OPERATING SYSTEM

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION

JANUARY 24, 2025

INSTRUCTOR: SYED FAISAL ALI
NUCES - FAST (KARACHI)
 Operating System
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Summary
1.1 What Operating Systems Do?

Operating systems (OS) are essential software that manage hardware resources and provide services for
computer programs. Essentially, an OS acts as an intermediary between users and computer hardware,
allowing the user to interact with the system and run applications effectively.

An Operating System is like the manager of your computer's hardware and software resources. It makes
sure:
 You can interact with your computer (via UI).
 Programs run smoothly by managing memory and processing power.
 Devices like printers and speakers work properly by managing input/output.
 Your data is protected with security measures.

Types of Operating Systems:

There are various types of operating systems, each designed to meet the needs of different hardware and
software environments:

 Single-tasking OS: Allows only one task to run at a time (e.g., older versions of MS-DOS).
 Multi-tasking OS: Allows multiple tasks to run concurrently (e.g., Windows, macOS, Linux).
 Real-Time OS (RTOS): Used for systems where time-sensitive operations are critical (e.g.,
embedded systems, robotics).
 Network OS: Manages and facilitates the functioning of a network of computers (e.g., Novell
NetWare).
 Distributed OS: Coordinates multiple machines working together to present themselves as a
single system (e.g., Google’s Android OS in a distributed environment).

Key Tasks and Functions an Operating System performs:

1. Process Management
2. Memory Management
3. File System Management
4. Device Management
5. Security and Access Control
6. User Interface (UI)
7. Networking
8. System Performance Monitoring and Optimization
9. Error Handling and Fault Tolerance
10. Task Management
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1.2 Computer-System Organization
Basic Components of a Computer System:
At the core of any computer system, there are several main components that work together to enable
computing functions:

 Central Processing Unit (CPU): Often considered the "brain" of the computer, the CPU is
responsible for executing instructions and processing data.
 Control Unit (CU): Directs the operations of the processor by interpreting and executing
instructions from the memory.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs mathematical calculations (addition, subtraction) and
logical operations (AND, OR, NOT).
 Registers: Small, fast storage locations within the CPU that hold data and instructions that are
immediately needed by the CPU.
 Memory Unit: Stores data and instructions for quick access.
 Primary Memory (RAM): Temporary, volatile memory used to store data that the CPU is
currently using.
 Secondary Memory: Non-volatile storage, such as hard drives (HDD) or solid-state drives
(SSD), where data is stored permanently or long-term.
 Input/ Output Devices (I/O): Enable communication between the user and the system.
Examples include the keyboard, mouse, monitor, printers, and network interfaces.
 Input Devices: Allow data to enter the computer (e.g., keyboard, mouse).
 Output Devices: Present data from the computer to the user (e.g., monitor, speakers).
 System Bus: The communication pathway that connects various components of the computer. It
carries data, control signals, and memory addresses between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices.

A Computer-System Organization consists of several components working together:

 CPU to process data and instructions.

 Memory to store data temporarily or long-term.
 I/O Devices to interact with users and external systems.
 System Buses to manage data flow between components.
 Operating Systems to manage resources and provide interfaces for users and programs.
 Memory Hierarchy to manage fast and slow storage.
 Multiprocessing Systems for improved performance.
 The structure and organization of these components ensure that tasks are processed efficiently
and that the computer operates effectively, whether it's a personal computer, a server, or an
embedded system.

1.3 Computer-System Architecture

Refers to the structure and design of a computer system, focusing on how its components (such as the
CPU, memory, I/O devices, and interconnections) are organized to work together efficiently. It involves
defining the hardware components, how they interact, and the instruction set architecture (ISA) that the
system follows to execute instructions. In other words, computer architecture is about how the system is
put together to meet performance, scalability, and functionality goals.
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 1. Central Processing Unit (CPU):
The CPU is the heart of the computer and is responsible for executing instructions. The architecture of the
CPU defines how it interacts with memory and input/output devices, and how tasks are processed. It
includes the following:
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Responsible for performing arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction)
and logical operations (AND, OR).
Control Unit (CU): Directs the operation of the processor by interpreting and executing instructions. It
controls the sequence of operations performed by the ALU and the flow of data within the system.
Registers: Small, fast storage locations within the CPU that hold data, addresses, or instructions needed
by the processor.
CPU Architecture:
Single-core vs. multi-core processors: A multi-core processor includes more than one CPU core within
the same chip, allowing for simultaneous processing of multiple tasks.
Pipeline Architecture: A technique used to execute multiple instruction stages (fetch, decode, execute)
in parallel, improving CPU efficiency.
Superscalar Architecture: Enables the CPU to execute more than one instruction per clock cycle by
having multiple execution units in the processor.

