevin, a Flemish
mathematician attributed the use of decimal fractions and
Aerophonic System
decimal arithmetic, but the decimal point notation was not
- plants are grown with their roots suspended in air and misted
popularized until early in the 17th Century.
with nutrients. Mathematics plays a role in several key areas:
- Fluid Dynamics - Nutrient solution
16th Century Mathematicians
- Growth modeling - System Optimization
Nilakantha Somayaji
 He also referred to as Keļallur Comatiri
 He was a major mathematician and astronomer of the Kerala LA GEOMETRIE
school of astronomy and mathematics.  invention of the superscript notation for showing power or
 He had composed the Aryabhatiya Bhasya. In this Bhasya, exponents
Nilakantha had discussed infinite series expansions of  founded Analytical Geometry or Cartesian Geometry
trigonometric functions and problems of algebra and  describe the Cartesian System and Introduced what has
spherical geometry. become known as the standard algebraic notation

Scipione del Ferro Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

 He was an Italian mathematician who is famous for being the  Born on December 25, 1642
first to find a formula to solve a cubic equation.  a mathematician, physicist, and astronomer who made many
 He was the first to solve the universal cubic equation, but was important contributions to the field of mathematics.
later published by Cardano and now commonly known as  invented the calculus
Cardano's Formula. This later helped to rationalize the use of
fractions. John Napier (1550-1617)
 Merchiston Castle, Edinburgh
Adam Ries  “Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio” (1614)
 He is generally considered to be the "father of modern  y = b^x to x = logb^y
calculating" and he decisively contributed to the recognition  x = b^y to y = logb^x
that Roman numerals are unwieldy in practice and to their  improved the decimals notation and was the first who used
replacement by the considerably more structured Arabic and popularized the decimal point to separate the whole
numerals to a large extent. number part from the fractional part of a number.
 invented the Napier’s Bones
Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia
 Known for having given an expression (Tartaglia's formula) Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)
for the volume of a tetrahedron (incl. any irregular  Born in Clermont-Ferrand
tetrahedra) in terms of the distance values measured  “Pascal’s Mystic Hexagon Theorem” described on his “Essai
pairwise between its four corners. Pour Les Coniques” (1939)
 Tartaglia’s Triangle (earlier version of Pascal’s Triangle)  He invented the first functional mechanical calculating
machine called as the Pascaline.
Gerolamo Cardano  Pascal’s Triangles is a a convenient tabular presentation of
 Born: September 24, 1501 in Pavia, Italy binomial coefficient, where each number is the sum of the two
 Died: September 21, 1576 in Rome, Italy numbers directlly above.
 Italian physician, mathematician, and astrologer who gave the
first clinical description of typhus fever. Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665)
 Published del Ferro’s and Ferrari’s solution for cubic and  born in Beaumont-de-Lomagne
quartic equations.  Father of Moderm Theory
 First European to systematically use negative numbers.  Inspired by Diophantus’ Arithmetica
 Invented combination locks, gyroscopes with three degrees of  Two Square Theorem - Fermat’s theorem on sums of two
freedom, and drive shafts (or Cardan shafts). squares states that any odd prime number will be the sum of
 Ars Magna, The book on games of chance, De subtilitate two square numbers.
rerum.
Probability
 Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat
Lodovico Ferrari  In 1654, they exchanged letters, where they discussed how to
 Born: February 2, 1522 in Bologna, Italy solve a particular gambling problem
 Died: October 5, 1565 in Bologna, Italy  The Problem of Points
 Italian mathematician who was the first to find an algebraic  Simply stated that the problem is how to split the pot if the
solution to the biquadratic, or quartic equation. game is interrupted before someone has won.

