MODULE 4: ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

UNIT 1: STRAIGHT LINES

Learning outcomes:
At the end of the module, you should have achieved the following topic learning
outcomes:
1. Determine the equation of a straight line using the point-slope form, the slope-
intercept form, intercept form, and the normal form.
2. Determine the equations of parallel and perpendicular lines.

The Straight Line

A polynomial whose highest power is one represents a straight line. In this section, we will limit
our discussion for the straight lines in the standard form 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 = 𝐶.

Recall: Two points determine a line. This statement simply tells us that we just need two points
on the Cartesian plane to be able to draw the line.

A. Point-Slope Form: 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 )

If we are given a point on the line, say 𝑃𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 ) and the slope of the line m, we can
determine the equation of the line.

1
Example 1: Given the slope of the line is 𝑚 = and the line passes through the point
2
𝑃1 (2, −3). Determine the equation of the line.

Using the point-slope form of the line: 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 ), we substitute the slope and
the given point.
𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 )
1
𝑦 − (−3) = (𝑥 − 2)
2
2(𝑦 + 3) = (𝑥 − 2)
2(𝑦 + 3) = (𝑥 − 2)
2𝑦 + 6 = 𝑥 − 2
𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 8

Example 2: Given the slope of the line is 𝑚 = −5 and the line passes through the point
3
𝑃1 ( , 0). Determine the equation of the line.
4

Using the point-slope form of the line: 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 ), we substitute the slope and
the given point.
𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 )
3
𝑦 − 0 = −5(𝑥 − )
4
15
𝑦 = −5𝑥 +
4
15
5𝑥 + 𝑦 =
4
20𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 15

103
B. Slope Intercept Form: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
If we are given the slope (m) of the line and the y-intercept b (the point where the
line crosses the y-axis) then the equation of the line can be represented as 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 +
𝑏.

Example 1: Find the equation of the line that crosses the y-axis at (0,6) and has a slope
1
of .
3
Using the slope intercept form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, we obtain
1
𝑦 = 𝑥+6
3
3𝑦 = 𝑥 + 18
1
𝑦 = 𝑥+6
3
1
thus, 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 6 .
3

Example 2: Given the equation of the line 𝑥 − 5𝑦 − 7 =0, reduce the equation in the
slope intercept form.
Since the slope intercept form of the line is 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 then it means we need to isolate
y on one side of the equation and make its coefficient equal to 1.
𝑥 − 5𝑦 − 7 =0
5𝑦 = 𝑥 − 7
1 7
𝑦= 𝑥−
5 5
1 7
thus, 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = − .
5 5

𝑥 𝑦
C. Intercept Form: + = 1
𝑎 𝑏
If we are given the x-intercept a (the point where the line crosses the x-axis) and the
y-intercept b (the point where the line crosses the y-axis) then the equation of the line
𝑥 𝑦
can be represented as + = 1.
𝑎 𝑏

Example 1: Find the equation of the line whose x-intercept is -2 and whose y-intercept
4
is .
7
𝑥 𝑦
Using the intercept form of the line + = 1, we just substitute the value of a and b.
𝑎 𝑏
𝑥 𝑦
+ =1
−2 4
7
𝑥 7𝑦
+ =1
−2 4
2𝑥 − 7𝑦
−= 1
−4
2𝑥 − 7𝑦 = −4.

104
 Example 2: Given the equation of the line 𝑥 − 5𝑦 − 7 =0, reduce the equation in the
intercept form.

𝑥 𝑦
Since the intercept form of the line is + = 1 then it means we need to isolate the
𝑎 𝑏
constant on one side of the equation and make it equal to 1.
𝑥 − 5𝑦 − 7 =0
𝑥 − 5𝑦 = 7
𝑥 5𝑦
− =1
7 7

𝑥 𝑦
− =1
7 7
5
7
Thus, 𝑎 = 7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = −
5

D. Parallel Lines and Perpendicular Lines

Lines are said to be parallel when they are coplanar and they will not cross each other
even when extended indefinitely to both directions. On the other hand,
perpendicular lines are lines that create a 90 degree angle in their point of
intersection.

It must also be noted that parallel lines have EQUAL slopes while for perpendicular
lines, the slope of one line is the negative reciprocal of the slope of the other line.

Example 1: Reduce each equation to the slope intercept form of the line and interpret
the result.
line 1: 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5
line 2: 4𝑥 = 6𝑦 − 1

Reducing line 1: 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5 to its slope intercept form

3𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 5
2 5 2 5
𝑦 = 𝑥 − , thus slope of line 1 is and 𝑏 = − .
3 3 3 3
Reducing line 2: 4𝑥 = 6𝑦 − 1 to its slope intercept form
6𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 1
2 1 2 1
𝑦 = 𝑥 + , thus slope of line 2 is and 𝑏 = .
3 6 3 6
Since the slopes of the two lines are equal then the two lines must be parallel with
each other.

Example 2: Reduce each equation to the slope intercept form of the line and interpret
the result.
line 1: 𝑥 − 7𝑦 = 3
line 2: 7𝑥 = −𝑦 − 2

105
 Reducing line 1: 𝑥 − 7𝑦 = 3 to its slope intercept form
7𝑦 = 𝑥 − 3
1 3 1 3
𝑦 = 𝑥 − , thus slope of line 1 is and 𝑏 = − .
7 7 7 7
Reducing line 2: 7𝑥 = −𝑦 − 2 to its slope intercept form
𝑦 = −7𝑥 − 2, thus slope of line 2 is -7 and 𝑏 = −2.

Since the slope of line 1 is the negative reciprocal of the slope of line 2 then the two
lines must be perpendicular with each other.

E. Normal Form of the Straight Line

When we talk about the normal form of the straight line, we desire to write the
equation of the line in such a way that we determine the perpendicular distance of
the line from the origin and we denote that distance as p. In our discussion, p may
have a positive or negative value. The sign of p only indicates the location of the line
based from the origin. If the sign of p is positive, then the line must be located above
the origin. On the other hand, if it is negative then the line must be located below the
origin.

To reduce the equation of the line 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 = 𝐶 to its normal form, we simply multiply
1
both sides of the equation by ± . This will result to the equation
√𝐴2 +𝐵2
𝐴𝑥 𝐵 𝐶 1
+ = For the multiplier ± , we follow the sign of 𝐵 from 𝐴𝑥 +
±√𝐴2 +𝐵2 ±√𝐴2 +𝐵2 ±√𝐴2 +𝐵2 . √𝐴2 +𝐵2
𝐵𝑦 = 𝐶.