2. Memory Architecture:
Memory is the place where data and instructions are stored for quick access. The architecture of memory
impacts the speed, capacity, and efficiency of the system.
Memory Hierarchy:
The memory system is typically organized into a hierarchy with different levels of storage that vary in
speed and size:
Registers: Located within the CPU, the fastest and smallest memory.
Cache Memory: Fast memory located near the CPU (L1, L2, L3) to store frequently accessed data and
instructions. Cache improves CPU performance by reducing the time it takes to access data from the main
memory.
Primary Memory (RAM): Volatile memory used to store data currently in use by the CPU. It provides a
larger space than cache memory but is slower.
Secondary Memory: Non-volatile memory, such as hard drives (HDD), solid-state drives (SSD), and
optical discs, used for long-term data storage.
Tertiary Storage: Large storage used for backup or archival purposes, such as tape drives or cloud
storage.
Virtual Memory: Virtual memory allows programs to use more memory than is physically available by
swapping data in and out of secondary storage (disk) as needed. This provides an abstraction of memory
and improves the system's ability to run large programs.

3. Input/ Output (I/O) System:

The I/O system includes all components responsible for interacting with external devices like keyboards,
displays, storage devices, and network interfaces.

Key Components:
Device Controllers: Hardware components that manage the interaction between the CPU and I/O
devices.
Interrupts: A mechanism for devices to signal the CPU that they require attention. This allows the
system to handle I/O devices asynchronously without constant polling.
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Direct Memory Access (DMA): A feature that allows peripheral devices to access memory directly
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without involving the CPU, speeding up data transfer and freeing up CPU resources.

Instructor: Syed Faisal Ali SPRING 2025

4. System Buses:
The bus is a communication pathway that connects the different components of the system (CPU,
memory, I/O devices). It facilitates data transfer between components and is typically divided into three
types:
Data Bus: Transfers actual data between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
Address Bus: Carries memory addresses to identify the location in memory where data should be read
from or written to.
Control Bus: Carries control signals that coordinate and manage the operations of the CPU, memory, and
I/O devices. The width of the buses (i.e., the number of bits they can carry at once) directly impacts the
performance of the system.

5. Instruction Set Architecture (ISA):

The ISA defines the set of instructions the CPU can understand and execute. It serves as the interface
between hardware and software, telling the processor what operations to perform. There are two primary
types of ISAs:
Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC): A CPU design that allows for a wide range of instructions,
some of which can perform complex tasks in a single instruction (e.g., x86 architecture).
Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC): A CPU design that uses a smaller set of simpler
instructions, each typically executed in a single clock cycle (e.g., ARM, MIPS architecture).
The ISA also defines addressing modes (how memory addresses are computed) and the format of data
being processed.

6. Bus Architecture:
The bus architecture defines how the system components communicate with each other. It is designed to
transmit signals and data between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices. Some key aspects include:
Bus Width: Refers to the number of bits that can be transmitted simultaneously.
Bus Speed: Determines how quickly data can be transferred along the bus.
Bus Protocol: Defines the set of rules for how data is transferred and how components will communicate
with one another.

7. Computer Architecture Models:

Von Neumann Architecture:
This is the traditional architecture where a single memory stores both data and instructions. The CPU
fetches instructions and data from the same memory and processes them sequentially.
Limitations: A bottleneck occurs because both instructions and data share the same bus.
Harvard Architecture:
In this architecture, instructions and data are stored in separate memory spaces, with separate buses for
each. This allows for faster execution, as data and instructions can be fetched simultaneously.
Used in embedded systems, microcontrollers, and digital signal processors (DSPs).
Modified Harvard Architecture:
A hybrid model that combines elements of both Von Neumann and Harvard architectures, where separate
caches for instructions and data are used, but a single memory is used for both data and instructions.