Michael Stifel Calculus

 Born: 1487 in Esslingen, Germany  Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
 Died: April 19, 1567 in Jena, Germany  originally called infinitesimal calculus, is a mathematical
 German mathematician and clergyman. He started as a monk discipline focused on limits, continuity, derivatives, integrals,
at an Augustinian monastery in Esslingen. and infinite series. Many elements of calculus appeared in
 He published Arithmetica integra. ancient Greece, then in China and the Middle East, and still
 One of the first mathematician to use plus and minus signs. later again in medieval Europe and in India
 Developed a system of logarithms independent.  These two 17th-century geniuses managed to independently
 Made algebra more understandable to Germans. develop the basics of calculus in their lifetimes. Sometime in
the following century, it became a hot debate as to which of
Jyesthadeva these men really invented calculus, but nowadays, we
 Born: 1500 in Kerala, India concede that they both did.
 Died: 1575 in Kerala, India
 Prominent mathematician and astronomer of the Kerala 18th Century Mathematics
school of mathematics. Wrote a famous text Yuktibhasa. Leonhard Euler
 A Swiss intellectual born on April 15, 1707 in Basel,
Ludolf van Ceulen Switzerland
 Born: January 28, 1540 in Hildesheim, Germany  He is a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, logician, and
 Died: December 31, 1610 in Leiden, Netherlands engineer who lived from 1707 to 1783.
 German mathematician who is famed for his calculation of pi  Founded Graph Theory and Topology
to 35 places. Surdorum quadraticorum arithmetica.  Pioneered Analytic Number Theory, Complex Analysis, and
 3.141592653589793238462643383279502883.1415926535 Infinitesimal Calculus
8979323846264338327950288  Introduced the Concept of a Mathematical Function
 Made Discoveries in Mechanics, Fluid Dynamics, Optics,
17th Century Mathematics Astronomy, and Music Theory
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)  Popularized Mathematical Notation
 Born on March 31, 1569 in Touraine, France
 Father of Modern Philosophy The Seven Bridges of Königsberg
 Father of Analytic Geometry  The city of Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia) was divided
 He published “Discours de la Metthode” “La Dioptrique”, “Les by the River Pregel into four landmasses connected by seven
Metteories”, “La Geometrie”. bridges.
 Famous Book: Disquisitiones Arithmetica
Topology Subjects of Study: Ceres, asteroid, bell curve, complex number,
 Topology is a branch of mathematics that studies the computation, congruence, electromagnetism, elliptic function,
properties of spaces that are preserved under continuous fundamental theorem of algebra, hyper geometric series, orbit,
deformations, like stretching, twisting, or bending, but not polygon, quadratic reciprocity law, ruler and compass construction,
tearing or gluing. Think of it as studying the "rubber sheet least square methods.
geometry" of shapes.
 Key ideas are continuity, connectedness, holes, and Augustin Louis Cauchy
dimension.  A seminal figure in the field of mathematical analysis, both
real and complex, as well as in the theory of permutation
Graph Theory groups.
 Graph theory is a branch of mathematics that studies  His research encompassed a wide array of topics, including
relationships between objects. It's all about representing the convergence and divergence of infinite series, differential
connections and structures using graphs, which are made up equations, determinants, probability, and mathematical
of vertices (nodes) and edges. physics.
 Null Graph: A Graph which contains only isolated  Cauchy's contributions have left an indelible mark on the
nodes(i.e. set of edges of graph is empty) is called as Null history of mathematics.
Graph. Born: August 21,1789 in Paris France
 Regular Graph: A Graph in which each vertex has the Died: May 23, 1857
same number of neighbours(i.e. every vertex has the
same degree) is called as Regular Graph. Karl Theodor Wilhelm Weierstrass
 Complete Graph: A Complete Graph is a graph in which  A prominent Germany mathematician recognized as one of
each pair of vertices is joined by an edge. A Complete the founders of modern FUNCTION THEORY.
Graph contains all possible edges. Born: October 31, 1815, in Ostenfelde, Bavaria, Germany
 Bipartite Graph: A Bipartite Graph is a graph in which Died: February 19, 1897 in Berlin
the vertex set can be partitioned into two sets, W and X,
so that no two vertices in W share a common edge and Real Numbers
no two vertices in X share a common edge. Real numbers can be defined as the union of both rational and
 Complete Bipartite Graph: In a Complete Bipartite irrational numbers. They can be both positive or negative and are
Graph, the vertex set is the union of two disjoint sets, W denoted by the symbol “R”. All the natural numbers, decimals and
and X, so that every vertex in W is adjacent to every fractions come under this category.
vertex in X but there are no edges within W or X.