𝐶
The constant is the value of p or the perpendicular distance of the line from
±√𝐴2 +𝐵2
the origin. On the other hand, if we are interested with the perpendicular distance of
any point to the line, the distance is given by

𝐴𝑥1 +𝐵𝑦1 +𝐶
𝑑= | | where (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) denotes the coordinates of the given point.
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2

Example 1: Determine the distance of the line 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5 from the origin.

From the equation, we have 𝐴 = 2, 𝐵 = −3, 𝐶 = 5

1 1 1
Thus our multiplier must be ± 2 2 = − 2 2
=− since 𝐵 is negative.
√𝐴 +𝐵 √2 +(−3) √13

1
(2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5)( − )
√13
2𝑥 −3𝑦 5
+ =
−√13 −√13 −√13
2𝑥 3𝑦 5
+ =
−√13 √13 −√13

106
 5
Therefore p = . This means that the line 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5 is at a perpendicular distance
−√13
5
of below the origin. See illustration below:
√13

Example 2: Find the equation of the line parallel to 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 1 such that it is:
a. Having a distance of 4 from the origin.
b. Having a distance of 5 from the given line.

First let us reduce the equation of the given to its normal form.

From 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 1, 𝐴 = 3, 𝐵 = 4, 𝐶 = 1
1 1 1
Thus our multiplier must be ± 2 2 = 2 2 = since 𝐵 is positive.
√𝐴 +𝐵 √3 +4 5
1
(3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 1)( )
5
3𝑥 4𝑦 1
+ =
5 5 5

1 1
Therefore p = . This means that the line is at a perpendicular distance of above the
5 5
origin.

107
 NOTE: If lines are parallel, aside from the fact that their slopes are equal, their
terms involving the variable x & y have exactly the same coefficients respectively. This
is true for their standard forms or from their normal forms.

If lines are perpendicular, the terms involving x and y will have their coefficients
interchanged and with the sign of y in one equation will be the opposite sign of y from
the other equation.

a. Since we are considering a line parallel to the given line whose distance
from the origin is 4, this means that we can use the normal of the given line
as the basis for the normal form of the required line.
The normal form of the required line will be
3𝑥 4𝑦
+ = ±4 because the line may be located above or below the origin
5 5
and having distance 4 from the origin.

Thus the required line will have its standard form as:
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = ±20. See illustration below.

108
b. The required line is still parallel to the given line thus the normal form of the
required line will be
3𝑥 4𝑦 1
+ = ± 5.
5 5 5
1
Why is the constant in the right side equal to ± 5?
5
1
Remember that is the distance of the given line from the origin. Thus if we
5
now take the required line to be 5 units farther from the given line, we add
5 and if we take the required line 5 units below the given line then we
subtract 5.

Simplifying the normal form of the required line to its standard form, we get
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 1 ± 25. This was obtained by simply clearing off the fractions of the
normal form. See illustration below.

109
UNIT 2: THE CONIC SECTION

Learning outcomes:
At the end of the module, you should have achieved the following topic learning
outcomes:
1. Identify a conic from a given equation.
2. Reduce the general form of a conic to a standard form.
3. List down the essential parts of a circle and graph the circle.
4. List down the essential parts of a parabola and graph the parabola.
5. List down the essential parts of an ellipse and graph the ellipse.
6. List down the essential parts of a hyperbola and graph the hyperbola.

THE CONIC SECTION

In mathematics, a conic section (or simply conic) is a curve obtained as the

intersection of the surface of a cone with a plane. The three types of conic section are
the parabola, ellipse, and the hyperbola. The circle is a special case of the ellipse, though
historically it was sometimes called a fourth type. In our discussion, we shall include the
circle in the CONIC SECTION. The diagram below shows how the four types were
obtained from a cone.

The equation of each Conic shall be obtained from the equation:

𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0

110
A. THE CIRCLE
The circle is defined is as the path (or Locus) of a moving point that has a CONSTANT
distance called the RADIUS from a fixed point called the CENTER.
The circle has the equation 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 where
𝐴 = 𝐶 & 𝐵 = 0 or we can write it as 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0
In words, the equation of a circle has two squared terms with equal coefficients and
the term xy is missing.

Examples:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = −4
5𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 1 = −5𝑦 2

NOTE: 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 is called the GENERAL Form of the Circle and

(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 is called the STANDARD Form of the Circle.
In the Standard Form, (h, k) will be the coordinates of the CENTER while r is the length
of the Radius. Clearly, if we have the Standard Form of the circle, it will be very easy
to draw the circle on the Cartesian plane.

Our goal now is to rewrite or reduce the equation of the circle from its Standard form
to its General form. The following steps will help us achieve our goal:

Step 1: Isolate the constant on one side of the equation.

Step 2: Make the coefficient of 𝑥 2 & 𝑦 2 be equal to 1 by dividing both sides of the
equation by the coefficient of 𝑥 2 & 𝑦 2 .
Step 3: By the process of completing the squares, make the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 & 𝑦 2 , 𝑦
be perfect square trinomials. This is done by ADDING the square of the half of the
coefficient of 𝑥 &, 𝑦 respectively to the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 & 𝑦 2 , 𝑦. To retain equality,
make sure you also add whatever value added on one side of the equation to the
other side of the equation.
Step 4: Factor the perfect square trinomials obtained in step 3 and simplify also the
constants on the other side of the equation.
Step 5: Identify the location of the center and the length of the radius

Example 1: Graph the circle with the equation:

𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 − 8𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 4 = 0

Step 1: 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥+𝑦 2 + 4𝑦 = −4
Step 2: we can skip this since the coefficient of 𝑥 2 & 𝑦 2 are both equal to 1.
Step 3: 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥+42 +𝑦 2 + 4𝑦+22 = −4+42 +22
Step 4: (𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 = 16
Or (𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 = 42
Step 5: C(4, -2) and radius r=4.

111
 Example 2: Graph the circle with the equation:
2𝑥 2 +2𝑦 2 + 12𝑥 + 12𝑦 − 36 = 0

Step 1: 2𝑥 2 + 12𝑥+2𝑦 2 + 12𝑦 = 36

Step 2: 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥+𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 = 18
Step 3: 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥+32 +𝑦 2 + 6𝑦+32 = 18+32 +32
Step 4: (𝑥 + 3)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2 = 36
Or (𝑥 + 3)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2 = 62
Step 5: C(-3, -3) and radius r=6.

112
EXERCISES:

Graph the following circles.

1. 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 10 = 0
(ANS. C(-4, 1), 𝑟 = 3√3 )
2. 3𝑥 2 +3𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 + 15𝑦 − 1 = 0
(ANS. C(-1, -5/2), 𝑟 2 = 91/12 )

B. THE PARABOLA
The parabola is defined as the path (or Locus) of a moving point that is EQUIDISTANT
from a FIXED POINT called the FOCUS and from a FIXED LINE called the DIRECTRIX. The
ratio of the distance of any point on the parabola from the focus and from the
directrix is called the ECCENTRICITY. For the parabola, the eccentricity is always equal
to 1.