8. Multiprocessor Systems:
Multiprocessor systems use multiple processors to improve performance by executing tasks in parallel.
These systems can be categorized into:
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Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP): All processors share a common memory and can access any part of
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it. This type of architecture is used in many servers and workstations.

Instructor: Syed Faisal Ali SPRING 2025

Massively Parallel Processing (MPP): A system that uses a large number of processors to handle
complex computations. Each processor has its own memory, and they work together to solve large
problems.

9. System-Level Design Considerations: The architecture also defines how the computer system
interacts with other systems, particularly in distributed systems:
Distributed Systems: A network of interconnected computers that share resources, allowing for
collaborative problem-solving. Examples include cloud computing platforms and data centers.
Embedded Systems: Special-purpose systems designed to perform specific tasks, such as automotive
control units or medical devices.

1.4 Operating-System Operations

This refer to the various tasks and responsibilities an operating system (OS) performs to manage hardware
resources, provide services to applications, and ensure the smooth operation of the computer system. The
OS acts as an intermediary between the hardware and the software applications, handling tasks like
process management, memory management, I/O management, and security.

Key Operating-System Operations:

Operating systems perform a wide variety of essential operations to manage resources and ensure the
smooth functioning of the system. These include:

Process Management: Creating, scheduling, and terminating processes.

Memory Management: Allocating, protecting, and managing memory resources.
File System Management: Organizing and securing files.
I/O Management: Handling interactions with input/output devices.
Security and Access Control: Ensuring the integrity and confidentiality of the system.
Networking: Managing communication over networks.
Performance Monitoring: Optimizing system performance.
Error Detection and Handling: Managing system errors and recovery.
System Booting: Initializing the system after startup.

1.5 Resource Management

In an operating system refers to the efficient allocation, monitoring, and control of a computer's physical
and virtual resources, such as the CPU, memory, storage, and I/O devices. The operating system (OS) acts
as the intermediary between the hardware and the software, ensuring that resources are distributed
effectively and fairly among all running processes and users. It helps to avoid resource conflicts,
minimize waste, and maintain system stability and performance.
Resource Management is a critical role of an operating system, ensuring that all hardware and software
resources are allocated efficiently, securely, and fairly. The OS manages CPU scheduling, memory
allocation, file system operations, I/O devices, and networking, among others, to ensure that the system
runs smoothly and that multiple applications and users can share resources without conflict. Effective
resource management helps maximize system performance, maintain stability, and ensure the smooth
execution of tasks.
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1.6 Security and Protection
In an operating system (OS) refer to the measures and mechanisms employed to safeguard the system and
its resources (such as files, processes, memory, and hardware) from unauthorized access, malicious
attacks, and accidental misuse. These measures are crucial to maintaining the integrity, confidentiality,
and availability of both system data and user data. Security and protection mechanisms are often
interrelated but distinct: security focuses on preventing unauthorized access, while protection focuses on
ensuring that legitimate users and processes operate safely without interfering with one another.
Security and Protection are essential components of modern operating systems, ensuring that resources
are used safely and that data and processes are kept secure from malicious attacks, unauthorized access,
and system faults. While security mechanisms (such as authentication, encryption, and firewalls) prevent
unauthorized access and protect against threats, protection mechanisms (such as process isolation,
memory protection, and resource management) ensure the system remains stable, robust, and capable of
handling multiple users and processes without compromising system integrity. Together, they enable the
safe and efficient operation of computer systems.
1.7 Virtualization
Virtualization is the creation of a virtual (rather than physical) version of something, such as a server,
storage device, network, or even an entire operating system. In computing, virtualization allows a single
physical resource to be divided into multiple virtual resources, enabling more efficient use of hardware
and greater flexibility in how resources are managed and allocated.
At its core, virtualization is the abstraction of hardware, which allows multiple virtual systems (or virtual
machines, VMs) to run on a single physical machine. This enables users to run different operating
systems and applications simultaneously on the same hardware.
Types of Virtualization
There are several types of virtualization, each providing specific capabilities to different aspects of the
system. The main types of virtualization are:
Hardware Virtualization (Full Virtualization)
Full Virtualization enables the creation of virtual machines that mimic physical machines and can run any
operating system, including guest OSes, without modification.
Hypervisor (Virtual Machine Monitor): A software layer that sits between the hardware and the
operating system, managing the creation and execution of VMs. It is responsible for allocating resources
(such as CPU, memory, and storage) to each VM.
Type 1 Hypervisor (Bare-metal Hypervisor): Runs directly on the physical hardware, managing VMs.
Examples include VMware ESXi, Microsoft Hyper-V, and Xen.
Type 2 Hypervisor (Hosted Hypervisor): Runs on top of a host operating system. Examples include
VMware Workstation and Oracle VirtualBox.
Operating System Virtualization (Containerization)
Instead of running entire virtual machines, OS-level virtualization creates isolated environments
(containers) within a single OS. These containers share the host system’s OS kernel but are isolated from
each other and the host.
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Containers are much more lightweight compared to VMs because they don’t require a full OS per
instance. Instead, they run applications with all their dependencies in isolated environments.
Popular containerization platforms include Docker and Kubernetes, which are widely used for deploying
applications in cloud environments.
Storage Virtualization
Storage Virtualization abstracts storage resources so that they appear as a single, unified storage pool. It
allows administrators to manage storage more efficiently and allocate resources dynamically to different
applications or users.
Examples include Storage Area Networks (SANs), network-attached storage (NAS), and software-defined
storage (SDS) systems.
Network Virtualization
Network Virtualization creates a virtualized version of physical networks, allowing the creation of
isolated networks within a physical network. It provides flexibility, scalability, and security by
decoupling the physical network from the virtual network.
Technologies such as Software-Defined Networking (SDN) and Network Function Virtualization (NFV)
allow for the dynamic and flexible management of network resources.
1.8 Distributed Systems