Jean-Baptise Joseph Fourier

 was a French mathematician, known also as an Egyptologist
and administrator, who exerted strong influence on
mathematical physics through his Théorie analytique de la
Combinatorics chaleur (1822; The Analytical Theory of Heat). He showed
 a branch of mathematics that deals with counting and how the conduction of heat in solid bodies may be analyzed in
arranging objects. It's all about exploring ways to combine terms of infinite mathematical series now called by his name,
things, figure out how many arrangements are possible, and the Fourier series. Far transcending the particular subject of
analyze the properties of those arrangements. heat conduction, his work stimulated research in
 Combination: an arrangement of objects with no repetition mathematical physics, which has since been often identified
and the order is not important with the solution of boundary-value problems, encompassing
 Permutation: Is the arrangement of objects in which order is many natural occurrences such as sunspots, tides, and the
important weather. His work also had a great influence on the theory of
functions of a real variable, one of the main branches of
Complex Analysis modern mathemathics.
 a branch of mathematics that deals with functions of complex Other Name: Baptiste-Joseph, Baron Fourier / Jean-Baptiste-
variables. Joseph, Baron Fourier
Born: March 21, 1768 in Auxerre, France
Joseph Louis Lagrange Died: May 16, 1830 in Paris
 an Italian born in Turin, Italy, on January 25, 1736. He is Subjects Of Study: Fourier series, thermal conduction, complex
mathematician and astronomer who made significant analysis
contributions to various fields of mathematics and physics. He
is considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time. Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor
Born: March 3, 1845, St. Petersburg, Russia
Arima Yoriyuki Died: January 6, 1918, Halle, Germany
 Lived from December 31, 1714 to December 16, 1783 Also Known As: Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor
 a Japanese mathematician from the Edo period. Notable Works:
 29 places of pi Contributions to the Founding of the Theory of Transfinite
Numbers
19th Century Mathematics Grundlagen einer allgemeinen Mannigfaltigkeitslehre
Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss Subjects Of Study: Cantor’s paradox, Cantor’s theorem, continuum
 A renowned German mathematician, astronomer, and hypothesis, infinity, one-to-one correspondence set, theory
physicist. transfinite number
 Made significant contributions to various scientific domains,
particularly in the understanding of electricity and Non-Euclidean Geometry
magnetism, his true passion lay in mathematics. Literally any geometry that is not the same as euclidean
 He famously referred to mathematics as the "queen of geometry. Although the term is frequently used to refer only to
sciences" hyperbolic geometry, common usage includes those few
Born: April 30,1777 in Brunswick, Germany geometries (hyperbolic and spherical) that differ from but are very
Died: February 23, 1855 in Göttingen Hanover, Germany. close to euclidean geometry.
Awards and Honors: Copley Medal (1838)
Inventions: Heliotrope, Magnetometer
 With the search to understand the movement of stars and  Born in Dublin in 1805; learning Latin, Greek, and Hebrew by
planets in the apparently hemispherical sky. For example, Euclid the age of five.
(flourished c. 300 BCE) wrote about spherical geometry in his  Trinity College Dublin; at the age of 18
astronomical work phaenomena the same as Euclidean Geometry.  Royal Astronomer of Ireland
Although the term is frequently used to refer only to hyperbolic
geometry, common usage includes those few geometries Contributions to Algebra and Calculus
(hyperbolic and spherical) that differ from but are very close to  discovery of quaternions, a system of numbers that extended
euclidean geometry complex numbers to four dimensions.
 understanding of algebra and led to the development of
Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky modern vector calculus.
 a prominent Russian mathematician renowned as the founder  impact on physics, particularly in areas like mechanics and
of non-Euclidean geometry. electromagnetism.
 He developed this groundbreaking concept independently of
both János Bolyai and Carl Gauss. Hermann Gunther Grassmann
 Lobachevsky's seminal publication on non-Euclidean  German mathematician, physicist, and linguist
geometry appeared in 1829, while Bolyai published his  born in 1797 in Stettin, Prussia
findings in 1832.  died in 1877 in Berlin
 Notably, Gauss refrained from publishing his ideas on the  Contributed in geometry and algebra
subject.
Born: December 1, 1792, in Nizhny Novgorod, Russia Grassmann's Groundbreaking Work in Mathematics
Died: February 24, 1856 in Kazan  extended the traditional concept of vector spaces to include
higher-dimensional spaces.
János Bolyai  understanding and manipulating geometric objects
Born: December 15, 1802 in Kolozsvár, Hungary (now Cluj,  influencing later developments in abstract algebra and
Romania) topology.
Died: January 27, 1860 in Marosvásárhely, Hungary (now Târgu-
Mureş, Romania) Grassmann's Lasting Impact on Modern Mathematics