The parabola has the equation 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 where 𝐵 = 0 and

either 𝐶 = 0 or 𝐴 = 0. Thus, we can write it as
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0
or
𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0

In words, the equation of a parabola has ONE squared term and the term xy is missing.

Examples:
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 3
5𝑦 2 + 7𝑥 + 1 = 0

113
NOTE:
GENERAL Forms of the Parabola:
a. 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0; if the axis is parallel to the 𝑦-axis
b. 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0; if the axis is parallel to the x-axis

STANDARD Forms of the Parabola:

a. (𝑥 − ℎ)2 = 4𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑘) with vertex at (h, k) and opening UPWARD

b. (𝑥 − ℎ)2 = −4𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑘) with vertex at (h, k) and opening DOWNWARD
c. (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 4𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ) with vertex at (h, k) and opening to the RIGHT
d. (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = −4𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ) with vertex at (h, k) and opening to the LEFT

The following parts are needed in graphing a parabola:

1. The vertex (V) which can be obtained from the standard form.
2. The Focus (F) which has a distance a from the vertex. The line joining the vertex
and focus (called the AXIS OF SYMMETRY) is perpendicular to the Directrix. The
Directrix is always located opposite the opening of the parabola.
3. The Latus Rectum is a line segment of length 4a. It is a line segment perpendicular
to the axis of symmetry and passing thru the Focus.
4. The Directrix has a distance a from the vertex.

Our goal now is to rewrite or reduce the equation of the parabola from its general
form to its standard form. The following steps will help us achieve our goal:

Step 1: Isolate the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 , 𝑦 on one side of the equation.

Step 2: Make the coefficient of 𝑥 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 be equal to 1 by dividing both sides of the
equation by the coefficient of 𝑥 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 .
Step 3: By the process of completing the squares, make the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 𝑜𝑟
𝑦 2 , 𝑦 be perfect square trinomials. This is done by ADDING the square of the half of the
coefficient of 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 to the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 , 𝑦. To retain equality, make sure
you also add whatever value added on one side of the equation to the other side of
the equation.
Step 4: Factor the perfect square trinomial obtained in step 3 and simplify the other
side of the equation such that the variable will have a coefficient equal to 1.
Step 5: Identify the direction of the opening of the parabola, the location of the
Vertex, Focus, ends of Latus Rectum, and equation of the Directrix.

114
Example 1: Graph the parabola with the equation:
𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 25 = 0

Step 1:𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 = 3𝑦 − 25
Step 2: Skip this since coefficient of 𝑥 2 is already equal to 1
Step 3: 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 42 = 3𝑦 − 25 + 42
Step 4: (𝑥 + 4)2 = 3𝑦 − 9
Or (𝑥 + 4)2 = 3(𝑦 − 3)
Step 5: Parabola is opening upward with V(-4, 3) and latus rectum 4a=3.

Therefore,
15
F(h, k+a) = F(-4, )=F(-4,3.75)
4
5 15
Ends of latus rectum Q(h+2a, k+a) = Q(− , ) = Q(-2.5, 3.75)
2 4
11 15
Q’(h-2a, k+a) = Q’(− , ) = Q’(-5.5, 3.75)
2 4
Equation of Directrix (DD’): y = k-a,
𝟑
y=3--
𝟒
9
y = = 2.25
4

115
Example 2: Graph the parabola with the equation:
2𝑦 2 − 20𝑦 = 8𝑥 − 74

Step 1:2𝑦 2 − 20𝑦 = 8𝑥 − 74

Step 2: 𝑦 2 − 10𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 37
Step 3: 𝑦 2 − 10𝑦 + 52 = 4𝑥 − 37 + 52
Step 4: (𝑦 − 5)2 = 4𝑥 − 12
Or (𝑦 − 5)2 = 4(𝑥 − 3)
Step 5: Parabola is opening to the right with V(3, 5) and latus rectum 4a=4.

Therefore,
F(h+a, k) = F(4,5)
Ends of latus rectum Q(h+a, k+2a)= Q(4,7), Q’(h+a, k-2a)= Q’(4,3)
Equation of Directrix (DD’): x = h-a,
x = 3-1
x=2

116
C. THE ELLIPSE
The ELLIPSE is defined is the path (or Locus) of a moving point whose eccentricity is a
constant value less than 1.

The ellipse has the equation 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 where

𝐴 ≠ 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝐼𝐾𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 0. Thus, we can write it as 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 +
𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0.

In words, the equation of an ellipse has TWO squared terms with like signs whose
coefficients are not equal and the term xy is missing.

Examples:
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 2 + 7𝑦 = 3
2𝑥 2 + 5𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 = 0

NOTE:
GENERAL Form of the Ellipse: 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0

STANDARD Forms of the Ellipse:

𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑎. + = 1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 > 𝑏 with center at (0, 0) and MAJOR axis on the x-axis.
𝑎2 𝑏2

𝑦2 𝑥2
𝑏. + = 1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 > 𝑏 with center at (0, 0) and MAJOR axis on the y-axis.
𝑎2 𝑏2

(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
c. + = 1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 > 𝑏
𝑎2 𝑏2
with center at (h, k) and MAJOR axis parallel to the x-axis.
(𝑦−𝑘)2 (𝑥−ℎ)2
d. + = 1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 > 𝑏
𝑎2 𝑏2
with center at (h, k) and MAJOR axis parallel to the y-axis.

117
The following parts are needed in graphing an ellipse:

1. The center (C) which can be obtained from the standard form.
2. The Vertices A1, A2, B1, B2 where CA1= CA2 =a and CB1= CB2 =b. A1 A2 is the MAJOR
2𝑏2
axis while B1B2 is the MINOR axis. The Latus Rectum is a line segment of length .
𝑎
It is a line segment perpendicular to the major axis and passing thru the Focus.
3. The FOCI (plural for focus) F1, F2 where CF1= CF2 =ae and ae=√𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 .
4. The ends of the Latera Recta (plural for Latus Rectum) Q 1, Q2, Q3, Q4 where
𝑏2
FQ1= FQ2 =FQ3= FQ4= .
𝑎
5. The DIRECTRICES (plural for directrix) DD’ ,D 1 D1’. The distance from center to a
𝑎
directrix is .
𝑒

Our goal now is to rewrite or reduce the equation of the ellipse from its general form
to its standard form. The following steps will help us achieve our goal:

Step 1: Isolate the constant on one side of the equation.