A distributed system is a collection of independent computers that appear to the user as a single unified
system. These systems work together to achieve a common goal, share resources, and provide services to
users. They typically rely on network communication and synchronization techniques to coordinate
actions between nodes (individual machines or devices).

Distributed systems are the backbone of many modern technologies, such as cloud computing, content
delivery networks (CDNs), and large-scale enterprise applications. They provide several advantages, such
as scalability, fault tolerance, and resource sharing, but also pose challenges in terms of coordination,
security, and consistency.
Examples of Distributed Systems
Cloud Computing Platforms: Services like Amazon Web Services (AWS), Google Cloud, and
Microsoft Azure are examples of distributed systems that provide scalable resources (compute, storage,
networking) to users.
Content Delivery Networks (CDNs): CDNs like Akamai and Cloudflare are distributed systems
designed to deliver web content (e.g., images, videos) to users quickly and efficiently by distributing data
across geographically dispersed servers.
Blockchain Networks: Blockchain systems like Bitcoin and Ethereum are decentralized distributed
systems that use cryptography and consensus algorithms to ensure data integrity and security across all
participants.
Distributed Databases: Google Spanner, Cassandra, and MongoDB are examples of distributed
databases designed to manage large-scale data across multiple servers, ensuring consistency, availability,
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and fault tolerance.

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1.9 Kernel Data Structures
In an operating system (OS), the kernel is the core component that interacts directly with hardware,
manages resources, and provides essential services for applications and system software. Kernel data
structures are critical to how the kernel stores and organizes data to efficiently manage system resources
such as memory, processes, devices, and files.

These data structures are fundamental for tasks like scheduling, memory management, inter-process
communication (IPC), and file system management. They help the kernel perform operations efficiently
while ensuring stability, performance, and security of the operating system.

Most Important Kernel Data Structures:

1. Process Control Block (PCB)

Purpose: The Process Control Block (PCB) stores information about a process, which is essential for
process scheduling and management. Each running process in the system has its own PCB.

Key Fields:

Process ID (PID): A unique identifier for the process.