Works: Founding member of Non-Euclidean Geometry  modern geometry and algebra, laying the groundwork for
future advancements.
George Friedrich Bernhard Riemann  applications in physics; electromagnetism and relativity
 Has a profound contributions to various fields of  to inspire mathematicians and physicists; artificial
mathematics, including geometry, analysis, and number intelligence and quantum mechanics
theory.
 Best known for the Riemann Hypothesis Josiah Willard Gibbs
 An American scientist, mathematician, physicist, and chemist.
Early Life and Education  Born in New Haven, Connecticut in 1839
 1826 in Breselenz, Germany  Impacted the field of vector analysis, statistical mechanics,
 exceptional mathematical abilities; encouraged his studies and chemical thermodynamics.
 University of Göttingen; under Carl Friedrich Gauss
 "On the Representation of a Function by a Trigonometric Early Life and Education
Series,"  Studied mathematics, physics, and chemistry; graduating in
1858
Riemann's Groundbreaking Contributions to Geometry  Europe; Ph. D. In engineering at Yale in 1863.
 introducing the concept of Riemannian geometry, which  Professor; remain for the rest of his career
generalizes Euclidean geometry to curved spaces. His
approach paved the way for Einstein's theory of general Groundbreaking Work in Thermodynamics
relativity.  equilibrium of heterogeneous substances; chemical
 Riemann's geometry is characterized by the curvature of thermodynamics.
space, which can be positive, negative, or zero.  developed statistical mechanics; understanding the
 Riemann introduced the concept of manifolds, which are properties of matter in terms of its microscopic constituents.
spaces that locally resemble Euclidean space but may have a  one of the most important scientists of the 19th century.
global curvature.
Evariste Galois
George Peacock  French mathematician, who contributed in abstract algebra
 English mathematician who made significant contributions to  His works in polynomial equations and group theory
algebra revolutionized mathematics
 He is considered a pioneer in the development of abstract
algebra Early Life and Education
 His work paved the way for modern algebraic concepts  Born in 1811
 displayed a talent for mathematics at a young age
Early Life and Education  publishing mathematical papers at the age of 20
 Born in 1791 in England
 Cambridge University; become a professor Contribution
 Peacock was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1812  revolutionized the study of polynomial equations
 group theory; modern algebra
Contributions to Abstract Algebra  impact on various fields of mathematics and science
 He introduced the concept of symbolic algebra, which
emphasized the manipulation of symbols rather than specific Felix Christian Klein
numerical values.  German mathematician, who greatly impacted the fields of
 The "principle of the permanence of equivalent forms," which geometry, group theory, and function theory
stated that algebraic laws should hold true for both numerical  Formulated the Erlangen Program, which unified various
and symbolic expressions. geometries under a common framework.
 Peacock's work laid the foundation for the development of
abstract algebraic structures, such as groups, rings, and fields. Early Life and Education
 born in Düsseldorf, Germany, on April 25, 1849
William Rowan Hamilton  University of Bonn; doctorate in 1868.
 A mathematician, physicist, and astronomer  Studied in the University of Erlangen and the Polytechnic
 Contributed on the fields of algebra, calculus, and Institute of Munich
quaternions.
Klein’s Works
Early Life and Education
 unified different geometries; group of transformations that
preserve their essential properties Contents are…
 development of hyperbolic geometry; non-Euclidean spaces  Set Theory
with constant negative curvature  Cardinal Numbers
 studying functions of a complex variable and their properties  Ordinal Numbers
 Real Numbers
Marius Sophus Lie
 A Norwegian mathematician, who contributed in the fields of David Hilbert (1862-1943)
geometry, topology, and differential equations Early Life
 Create an understanding of continuous symmetries and their  Born on January 23, 1862 in Konigsberg, Russia
applications  Died on February 14, 1943 in Gottingen, Germany
 Influenced by Ferdinand von Lindemann and Johann Carl
Early Life and Education Friedrich Gauss.
 born in 1842 in Nordfjordeid, Norway  Became a professor in University of Gottingen in 1895.
 mathematical talent and excelled in his studies  Gottingen - center of mathematics during the 20th century.
 University of Christiania (now Oslo); doctorate in 1872
 lecturer at the university; continuous symmetries Contributions
 Algebra
Lie’s Works  Number Theory
 theory of Lie groups; continuous groups of transformations,  Geometry
and their associated Lie algebras, which are vector spaces  Mathematical Logic
that capture the infinitesimal symmetries of Lie groups
 geometry and physics, by exploiting the symmetries inherent Works
in the equations  Hilbert’s Problem - presented in 1900s at the International
 differential geometry; understanding of the geometric nature Congress of Mathematicians in Paris, outlined consists 23
of solutions to differential equations unsolved problems that shaped 20th century mathematics.