Step 2: Make the coefficient of 𝑥 2 & 𝑦 2 be equal to 1 by factoring out the coefficient
of 𝑥 2 from the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 and doing the same thing with the coefficient of
𝑦 2 from the terms involving 𝑦 2 , 𝑦.
Step 3: By the process of completing the squares, make the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 𝑜𝑟
𝑦 2 , 𝑦 be perfect square trinomials. This is done by ADDING the square of the half of the
coefficient of 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 to the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 , 𝑦. To retain equality, make sure
you also add whatever value added on one side of the equation to the other side of
the equation.
Step 4: Factor the perfect square trinomials obtained in step 3 and simplify the other
side of the equation.
Step 5: Make the constant on one side of the equation be equal to 1.
Step 6: Identify the location of the center of the ellipse and the direction of the major
axis. From the standard form we can identify the value of 𝑎2 & 𝑏 2 . Complete now the
details needed for the ellipse and draw the final graph.
The list should contain the following:
Center, Ends of major axis, ends of minor axis, foci, ends of latera recta, equation of
directrices.

118
Example 1: Graph the ellipse with the equation:
𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 − 4 = 0

Step 1: 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 = 4
𝑥2 𝑦2
Step 2: + =1
4 2
Step 3: We skip step 3 since the equation in step 2 is already in a standard form.
Step 4: Skip this step as well.
Step 5: Skip this step as well.
Step 6: The ellipse has center at (0,0) and major axis on Ox. 𝑎2 = 4 & 𝑏 2 = 2.

Therefore,
A1(a, 0) = A1(2, 0)
A2(-a, 0)= A2(-2, 0)
B1(0, b)= B1(0, √2)
B2(0, -b)= B2(0, -√2)
F1(ae, 0)= F1(√2, 0) since 𝑎𝑒 = √𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = √2
F2(-ae, 0) )= F2(-√2, 0)
𝑏2 𝑏2 2
Q1(ae, )= Q1(√2, 1) since = =1
𝑎 𝑎 2
𝑏 2
Q2(ae, - )= Q2(√2, -1)
𝑎
𝑏2
Q3(-ae, )= Q3(−√2, 1)
𝑎
𝑏2
Q4(-ae, - )= Q1(−√2, -1)
𝑎
𝑎
DD’: 𝑥 = = 2√2
𝑒
𝑎
D1D1’’: 𝑥 = − = −2√2
𝑒
√2
Since 𝑎𝑒 = √2 & 𝑎 = 2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑒 =
2
𝑎 2
= √2
= 2√2
𝑒
2

119
Example 2: Graph the ellipse with the equation:
4𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 − 16𝑥 − 18𝑦 + 31 = 0

Step 1: 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 − 16𝑥 − 18𝑦 = −31

Step 2: 4(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥) + 3(𝑦 2 − 6𝑦) = −31
Step 3: 4(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥+22 ) + 3(𝑦 2 − 6𝑦+32 ) = −31+4(22 ) + 3(32 )
Step 4: 4(𝑥 − 2)2 + 3(𝑦 − 3)2 = 12
(𝑥−2)2 (𝑦−3)2
Step 5: + =1
3 4
(𝑦−3)2 (𝑥−2)2
Or + =1
4 3
Step 6: The ellipse has center at (2,3) and major axis parallel to the y-axis.
𝑎2 = 4 & 𝑏 2 = 3.

Therefore,

A1(h, k+a) = A1(2, 5)

A2(h, k-a)= A2(2, 1)
B1(h+b, k)= B1(2+√3, 3)
B2(h-b, k)= B2(2-√3, 3)
F1(h, k+ae)= F1(2, 4) since 𝑎𝑒 = √𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = 1
F2(h, k-ae) = F2(2, 2)
𝑏2 7 𝑏2 3
Q1(h+ , k+ae)= Q1( , 4) since =
𝑎 2 𝑎 2
𝑏2 1
Q2(h- , k+ae)= Q2( , 4)
𝑎 2
𝑏2 7
Q3(h+ , k-ae)= Q3( , 2)
𝑎 2
𝑏2 1
Q4(h- , k-ae)= Q4( , 2)
𝑎 2
𝑎
DD’: 𝑦 = 𝑘 + = 7
𝑒
𝑎
D1’D1’’: 𝑦 = 𝑘 − = −1
𝑒
1
Since 𝑎𝑒 = 1 & 𝑎 = 2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑒 =
2
𝑎 2
= 1 =4
𝑒
2

120
D. THE HYPERBOLA
The HYPERBOLA is defined as the path (or locus) of a moving point whose eccentricity
is a constant value greater than 1.

The hyperbola has the equation 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 where

𝐴 & 𝐶 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑈𝑁𝐿𝐼𝐾𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 0. Thus, we can write it as 𝐴𝑥 2 − 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 =
0 or −𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0

In words, the equation of a hyperbola has TWO squared terms with unlike signs and
the term xy is missing.

Examples:
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 2 + 7𝑦 = 3
−2𝑥 2 + 5𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 = 0

NOTE:
GENERAL Form of the Ellipse: 𝐴𝑥 2 − 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 or −𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 +
𝐹= 0

STANDARD Forms of the Ellipse:

𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑎. − = 1 with center at (0, 0) and TRANSVERSE axis on the x-axis.
𝑎2 𝑏2

𝑦2 𝑥2
𝑏. − = 1 with center at (0, 0) and TRANSVERSE axis on the y-axis.
𝑎2 𝑏2

(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
e. − =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
with center at (h, k) and TRANSVERSE axis parallel to the x-axis.
(𝑦−𝑘)2 (𝑥−ℎ)2
f. − =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
with center at (h, k) and TRANSVERSE axis parallel to the y-axis.

The following parts are needed in graphing a hyperbola:

1. The center (C) which can be obtained from the standard form.
2. The Vertices A1, A2, and the endpoints of the conjugate axis B1, B2 where
CA1= CA2 =a and CB1= CB2 =b. A1 A2 is the TRANSVERSE axis while B1B2 is the
2𝑏2
CONJUGATE axis. The Latus Rectum is a line segment of length . It is a line
𝑎
segment perpendicular to the transverse axis and passing thru the Focus.
3. The FOCI (plural for focus) F1, F2 where CF1= CF2 =ae and ae=√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .
4. The ends of the Latera Recta (plural for Latus Rectum) Q 1, Q2, Q3, Q4 where
𝑏2
FQ1= FQ2 =FQ3= FQ4= .
𝑎
5. The DIRECTRICES (plural for directrix) DD’ ,D 1 D1’. The distance from center to a
𝑎
directrix is .
𝑒

121
 𝑏
6. The ASYMPTOTES of the hyperbola whose equations are 𝑦 − 𝑘 = ± (𝑥 − ℎ) if the
𝑎
𝑎
transverse axis is parallel to the x-axis, or 𝑦 − 𝑘 = ± (𝑥 − ℎ) if the transverse axis is
𝑏
parallel to the y-axis.