State: The current state of the process (e.g., running, ready, waiting, etc.).
Program Counter (PC): A pointer to the next instruction to be executed for the process.
CPU Registers: Stores the values of the CPU registers for the process when it's not executing.
Memory Management Information: Contains information about the process's memory allocation (e.g.,
base and limit registers).
Scheduling Information: Includes priority, scheduling algorithm data, and other scheduling-related
information.
File Descriptors: References to the open files associated with the process.

2. Process Table
Purpose: The process table is an array or list of PCBs that the operating system maintains to track all
active processes in the system. It’s used by the kernel to keep track of each running or ready process.
Structure:
The process table is typically an array of PCBs, each entry corresponding to one active process in the
system.

The process table is typically indexed by process ID (PID), and a lookup allows the kernel to retrieve the
PCB of a specific process quickly.

3. Ready Queue
Purpose: The ready queue is a data structure that holds processes that are in the ready state, meaning they
are ready to be executed but are waiting for the CPU to become available.
Structure:
Typically implemented as a queue or priority queue (if processes have priorities), where the order of the
processes in the queue is managed based on scheduling algorithms like First-Come-First-Serve (FCFS),
Round Robin, or Priority Scheduling.
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In preemptive systems, processes in the ready queue are dispatched based on their priority or arrival time.

Instructor: Syed Faisal Ali SPRING 2025

4. Wait Queue
Purpose: The wait queue holds processes that are in a waiting state (blocked), typically because they are
waiting for a resource or event to occur (e.g., waiting for I/O completion or a signal from another
process).
Structure:
Wait queues are often implemented as linked lists or queues, where processes are added when they enter
the waiting state and removed when the resource they were waiting for becomes available.
Each wait queue corresponds to a particular event or resource, such as a specific semaphore or I/O
operation.

5. Memory Management Data Structures

5.1 Page Table
Purpose: The page table is used for virtual memory management. It maps virtual addresses to physical
addresses during process execution.
Structure:
Each entry in a page table corresponds to a page in the virtual address space of a process and maps it to a
corresponding frame in the physical memory.
Page Table Entries (PTE) contain information about each page, such as the physical address, permissions
(read/write/execute), and status (valid/invalid).

5.2 Segment Table

Purpose: In systems using segmentation, the segment table holds information about the segments of a
process (e.g., code, data, stack).
Structure:
Each entry in the segment table represents a segment and contains information about its base (starting
address) and length (size).
Segment tables help in managing and protecting the various regions of memory.

5.3 Free Frame List

Purpose: The free frame list tracks the available physical memory frames (or pages) that are not currently
in use by any process.
Structure:
It is usually implemented as a linked list or a bitmap, where each entry corresponds to a physical memory
frame that can be allocated to a process.

6. File System Data Structures

6.1 Inode Table
Purpose: An inode is a data structure used by many file systems to store metadata about a file (such as file
size, owner, permissions, and pointers to data blocks on disk).
Structure:
The inode table is an array of inodes where each inode corresponds to a file or directory in the system.

Each inode contains:

File type (regular file, directory, symlink, etc.)
Ownership (user and group ID)
Permissions (read, write, execute)
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Timestamps (creation, modification, access times)

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Pointers to data blocks (addresses of disk blocks where the file data is stored)

Instructor: Syed Faisal Ali SPRING 2025

6.2 File Control Block (FCB)
Purpose: The File Control Block (FCB) is used by the kernel to manage file operations. It stores
information related to file descriptors and open files.
Structure:
Contains pointers to the file's inode and the current position within the file (for read/write operations).
Maintains flags and attributes for the open file (e.g., whether it's read-only or writable).

7. Semaphore and Mutex Structures

Purpose: Semaphores and mutexes are synchronization primitives used to manage access to shared
resources in concurrent systems and prevent race conditions.
Structure:
Semaphore: A semaphore is usually an integer that is used to signal when a process can enter or exit a
critical section.
Mutex: A mutex (short for mutual exclusion) is a type of semaphore used to enforce exclusive access to a
shared resource, ensuring that only one process at a time can access that resource.
Data: The kernel keeps track of the state of each semaphore or mutex in a semaphore table or mutex
structure, which includes information like the current count (for semaphores) and a list of processes that
are waiting to acquire the lock.