George Boole Key Contribution

 self-taught mathematician and logician  He introduced the concept of Hilbert Spaces, which is the
 born in Lincoln, England on November 2, 1815 fundamental in functional analysis and quantum mechanics.
 died on December 8, 1864  Hilbert’s Basis Theorem
 Formulated in mathematical logic, particularly the  Advocated for formalism, emphasizing the importance of
development of Boolean algebra axiomatic systems in mathematics.

Early Life and Education Kurt Godel (1906-1978)

 basic education; to pursue his interest in mathematics Early Life
through self-study  Born on April 28, 1906 in Brunn, Austria-Hungary (now Brno,
 Professor of Mathematics at Queen's College, Cork, Ireland Czech Republic), in a middle class family.
 Studied logic and algebra, publishing several influential works  Studied in University of Vienna
 Influenced by Hans Hahn and Rudolf Carnap
Boole’s Works  Earned his doctorate in 1930
 modern computer science and digital electronics; design  Died on January 14, 1978 in Princeton, New Jersey
circuits and perform logical operations in computers
 system of algebraic logic, now known as Boolean algebra Major Contributions
 variables and operators; logical statements and operations  Godel’s Completeness and Incompleteness Theorem,
 An Investigation of the Laws of Thought (1854) where it states that in Incompleteness that there are
 great work that revolutionized mathematical logic statements which are true but cannot be proven.
 development of digital circuits;  Completeness Theorems states that any statement which is
 modern computers and other digital devices logically valid can be proven in finite steps.
 Godel’s Theorem established a crucial connections between
Syntax (Formal Proofs) and Semantics (Interpretation)
20th Century Mathematics  Also contributed significantly in set theory by his work, “The
Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) Continuum Theory”
Early Life  Created a standard axioms of set theory
 Born in Trellech, Wales from an aristocratic family.
 He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he Later Life
studies mathematics and philosophy.  In 1938, they migrated/fled to Europe due to the rise of Nazis
 He took a position in Princeton, New Jersey
Philosophical Contributions  Became friends with Albert Einstein and other prominent
 Known for his work in logic, philosophy of language, and scholars.
epistemology  Adele Nimbursky was the wife of Godel, which he married in
 He co-authored “Principia Mathematica” with A.N. 1938.
Whitehead (Alfred North Whitehead)
Alan Turing (1912-1954)
Alfred North Whitehead (1861 - 1947) Early Life
Early Life  Born on June 23, 1912 in Maida Vale, London, England
 Born in Ramsgate, England  Died on June 7, 1954, at the age of 41
 Educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he excelled in  Studied King’s College, Cambridge, where he graduated in
mathematics and become a prominent mathematician and 1934.
philosopher.
Major Contributions
Philosophical Contributions  Turing Machine (1936)
 After moving to the United States, he developed process  Turing Test (1950) - “Computing Machinery and Intelligence”
philosophy, emphasizing the dynamic and interconnected
nature of reality. John von Neumann
 Major works include “Process and Reality”  Was born in Budapest, Hungary in 1903.
 As a very young child, he impressed the people around him
Principia Mathematica with his incredible memory.
 Published with three volumes from 1910 to 1913  He could memorize pages of phone book and divide 8-digit
 Foundation of mathematics using the form of logic. numbers in his head by the age of 6
 Intended to lay the logical foundation of mathematics  Recognized as the best math in Hungary in 1921
  A prime number is a natural number greater than 1 that has
Contribution no positive divisors other than 1 and itself.
 Game Theory  Primes are fundamental building blocks of numbers. Every
 Quantum Mechanics integer greater than 1 is either a prime or can be factored into
 Minimax Theory primes (The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic).
 Digital Computer  Primes are central to number theory, and they appear in
many unsolved mathematical problems.
Andrė Weil  Prime Number Theorem: Describes the asymptotic
 A renowned mathematician who pioneered research in a distribution of primes.
broad range of mathematics and has thereby become the  Riemann Hypothesis: A famous unsolved problem
most significant contributor to the drastic development of concerning the distribution of prime numbers.