Our goal now is to rewrite or reduce the equation of the ellipse from its general form
to its standard form. The following steps will help us achieve our goal:

Step 1: Isolate the constant on one side of the equation.

Step 2: Make the coefficient of 𝑥 2 & 𝑦 2 be equal to 1 by factoring out the coefficient
of 𝑥 2 from the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 and doing the same thing with the coefficient of
𝑦 2 from the terms involving 𝑦 2 , 𝑦.
Step 3: By the process of completing the squares, make the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 𝑜𝑟
𝑦 2 , 𝑦 be perfect square trinomials. This is done by ADDING the square of the half of the
coefficient of 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 to the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 , 𝑦. To retain equality, make sure
you also add whatever value added on one side of the equation to the other side of
the equation.
Step 4: Factor the perfect square trinomials obtained in step 3 and simplify the other
side of the equation.
Step 5: Make the constant on one side of the equation be equal to 1.
Step 6: Identify the location of the center of the ellipse and the direction of the major
axis. From the standard form we can identify the value of 𝑎2 & 𝑏 2 . Complete now the
details needed for the ellipse and draw the final graph.
The list should contain the following:
Center, Ends of transverse axis, ends of conjugate axis, foci, ends of latera recta,
equation of directrices, and equation of asymptotes.

Example 1: Graph the hyperbola with the equation:

4𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 − 4 = 0

Step 1: 4𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 = 4
𝑦2 𝑥2
Step 2: − =1
1 4
Step 3: We skip step 3 since the equation in step 2 is already in a standard form.
Step 4: Skip this step as well.
Step 5: Skip this step as well.
Step 6: The hyperbola has center at (0,0) and transverse axis on Oy. 𝑎2 = 1 & 𝑏 2 = 4.

Therefore,
A1(0, a) = A1(0, 1)
A2(0, -a)= A2(0, -1)
B1(b, 0)= B1(2, 0)
B2(-b, 0)= B2(-2, 0)
F1(0, ae)= F1(0, √5) since 𝑎𝑒 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = √5
F2(0, -ae) )= F2(0, -√5)

122
 𝑏2 𝑏2 4
Q1( ,ae)= Q1(4, √5)since = =4
𝑎 𝑎 1
𝑏2
Q2(− ,ae)= Q2(-4, √5)
𝑎
𝑏2
Q3( ,-ae)= Q3(4, -√5)
𝑎
𝑏2
Q4(− ,-ae)= Q1(−4, −√5)
𝑎
𝑎 √5
DD’: 𝑦 = =
𝑒 5
𝑎 √5
D1D1’’: 𝑦 = − = −
𝑒 5
√5 𝑎 1 √5
Since 𝑎𝑒 = √5 & 𝑎 = 1 then 𝑒 = = √5 and so = = .
1 𝑒 √5 5
1
The asymptotes are 𝑦 = ± 𝑥.
2

Example 2: Graph the hyperbola with the equation:

9𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 36𝑦 − 4 = 0

Step 1: 9𝑦 2 − 36𝑦 − 4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 = 4
Step 2: 9(𝑦 2 − 4𝑥) − 4(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥) = 4
Step 3: 9(𝑦 2 − 4𝑥+22 ) − 4(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥+12 ) = 4 + 9(22 ) − 4(12 )
Step 4: 9(𝑦 − 2)2 − 4(𝑥 + 1)2 = 36
(𝑦−2)2 (𝑥+1)2
Step 5: − =1
4 9
Step 6: The hyperbola has center at (-1,2) and transverse axis parallel to the y-axis.
𝑎2 = 4 & 𝑏 2 = 9.

123
Therefore,

A1(h, k+a) = A1(-1, 4)

A2(h, k-a)= A2(-1, 0)
B1(h+b, k)= B1(2, 2)
B2(h-b, k)= B2(-4, 2)
F1(h, k+ae)= F1(-1, 2+√13 ) since 𝑎𝑒 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = √13
F2(h, k-ae) = F2(-1, 2-√13 )
𝑏2 7 𝑏2 9
Q1(h+ , k+ae)= Q1( , 2+√13 ) since =
𝑎 2 𝑎 2
𝑏2 11
Q2(h- , k+ae)= Q2(− , 2+√13 )
𝑎 2
𝑏2 7
Q3(h+ , k-ae)= Q3( , 2-√13 )
𝑎 2
𝑏2 11
Q4(h- , k-ae)= Q1(− , 2-√13 )
𝑎 2
𝑎 4√13
DD’: 𝑦 = 𝑘 + = 2 + = 3.11
𝑒 13
𝑎 4√13
D1D1’: 𝑦 = 𝑘 − = 2 − =0.89
𝑒 13
√13
Since 𝑎𝑒 = √13 & 𝑎 = 2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑒 =
2
𝑎 2 4 4√13
= √13
= =
𝑒 √13 13
2
2
The asymptotes are 𝑦 − 2 = ± (𝑥 + 1).
3

124
HOMEWORK 15:

Instructions:

A. Reduce each equation to a standard form and describe the curve completely.
If the curve is a:
CIRCLE- supply the center and radius
PARABOLA- supply the direction of the opening, vertex, focus, ends of latus rectum
ELLIPSE- supply the center and direction of major axis, vertices, foci, ends of latera
recta, directrices
HYPERBOLA- supply the center and direction of transverse axis, vertices, foci, ends
of latera recta, directrices, and asymptotes.

B. Graph each equation.

1. 2𝑦 2 + 𝑥 + 8𝑦 − 4 = 0
2. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 + 8𝑦 = −9
3. 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑦 2 − 12𝑥 + 12𝑦 = 12
4. 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 8𝑦 = −5

UNIT 3: CURVE TRACING

Learning outcomes:
At the end of the module, you should have achieved the following topic learning
outcomes:
1. Trace the curve given y = f(x).
2. Trace the curve given y2 = f(x).
3. Trace the curve given y=f(x)/g(x).
4. Trace the curve given y2=f(x)/g(x).

Curve tracing is the process of drawing a polynomial curve in a more systematic manner.
Usually, the basic of curve tracing is just by plotting as many points on the Cartesian plane
to be able to draw the graph. However, that process is tedious and if that will be the only
solution we may ask ourselves if how many points are sufficient to be able to draw the graph
accurately.

In this section, we introduce some steps which will still be applied in your Calculus to make
our curve tracing more systematic.