8. Interrupt Descriptor Table (IDT)

Purpose: The Interrupt Descriptor Table (IDT) stores pointers to interrupt service routines (ISRs) for
different interrupt types. It enables the operating system to respond to hardware interrupts and exceptions.
Structure:
The IDT is an array where each entry corresponds to an interrupt vector and contains a pointer to the ISR
for that interrupt.
The table is used by the processor to quickly jump to the appropriate ISR when an interrupt is triggered.

9. Network Buffers (Packet Buffers)

Purpose: In networking subsystems, network buffers store incoming and outgoing network packets
temporarily as they are processed by the OS.
Structure:
These buffers are typically implemented as queues or linked lists where each entry corresponds to a
packet that needs to be transmitted or processed.
Buffers are managed efficiently to avoid congestion and ensure that packets are processed in the right
order.

10. Shared Memory Segments

Purpose: Shared memory allows processes to communicate by reading and writing to a common memory
space. Shared memory segments are areas of memory that multiple processes can access concurrently.
Structure:
Shared memory segments are tracked by the kernel, and the kernel manages access rights to ensure that
processes do not interfere with each other.
Each segment is associated with metadata that specifies its size, location, and which processes have
access to it.
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1.10 Computing Environments
A computing environment refers to the hardware, software, and network resources that are available to
users and applications. It provides the necessary infrastructure to support the execution of programs,
manage resources, and enable interactions between users and systems. Different types of computing
environments are tailored to specific needs, ranging from individual personal computing systems to large-
scale distributed systems that serve millions of users.

1. Personal Computing Environment

This is the environment where an individual uses a computer to perform everyday tasks. It usually
consists of a desktop or laptop computer with a standard operating system, such as Windows, macOS, or
Linux.

2. Client-Server Environment
This computing environment is built around a model where one or more client machines request services
or resources from a central server. The server provides resources like storage, databases, and processing
power, while clients interact with the server through a network.

3. Cloud Computing Environment

In a cloud computing environment, users access computing resources (such as processing power, storage,
and applications) over the internet, often hosted by cloud service providers like Amazon Web Services
(AWS), Microsoft Azure, or Google Cloud. The resources are hosted on virtual machines (VMs) and can
be dynamically scaled based on demand.

4. Grid Computing Environment

Grid computing involves connecting multiple distributed computers to work together as a cohesive
system to solve large-scale problems. It is often used for high-performance computing tasks that require
significant processing power and storage, such as scientific simulations, research, and data analysis.

5. Cluster Computing Environment

Cluster computing involves a group of interconnected computers, or nodes, that work together to perform
computing tasks. The cluster acts as a single entity, with the combined power of its nodes being used to
perform high-performance computing tasks or handle heavy workloads.

6. Virtualization Environment
Virtualization is the creation of virtual versions of physical computing resources, including virtual
machines (VMs), storage, and networks. It allows multiple virtual instances to run on a single physical
machine, maximizing resource usage.

7. Embedded Systems
Embedded systems are specialized computing environments designed to perform specific tasks within a
larger system, often with real-time requirements. These systems are typically resource-constrained, and
their software is tightly integrated with the hardware.
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8. Mainframe Computing Environment

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A mainframe computing environment uses powerful computers known as mainframes that provide
centralized computing resources for large-scale organizations. These systems are designed to handle
massive amounts of data and support many concurrent users or transactions.

9. Supercomputing Environment
A supercomputer is a specialized high-performance computing system designed to solve complex
computational problems at extremely high speeds. Supercomputing environments are often used in
scientific research, simulations, and other resource-intensive applications.

1.11 Free and Open-Source Operating Systems

Benefits of Free and Open-Source Operating Systems (FOSS)

Cost-Effective: FOSS operating systems are typically free to download, use, and distribute, making them
a cost-effective solution for both personal and commercial environments.
Customization: Users can modify the source code and tailor the system to meet specific needs.
Community Support: FOSS operating systems benefit from active, global communities that contribute
to documentation, troubleshooting, and software development.
Security and Transparency: Open-source code can be audited for security flaws by anyone, increasing
the overall security and transparency of the system.
No Vendor Lock-in: FOSS systems are not tied to specific vendors, providing flexibility and control to
users.

