Rashid Latif Khan University (RLKU)

Lecture 2: C Fundamentals
Muhammad Yousaf Lecture of CS (RLKU)
[email protected]

Muhammad Yousaf Lecturer of Computer Science (RLKU)

Computer Architecture

• Computer architecture is the blueprint that defines how a computer

system's components are organized and interact with each other. It's
like the underlying framework that determines a computer's
performance, efficiency, and capabilities
COMUTER ARCHITECTURE
❖ Von Neumann Architecture

❖ Harvard Architecture

❖ RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)

❖ CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer)

❖ Massively Parallel Architectures (e.g., GPUs)

❖ Quantum Computing Architectures

1. Von Neumann Architecture

• The most widely used architecture, it features a shared memory unit

for both instructions and data. This means that the CPU fetches both
instructions and data from the same memory location. which can lead
to bottlenecks, particularly during complex tasks.
Von Neumann Architecture

Advantages:
1. Simpler design due to shared memory for instructions and data.
2. Lower cost to implement, as only one memory system is needed.
3. Easy to program and widely supported by compilers and operating
systems.
4. Flexibility to modify code and data at runtime.
Disadvantages:

1. Von Neumann Bottleneck: CPU and memory share the same data
bus, limiting the speed of data transfer.
2. Slower execution due to sequential instruction and data fetching.
3. Vulnerable to security risks like code injection, since instructions and
data share the same memory.
Harvard Architecture

• This architecture uses separate memory units for instructions and

data, allowing for simultaneous access to both. This can significantly
improve performance, especially in systems that need to process
large amounts of data.
Harvard Architecture
• Advantages:
1. Separate memory for instructions and data enables simultaneous access,
improving performance.
2. Reduced risk of accidental overwriting of instructions.
3. Optimized for specific tasks, especially in embedded systems.
• Disadvantages:
1. More complex hardware design
due to dual memory systems.
1. Higher implementation cost
compared to Von Neumann.
Introduction to Computer Architecture
• Definition:
Computer architecture is the design and structure of a computer
system. It defines how the computer’s components are organized and
how they work together to perform tasks.
Computer Architecture
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• Definition: The CPU is the primary component of a computer

responsible for executing instructions. It interprets and performs
basic operations such as arithmetic, logic, control, and input/output
functions. It is often referred to as the "brain" of the computer.
Control Unit (CU)

• Definition: The Control Unit (CU) is a part of the CPU that manages
and coordinates the execution of instructions. It directs the operation
of the processor by interpreting the instructions from the memory
and sending control signals to other parts of the system (e.g., ALU,
memory, I/O devices). It does not execute the operations itself, but it
ensures everything is done in the correct sequence.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

• Definition: The ALU is a part of the CPU responsible for performing

arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and logical
operations (AND, OR, NOT, XOR). It operates on data provided by the
registers and produces results that are either stored in registers or
used for further computations.
Register

• Definition: A register is a small, high-speed storage location within

the CPU. It temporarily holds data, instructions, or addresses that are
needed by the CPU for immediate processing. Registers are essential
for the efficient operation of the CPU and are used to store
intermediate results, flags, or counters during program execution.
Fetch Execute Cycle
• The fetch execute cycle is the basic operation (instruction) cycle of a
computer (also known as the fetch decode execute cycle).
• During the fetch execute cycle, the computer retrieves a program
instruction from its memory. It then establishes and carries out the
actions that are required for that instruction.
• The cycle of fetching, decoding, and executing an instruction is
continually repeated by the CPU whilst the computer is turned on.
Random Access Memory (RAM)

• Definition: RAM is a type of volatile memory used by the computer to

store data and instructions that are actively being used or processed
by the CPU. It allows both read and write operations. When the
computer is powered off, the data in RAM is lost. RAM is critical for
performance as it provides fast access to data during execution.
Read-Only Memory (ROM)

• Definition: ROM is a type of non-volatile memory that stores data

permanently. It contains critical system instructions, including the
system’s boot-up process (firmware). Unlike RAM, data in ROM
cannot be easily altered or written over. It remains intact even when
the computer is powered off.
Cache Memory

• Definition: Cache memory is a small, high-speed type of volatile

memory located close to the CPU. It stores frequently used data and
instructions to improve processing speed. When the CPU needs data,
it first checks the cache, and if the data is found (cache hit), it avoids
accessing slower RAM. Cache memory significantly speeds up
computing tasks by reducing latency.
Computer Buses

• Definition: A computer bus is a system of pathways used to connect

different components of a computer, allowing data and control
signals to be transferred between the CPU, memory, and other
peripheral devices. It serves as the communication system that allows
different parts of the computer to interact with each other. Buses can
be classified into three main types: the Control Bus, Address Bus, and
Data Bus.
Control Bus

• Definition: The Control Bus is a set of lines or pathways that carry

control signals to manage the operation of the computer system.
These control signals coordinate various operations, such as directing
the flow of data, determining when data is to be read or written, and
synchronizing different components of the system. The control bus
includes signals for read/write operations, interrupts, and other
timing or control signals
Address Bus

• Definition: The Address Bus is a set of pathways that carry the

memory addresses from the CPU to the memory or I/O devices. It
specifies the location where data is to be read from or written to. The
address bus is unidirectional, meaning data flows in one direction
(from the CPU to memory or I/O devices). The width of the address
bus (i.e., the number of lines it contains) determines the maximum
amount of memory the system can access.
Data Bus

• Definition: The Data Bus is a set of pathways that carry the actual
data between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices. It is a bidirectional
bus, meaning data can travel in both directions: from the CPU to
memory or I/O devices (write operation) and from memory or I/O
devices to the CPU (read operation). The width of the data bus (i.e.,
the number of lines it has) determines how much data can be
transferred at one time (e.g., 8-bit, 16-bit, or 32-bit).
Input/Output Unit (I/O Unit)

• Definition: The Input/Output Unit (I/O Unit) is a crucial component

of a computer system that manages the communication between the
computer and the external world, including input and output devices.
It acts as an interface for data exchange between the internal system
(like the CPU and memory) and external peripherals (such as
keyboards, monitors, printers, and storage devices). The I/O unit
handles the transfer of data to and from the CPU, converting it into a
form suitable for the device in question.
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