125
STEPS IN CURVE TRACING:

Type 1: Given 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒐𝒓 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒇(𝒙)

Step 1: Behavior of the Curve

Determining the behavior of the curve for large values of x. In this step, we verify what
happens to the curve as the values of x becomes positive and negatively large.
NOTE: For 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒐𝒓 𝒚𝒏 = 𝒇(𝒙) to facilitate a faster means in determining the
behavior, we just consider the term in x having the HIGHEST exponent.

Example 1: Given 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 1.

We now let x become positively large. If x is very large positive, 𝑥 4 becomes

positively larger. Thus, we now say that as x becomes positively large y also becomes
positively large since 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 1. This will now be interpreted as, generally the
curve will be seen rising on the first quadrant.

We now let x become “Negatively” large. If x is very large negative, 𝑥 4

becomes positively larger since a negative value raise to 4 will be positive. Thus, we
now say that as x becomes negatively large y also becomes positively large since 𝑦 =
𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 1. This will now be interpreted as, generally the curve will be seen rising on
the second quadrant.

Example 2: Given 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1.

We now let x become positively large. If x is very large positive, 2𝑥 3 becomes

positively larger. Thus, we now say that as x becomes positively large y also becomes
positively large since 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1. This will now be interpreted as, generally
the curve will be seen rising on the first quadrant.

We now let x become “Negatively” large. If x is very large negative, 2𝑥 3

becomes negatively larger since a negative value raise to 3 will be negative. Thus,
we now say that as x becomes negatively large y also becomes negatively large
since 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1. This will now be interpreted as, generally the curve will be
seen dropping on the third quadrant.

NOTE: For 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒇(𝒙), do not forget to extract the square root to obtain the value of y.
This means that as if 𝒚𝟐 becomes positively large as x becomes large then y will also
become positively large. However, if 𝒚𝟐 becomes negatively large as x become
negatively large then y will be imaginary since the square root of a negative value is
imaginary.

126
Step 2: Test for SYMMETRY

Symmetry is simply defined as the reflection of a curve about an axis. There are three
types that we will consider here.
a. Symmetry with the x-axis.
This happens when the curve above the x-axis is reflected below the x-axis. To test
the curve for symmetry with x-axis, we replace the y term in the polynomial given
by –y. We then simplify the polynomial, if it can be simplified as the original
polynomial then we say that the curve is symmetrical with the x-axis.

Example 1: Given 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 1.
Replacing y by –y we get -𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 1. Since there is no way to bring back
the equation to its original form, then we say that the curve is NOT symmetric with
the x-axis.

Example 2: Given 𝑦 2 = 2𝑥 4 − 7𝑥 2 + 3.
Replacing y by –y we get (−𝑦)2 = 2𝑥 4 − 7𝑥 2 + 3. This can be simplified as 𝑦 2 =
2𝑥 4 − 7𝑥 2 + 3. Since we have the equation to its original form, then we say that the
curve is symmetric with the x-axis.

b. Symmetry with the y-axis.

This happens when the curve to the right of the y-axis is reflected to the left of the
y-axis. To test the curve for symmetry with y-axis, we replace the x term in the
polynomial given by –x. We then simplify the polynomial, if it can be simplified as
the original polynomial then we say that the curve is symmetrical with the y-axis.

Example 1: Given 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 1.
Replacing x by –x we get 𝑦 = (−𝑥)4 + 2(−𝑥)2 − 1. This brings us back to the original
equation thus the curve is symmetric with the y-axis.

Example 2: Given 𝑦 = 2𝑥 5 − 7𝑥 2 + 3.
Replacing x by –x we get 𝑦 = 2(−𝑥)5 − 7(−𝑥)2 + 3. This can be simplified as 𝑦 =
−2𝑥 5 − 7𝑥 2 + 3 which is not the same as the original thus, the curve is NOT
symmetric with the y-axis.

c. Symmetry with the origin.

This happens when the curve in the first quadrant is reflected in the third quadrant
and the curve in the second quadrant is reflected in the fourth quadrant. To test
the curve for symmetry with the origin, we replace the x term in the polynomial
given by –x and the y term in the polynomial given by –y. We then simplify the
polynomial, if it can be simplified as the original polynomial then we say that the
curve is symmetrical with the origin.

127
 Example 1: Given 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 1.
Replacing x by –x and y by –y, we get -𝑦 = (−𝑥)4 + 2(−𝑥)2 − 1. The equation can
now be simplified as −𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 1 which is not the same as the original thus
the curve is NOT symmetric with the origin.

Example 2: Given 𝑦 2 = 2𝑥 6 − 7𝑥 2 + 3.
Replacing x by –x we get (−𝑦)2 = 2(−𝑥)6 − 7(−𝑥)2 + 3. This can be simplified as
𝑦 2 = 2𝑥 6 − 7𝑥 2 + 3 which is the same as the original thus, the curve is symmetric
with the origin.

Step 3: Intercepts of the Curve

Intercepts are points where the curve crosses the x-axis or the y-axis. To determine the
x-intercept (the point or points where curve crosses the x-axis), set y=0 in the original
equation and then solve for the values of x. each value of x obtained will be paired
to 0 to give the coordinates of the x-intercepts. On the other hand, to determine the
y-intercept (the point or points where curve crosses the y-axis), set x=0 in the original
equation and then solve for the values of y. each value of y obtained will be paired
to 0 to give the coordinates of the y-intercepts.

Example 1: Given 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2.
For x-intercept: Set y=0.

0 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 Solving for x, we can factor the right side giving us,

0 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)

0 = 𝑥−1&𝑥+2= 0

Thus, 𝑥 = 1 & 𝑥 = −2

Or (1, 0) & (-2,0) are the x-intercepts.

For y-intercept: Set x=0.

𝑦 = 02 + 0 − 2

𝑦 = −2

Thus, (0, -2) is the y-intercept.

Step 4: Supply Additional Points

If the details obtained from Steps 1 to 3 are not sufficient, plot additional points to
complete the graph. There is no standard number of additional points needed to
complete the graph. You may choose the number of additional points you would like
to use.

Let us now combine the four steps using some examples.

128
Example 1: Trace or draw the graph 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2).

Step 1: Behavior of the Curve for Large Values of x.

First, we can expand the equation and it will give us

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 . We now use 𝑥 3 as our reference.

As x becomes positively large, 𝑥 3 becomes positively large also. Thus, y

becomes positively large (curve is in first quadrant).
As x becomes negatively large, 𝑥 3 becomes negatively large. Thus, y becomes
negatively large (curve is in third quadrant).
Step 2: Test for symmetry.

We can use the expanded form of the equation, 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2

a. Symmetry with x-axis: Change y by –y.

−𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2. (NOT the original equation)
Thus, NO symmetry with x-axis.
b. Symmetry with y-axis: Change x by –x.
𝑦 = (−𝑥)3 + 2(−𝑥)2 − (−𝑥) − 2.

𝑦 = −𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 (NOT the original equation)

Thus, NO symmetry with y-axis.

c. Symmetry with origin: Change x by –x and y by –y.
−𝑦 = (−𝑥)3 + 2(−𝑥)2 − (−𝑥) − 2.

−𝑦 = −𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 (NOT the original equation)

Thus, NO symmetry with origin.

Step 3: Solving for the intercepts

a. y-intercept: set x=0

𝑦 = 03 + 2(0)2 − 0 − 2
𝑦 = −2
Thus, (0, -2) is the y-intercept.

b. x-intercept: set y=0

0 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2) Using the original equation since it is already
factored.
0 = (𝑥 + 1) & 0 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2
0 = 𝑥 + 1 & 0 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)
0= 𝑥+1 & 0=𝑥−1 & 0= 𝑥+2
𝑥 = −1 & 𝑥=1 & 𝑥 = −2

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 Thus, (-1, 0), (1,0), (-2,0) are the x-intercepts.

Step 4: Additional points

You can choose areas in your graph where you can add some more points to
make the graph more accurate.

x -3 -1.5 2
y -8 0.625 12

Example 2: Trace or draw the graph 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6.

Step 1: Behavior of the Curve for Large Values of x.

Using 𝑥 3 as reference from 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6

As x becomes positively large, 𝑥 3 becomes positively large also. Thus, 𝑦 2

becomes positively large which means 𝑦 becomes positively large also. (curve is in
first quadrant).

As x becomes negatively large, 𝑥 3 becomes negatively large. Thus, 𝑦 2

becomes negatively large which means 𝑦 becomes IMAGINARY.

Step 2: Test for symmetry.

130
We can use the expanded form of the equation, 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6

a. Symmetry with x-axis: Change y by –y.

(−𝑦)2 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6
𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6
Thus, there is symmetry with x-axis.

b. Symmetry with y-axis: Change x by –x.

𝑦 2 = (−𝑥)3 + 2(−𝑥)2 − 5(−𝑥) − 6.

𝑦 2 = −𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 6 (NOT the original equation)

Thus, NO symmetry with y-axis.

c. Symmetry with origin: Change x by –x and y by –y.

(−𝑦)2 = (−𝑥)3 + 2(−𝑥)2 − 5(−𝑥) − 6

𝑦 2 = −𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 6(NOT the original equation)

Thus, NO symmetry with origin.

Step 3: Solving for the intercepts

a. y-intercept: set x=0

𝑦 2 = (0)3 + 2(0)2 − 5(0) − 6
𝑦 2 = −6
𝑦 is imaginary.
Thus, NO y-intercept.

b. x-intercept: set y=0

0 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6 Using the SYNTHETIC division we can obtain
0 = (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 + 3)
𝑥 = −1 & 𝑥=2 & 𝑥 = −3

Thus, (-1, 0), (2,0), (-3,0) are the x-intercepts.

Step 4: Additional points

You can choose areas in your graph where you can add some more points to
make the graph more accurate.

𝑥 -4 -2 0 1 3
𝑦2 -18 4 -6 -8 24
𝑦 i ±2 i i ±4.89

131
 𝒇(𝒙)
Type 2: Given 𝒚 = 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒈(𝒙) ≠ 𝟎
𝒈(𝒙)

The steps here will be very similar to Type 1, the only difference will be seen in the testing
the behavior of the curve. For type 2, we will have the existence of the ASYMPTOTES. An
asymptote is a line that serves as a boundary line and there are two types of asymptotes
that will be considered here namely, the vertical and the horizontal asymptotes. The
curve gets closer to the line but will not cross the line. However, if we consider the
horizontal asymptotes, there are cases that the curve will cross the asymptote. Below is
the discussion on how we will determine the asymptotes.

Step 1: Behavior of the Curve (Solving for the asymptotes)

a) Vertical Asymptotes
𝑓(𝑥)
Given 𝑦 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0 means that the function will exist for any value of x
𝑔(𝑥)
as long as 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0. Thus, to determine the vertical asymptote or asymptotes, we
just set 𝑔(𝑥) = 0.

𝑥
Example: 𝑦 =
𝑥 2 +5𝑥+4
Set 𝑔(𝑥) = 0. 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 4 =0

132
 (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 + 1) = 0
𝑥+4 =0 & 𝑥+1 =0
Thus, the vertical asymptotes are 𝒙 = −𝟒 & 𝒙 = −𝟏
b) Horizontal Asymptotes
In determining the horizontal asymptote, we can base by comparing the
highest power in numerator with the highest power in the denominator. We have
three possible cases here:

Case 1: If the highest power in the numerator is lower in value compared to

the highest power of the denominator, y=0 or the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote.
Let us see an example how this general rule was obtained.
𝑥
Example: 𝑦 = .
𝑥 2 +5𝑥+4

The first thing that we will do is to divide both the numerator and the denominator
by the term in the numerator having the highest exponent (the numerical coefficient
of that term will not be included anymore in the process).
𝑥
𝑦= 2 𝑥
𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 4
𝑥
1
𝑦=
4
𝑥+5+
𝑥
Now we let x become positively and negatively large. Note that a number
divided by a very large number becomes very small which is almost equal to zero.

4
Going back to the example, will assume a value equal to zero as x becomes
𝑥
large thus we are left with
1
𝑦= and again as x is assumed to be very large this expression
𝑥+5+0
will now turn out to be 1 over a very large number which will again assume a value
equal to zero. Therefore, as x becomes very large y approaches 0. And this now
becomes the horizontal asymptote y=0.

Case 2: If the highest power in the numerator is higher in value compared to

the highest power of the denominator, there is NO HORIZONTAL asymptote in this
case.

Let us see an example how this general rule was obtained.

3𝑥 4 −𝑥
Example: 𝑦 = .
𝑥 2 +5𝑥+4

133
 3𝑥 4 − 𝑥
4
𝑦= 2 𝑥
𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 4
𝑥4
1
3−
𝑦= 𝑥3
1 5 4
+ +
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
As x becomes large (positive or negative), again a number divided by a very
large number will approach zero. Thus, we are left with
3
𝑦= (Note also that a non-zero number divided by zero is undefined)
0

Therefore, there is NO HORIZONTAL asymptote.

Case 3: If the highest power in the numerator is EQUAL in value compared to

𝑎
the highest power of the denominator, 𝑦 = 0 is a HORIZONTAL asymptote. 𝑎0 , 𝑏0
𝑏0
are the coefficients of the term with highest exponent in the numerator and
denominator respectively.