Few of the Operating System with Their Key Features

Operating System Type Key Features

Windows Proprietary - User-friendly GUI (Graphical User Interface)
- Wide software compatibility (third-party apps, games, etc.)
- Extensive hardware support
- Integrated with Microsoft Office and other Microsoft
services
- Regular updates, patches, and security features
macOS Proprietary - Sleek and intuitive GUI
- Seamless integration with Apple hardware (Mac computers,
iPhones, etc.)
- Unix-based, making it stable and secure
- Built-in software like Safari, Finder, and Time Machine for
backup
- Highly optimized for creative professionals (video editing,
graphic design, etc.)
Linux Open-source - Highly customizable, with various distributions (e.g.,
Ubuntu, Fedora, Arch, etc.)
- Open-source and free to use
- Strong community support and vast repositories of open-
source software
- Excellent for servers, cloud environments, and development
- Highly secure and stable
Ubuntu Open-source - User-friendly Linux distribution, ideal for beginners
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- Large community and extensive documentation

- Regular updates and Long-Term Support (LTS) versions
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 - Pre-installed software for everyday use (browser, office
suite, etc.)
- Extensive support for servers, cloud computing, and IoT
Debian Open-source - Stable and reliable, often used as the base for other distros
(e.g., Ubuntu)
- Extensive package management system (APT)
- Strong security features
- Ideal for servers and enterprise use
FreeBSD Open-source - Unix-like OS known for its performance, scalability, and
advanced networking
- Extensive security features
- ZFS filesystem support
- Strong performance for web hosting, file storage, and
networking applications
OpenBSD Open-source - Focus on security and code correctness
- Regular security audits of its codebase
- Includes many security features by default (e.g., OpenSSH,
PF firewall)
- Minimalistic and simple design
Android Open-source - Based on the Linux kernel, designed primarily for mobile
devices (smartphones, tablets)
- Customizable interface and vast app ecosystem
- Regular updates for security and new features
- Supports millions of apps from Google Play Store
iOS Proprietary - Optimized for Apple mobile devices (iPhone, iPad, iPod)
- Seamless integration with other Apple devices and services
- Strong security and privacy features
- Extensive app ecosystem via the Apple App Store
Chrome OS Proprietary - Lightweight, cloud-based operating system primarily for
Chromebooks
- Focus on web applications, uses Google Chrome as the
primary interface
- Tight integration with Google services (Drive, Docs, Gmail,
etc.)
- Frequent updates and security patches
ReactOS Open-source - Open-source operating system aimed to be compatible with
Windows applications and drivers
- Provides an alternative to Windows with a similar user
interface
- Still under development, not as mature as other OS options
BSD Open-source - Unix-like OS based on the BSD (Berkeley Software
Distribution) family of operating systems
- Known for its reliability, security, and performance
- Ideal for servers, networking applications, and embedded
systems
Solaris Proprietary - Originally developed by Sun Microsystems, now owned by
Oracle
- Strong performance in large-scale enterprise and cloud
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environments
- ZFS support and high scalability
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Tails Open-source - Focus on privacy and security, often used for anonymous
browsing and protecting against surveillance
- Runs from a USB stick or DVD, leaving no trace on the
machine
- Based on Debian, includes privacy tools like Tor browser
and encryption software
Mint Open-source - Based on Ubuntu/Debian, designed to be easy to use and
provide a familiar desktop experience
- Customizable desktop environment (Cinnamon, MATE,
XFCE)
- Out-of-the-box support for media codecs, Flash, and
proprietary drivers
CentOS Open-source - Enterprise-class, community-supported distribution based
on Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL)
- Ideal for servers and production environments
- Regular updates and security patches
- No commercial support (but RHEL-based)
Raspberry Pi OS Open-source - Operating system designed for the Raspberry Pi single-
board computer
- Based on Debian, with a lightweight interface optimized for
the Pi’s limited resources
- Supports GPIO pins for hardware projects and IoT
applications
Haiku Open-source - Open-source operating system inspired by BeOS, with a
focus on simplicity and efficiency
- Lightweight and fast, designed for personal computing
- Unique approach to OS design, with a modular and object-
oriented architecture

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Instructor: Syed Faisal Ali SPRING 2025