pure mathematics in this century.
3. Polynomial Time Algorithms and their Significance
Contribution  An algorithm is considered to run in polynomial time if its
 Number Theory running time (complexity) grows at a polynomial rate with
 Algebraic Geometry respect to the input size.
 Other Areas  Example: Sorting algorithms like Merge Sort (O(n log n)) and
 Influence QuickSort (O(n log n)) are polynomial-time algorithms.
 Polynomial time algorithms are considered efficient because
Paul Erdos they can handle large input sizes within a reasonable amount
 Hungarian mathematician of time.
 He proved a classic theorem of number theory (1933),  Non-polynomial time algorithms (e.g., exponential-time)
founded the study of probabilistic number theory with Aurel become impractical as the size of the problem grows.
Wintner and Marc Kac, proved important results in  Types/Examples of Polynomial Time Algorithm:
approximation theory with Paul Turan, and with Atle Selberg  Sorting
gave an astounding elementary proof of the prime number  Graph
theorem (1949).  Matrix
Contribution  Dynamic
 Graph Theory
 Number Theory 4. Catalan’s Conjecture and its Historical Impact
 Set Theory  Catalan’s Conjecture (also called Mihăilescu’s Theorem) states
 Combinatorics Theory that the only two consecutive perfect powers are 8 and 9, i.e.,
 Proposed by Eugène Charles Catalan in 1844. The conjecture
Four Color Theorem remained unproven for over 150 years until Preda Mihăilescu
 Created by Francis Guthrie, when he noticed that he could proved it in 2002.
color a map of England using only four colors without  The conjecture is important because it resolves a fundamental
coloring any two regions that share a boundary of same color. question about the relationships between powers of integers.
 Guthrie conjectured that the theorem was true for any map.  It’s one of the few results in number theory that deals with
 The Four-Color Theorem states that in any plane surface with the interplay between consecutive powers of integers.
regions in it (people think of them as maps), the regions can
be colored with no more than four colors in such a way that 5. Poincarḗ Conjecture, a Milestone in Topology
two regions that have a common border do not get the same  The Poincaré Conjecture is a topological statement about the
color. They are called adjacent (next to each other) if they nature of 3-dimensional spaces. It asserts that every simply
share a segment of the border, not just a point. connected, closed 3-manifold is homeomorphic to a 3-
dimensional sphere.
John Horton Conway  Simply connected means that any loop in the space can be
 A legendary mathematician who stood out for his love of contracted to a point without leaving the space.
games and for bringing mathematics to the masses.  Formulated by Henri Poincaré in 1904, the conjecture became
 Died at the age of 82 on April 11, 2020 in New Brunswick, one of the most famous unsolved problems in topology for
New Jersey from complications related to COVID-19. almost a century.
 Created a game called Conway’s Game of Life, in which if two  The conjecture was solved in 2003 by Grigori Perelman using
(or more) quantities are linked so that changing one changes Richard S. Hamilton’s theory of Ricci flow.
the other, we say they are proportional to one another.  The proof of the conjecture was a breakthrough in the field of
 geometric topology and helped complete our understanding
21st Century Mathematics of the classification of 3-manifolds.
Key Points  Perelman's proof was hailed as a monumental achievement in
1. Supercomputers and their Role in Mathematical Progress mathematics.
 Supercomputers are machines designed for performing
extremely fast calculations, capable of solving complex
problems beyond the scope of ordinary computers.
 History & Development: Early examples include the ENIAC
(1945), one of the first general-purpose computers, and the
Cray-1 (1976), a pioneering supercomputer in the field of
high-performance computing.
 Supercomputers enable mathematicians to:
 Perform massive calculations related to prime numbers.
 Run complex simulations for problems in physics,
chemistry, and number theory.
 Test large-scale conjectures like the Riemann
Hypothesis.
 Example of Supercomputer: Blue Gene, used for simulations
in physics and number theory, helping to solve massive
computations.
 Leading companies and institutions that developed
supercomputers:
 Fugaku (Japan)
 Summit (USA)
 Frontier (USA)

2. The Importance of Prime Numbers