Let us see an example how this general rule was obtained.

3𝑥 3 −2𝑥
Example: 𝑦 = .
6𝑥 3 +5𝑥+4

3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥
𝑦= 𝑥3
6𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 + 4
𝑥3
2
3−
𝑦= 𝑥2
5 4
6+ +
𝑥2 𝑥3
As x becomes large (positive or negative), again a number divided by a very
large number will approach zero. Thus, we are left with
3 1
𝑦= = is a horizontal asymptote.
6 2

EXAMPLE: Trace/draw the following curves.

2𝑥
1. 𝑦 =
(𝑥+2)(𝑥−3)
2𝑥
𝑦=
𝑥2 −𝑥−6

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Step 1: Behavior of the curve (ASYMPTOTES)
a. Vertical asymptotes. Set denominator to zero.
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3) = 0
𝑥+2 = 0 & 𝑥−3 =0
𝑥 = −2 & 𝑥 = 3 are the vertical asymptotes
b. Horizontal asymptotes.
Since the highest exponent in the numerator is less than the highest
exponent in the denominator then y=0 is a horizontal asymptote.

Step 2:Test for symmetry

a. With x-axis: change y by –y.

2𝑥
−𝑦 = 2
𝑥 −𝑥−6
Thus, NO SYMMETRY with the x-axis.

b. With y-axis: change x by –x.

2(−𝑥)
𝑦= 2
(−𝑥) − (−𝑥) − 6

−2𝑥
𝑦=
𝑥2+𝑥−6
Thus, NO SYMMETRY with the y-axis.

c. With origin: change x by –x and y by –y.

−2𝑥
−𝑦 = 2
𝑥 +𝑥−6
2𝑥
𝑦= 2
𝑥 +𝑥−6
Thus, NO SYMMETRY with the origin.

Step 3: Solve for the intercepts.

a. y-intercept: set x=o.

−2(0)
𝑦=
(0)2 + 0 − 6
𝑦=0
Thus (0, 0) is a y-intercept

b. x-intercept: set y=0.

2𝑥
0= 2
𝑥 −𝑥−6
0 = 2𝑥
0=𝑥
Thus (0, 0) is an x-intercept

135
Step 4: Additional points

You can create regions based from the Vertical asymptotes. Since we have
two vertical asymptotes, we have created three regions in our Cartesian
plane. We can now take additional points per region.

Region 1 ( 𝑥 < −2)

𝑥 -4 -3
𝑦 4 −1
-
7
Or you can just set 𝑥 < −2 in the original equation and you will observe there
that 𝑦 < 0 for any 𝑥 and 𝑦 becomes smaller and smaller. (this is true because
𝑦 = 0 is a horizontal asymptote).

Region 2 (−2 < 𝑥 < 3)

𝑥 -1 1
𝑦 1 1
−
2 3
Or you can just set −1 < 𝑥 < 0 in the original equation and you will observe
there that 𝑦 < 0 for any 𝑥 and if you set 0 < 𝑥 < 3 you will observe there that 𝑦 >
0 for any 𝑥.

Region 3 ( 𝑥 > 3)

𝑥 4 5 6
𝑦 4 5 1
3 7 2
Or you can just set 𝑥 > 3 in the original equation and you will observe there
that 𝑦 > 0 for any 𝑥 and 𝑦 becomes smaller and smaller. (this is true because
𝑦 = 0 is a horizontal asymptote).

136
POLAR CURVES

If we consider the polar coordinates of the points on the curve then the graph obtained is a
polar curve.

A point on the Cartesian plane is said to be in its polar coordinate form when it follows the
format P(r,ꝋ) where r is called the radius vector and ꝋ is called the polar angle.

The radius vector is the distance of the point from the origin while the polar angle is the angle
measured from Ox to the radius vector.

Example: Plot the points on a Cartesian plane

P1(4, 30o), P2(-6, 135o), P3(2, -90o), P4(-5, -135o)

To plot a point in its polar coordinates on a Cartesian plane, first is to generate the polar
angle. If the polar angle is positive, we follow the counterclockwise rotation from Ox. If the
polar angle is negative, follow a clockwise direction from Ox.

After generating the polar angle, we obtain the terminal side of the polar angle. The radius
vector now is measured. If the radius vector is POSITIVE, measure its length from the terminal
side itself. If the radius vector is NEGATIVE, extend the terminal to the opposite quadrant and
from that extension, measure now the length of the radius vector.

The next question now is, how do we graph polar curves? The simplest way to graph a polar
curve is by point plotting. From the polar equation, we assign different values for the polar
angle then solve for the corresponding radius vector of each angle. Plot those points on the
Cartesian plane and simply join the points together. Just make sure that when you join the
points together, you join adjacent points together obtained from consecutive angles.

Example 1: r = 4 + 3cos ꝋ

ꝋ 0o 15o 30o 45o 60o 75o 90o

r 7 6.90 6.60 6.12 5.5 4.78 4

ꝋ 105o 120o 135o 150o 165o 180o

r 3.22 2.5 1.88 1.4 1.1 1

ꝋ 195o 210o 225o 240 o 255 o 270 o

r 1.1 1.4 1.88 2.5 3.22 4

ꝋ 285 o 300 o 315 o 330 o 345 o 360 o

r 4.78 5.5 6.12 6.60 6.90 7

137
Example 2: r2 = 5sin ꝋ - 2cos ꝋ

ꝋ 0o 15o 30o 45o 60o 75o 90o

r2 -2 -0.64 .77 2.12 3.33 4.31 5
r i i ±.88 ±1.46 ±1.82 ±2.08 ±2.24

ꝋ 105o 120o 135o 150o 165o 180o

r2 5.35 5.33 4.95 4.32 3.22 2
r ±2.31 ±2.3 ±2.22 ±2.07 ±1.79 ±1.41

ꝋ 195o 210o 225o 240 o 255 o 270 o

r2 .64 -.77 -2.12 -3.33 -4.31 -5
r ±.8 i I i i i

ꝋ 285 o 300 o 315 o 330 o 345 o 360 o

r2 -5.34 -5.33 -4.95 -4.23 -3.22 -2
r i i i i i i

138
HOMEWORK 16: Graph the following equations.

1. 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 4)
2. 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 7
𝑥3
3. 𝑦=
(𝑥−5)(𝑥+1)
𝑥 2 +4𝑥+3
4. 𝑦=
2𝑥 2 +3𝑥+1
𝑥+3
5. 𝑦2 =
2𝑥 2 +3𝑥+2
6. r = sin  + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 
7. r2 = sin 2  - 3cos 

139