Operational Amplifiers 663

used in all branches of electronics, both digital and linear circuits. In this chapter, we shall discuss
the various aspects of operational amplifiers.
25.1 Operational Amplifier
An operational amplifier (OP-Amp) is a circuit that can perform such mathematical operations as
addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation.
Fig. 25.1 shows the block diagram of an operational amplifier. Note that OP-Amp is a
multistage amplifier. The three stages are : differential amplifier input stage followed by a high-gain
CE amplifier and finally the output stage. The key electronic circuit in an OP-Amp is the
differential amplifier. A differential amplifier (DA) can accept two input signals and amplifies the
difference between these two input signals.

Fig. 25.1
The following points may be noted about operational amplifiers (OP-Amps) :
(i) The input stage of an OP-Amp is a differential amplifier (DA) and the output stage is
typically a class B push-pull emitter follower.
(ii) The internal stages of an OP-Amp are direct-coupled i.e., no coupling capacitors are used.
The direct coupling allows the OP-Amp to amplify d.c. as well as a.c. signals.
(iii) An OP-Amp has very high input impedance (ideally infinite) and very low output
impedance (ideally zero). The effect of high input impedance is that the amplifier will
draw a very small current (ideally zero) from the signal source. The effect of very low
output impedance is that the amplifier will provide a constant output voltage independent
of current drawn from the source.
(iv) An OP-Amp has very high *open-loop voltage gain (ideally infinite); typically more than
200,000.
(v) The OP-Amps are almost always operated with negative feedback. It is because the open-
loop voltage gain of these amplifiers is very high and we can sacrifice the gain to achieve
the advantages of negative feedback including large bandwidth (BW) and gain stability
(Refer to chapter 13 of the book).
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* The gain of an OP-Amp without feedback circuit is called open-loop gain. The gain of an OP-Amp
with feedback circuit is called closed-loop gain. These terms were discussed in Chapter 13.
664 Principles of Electronics
25.2 Differential Amplifier (DA)
Since differential amplifier (DA) is key to the operation of OP-Amp, we shall discuss this circuit in
detail. So far in the book we have considered general-purpose amplifiers. In these conventional
amplifiers, the signal (generally single input) is applied at the input terminals and amplified output
is obtained at the output terminals. However, we can design an amplifier circuit that accepts two
input signals and amplifies the difference between these two signals. Such an amplifier is called a
*differential amplifier (DA).
A differential amplifier is a circuit that can accept two input signals and amplify the
difference between these two input signals.
Fig. 25.2 shows the block diagram of an ordinary amplifier. The input voltage v is amplified
to Av where A is the voltage gain of the amplifier. Therefore, the ouput voltage is v0 = Av.

Fig. 25.2 Fig.25.3

Fig. 25.3 shows the block diagram of a differential amplifier. There are two input voltages v1
and v2. This amplifier amplifies the difference between the two input voltages. Therefore, the output
voltage is v0 = A(v1 – v2) where A is the voltage gain of the amplifier.
Example 25.1. A differential amplifier has an open-circuit voltage gain of 100. The input
signals are 3.25 V and 3.15V. Determine the output voltage.
Solution.
Output voltage, v0 = A(v1 – v2)
Here, A = 100 ; v1 = 3.25 V : v2 = 3.15V
∴ v0 = 100(3.25 – 3.15) = 10V
25.3 Basic Circuit of Differential Amplifier
Fig. 25.4(i) shows the basic circuit of a differential amplifier. It consists of two transistors Q1
and Q2 that have identical (ideally) characteristics. They share a common positive supply **VCC,
common emitter resistor RE and common negative supply VEE. Note that the circuit is symmetrical.
Fig. 25.4(ii) shows the symbol of differential amplifier.
The following points may be noted about the differential amplifier :
(i) The differential amplifier (DA) is a two-input terminal device using atleast two transistors.
There are two output terminals marked 1 (vout 1) and 2(vout 2).
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* The name is appropriate because the amplifier is amplifying the difference between the
two input signals.
** Note that for this circuit, we need two supply voltages viz. + VCC and –VEE. The negative terminal of
VCC is grounded and positive terminal of VEE is grounded.
 Operational Amplifiers 665

(i) (ii)
Fig. 25.4

(ii) The DA transistors Q1 and Q2 are matched so that their characteristics are the same. The
collector resistors (RC1 and RC2) are also equal. The equality of the matched circuit
components makes the DA circuit arrangement completely symmetrical.
(iii) We can apply signal to a differential amplifier (DA) in the following two ways :
(a) The signal is applied to one input of DA and the other input is grounded. In that case,
it is called single-ended input arrangement.
(b) The signals are applied to both inputs of DA. In that case, it is called dual-ended or
double-ended input arrangement.
(iv) We can take output from DA in the following two ways :
(a) The output can be taken from one of the output terminals and the ground. In that case,
it is called single-ended output arrangement.
(b) The output can be taken between the two output terminals (i.e., between the collectors
of Q1 and Q2). In that case, it is called double-ended output arrangement or
differential output.
(v) Generally, the differential amplifier (DA) is operated for single-ended output. In other
words, we take the output either from output terminal 1 and ground or from output
terminal 2 and ground. Any input/output terminal that is grounded is at 0V.

25.4 Operation of Differential Amplifier

For *simplicity, we shall discuss the operation of single-ended input (i.e., signal is applied to one
input of DA and the other input is grounded) and double-ended output DA.
(i) Suppose the signal is applied to input 1 (i.e., base of transistor Q1) and input 2 (i.e., base
of transistor Q2) is grounded as shown in Fig. 25.5. The transistor Q1 will act in two ways : as a
common emitter amplifier and as a common collector amplifier. As a common emitter amplifier, the
input signal to Q1 (input 1) will appear at output 1 (i.e., collector of Q1) as amplified inverted signal
as shown in Fig. 25.5. As a common collector amplifier, the signal appears on the emitter of Q1 in
phase with the input and only slightly smaller. Since the emitters of Q1 and Q2 are common, the
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* The operation of double-ended input DA will then be easier to understand.

666 Principles of Electronics
emitter signal becomes input to Q2. Therefore, Q2 functions as a *common base amplifier. As a result,
the signal on the emitter of Q2 will be amplified and appears on output 2 (i.e., collector of Q2) in phase
with the emitter signal and hence in phase with the input signal (signal at input 1). This is illustrated
in Fig. 25.5.

Fig. 25.5
(ii) Now suppose the signal is applied to input 2(i.e., base of transistor Q2) and input 1(base of
transistor Q1) is grounded. As explained above, now Q2 acts as a common emitter amplifier and
common collector amplifier while Q1 functions as a common base amplifier. Therefore, an inverted
and amplified signal appears at output 2 (i.e., at collector of Q2) and non-inverted, amplified signal
appears at output 1(i.e., at collector of Q1). This is illustrated in Fig. 25.6.

Fig. 25.6
The following points are worth noting about single-ended input DA :
(a) When signal is applied to input 1 (i.e., base of transistor Q1 in Fig. 25.5), an inverted,
amplified signal appears at output 1 and non-inverted, amplified signal appears at output
2. Reverse happens when signal is applied to input 2 and input 1 is grounded.
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* In a common base amplifier, output signal is in phase with the input signal. Recall that only in CE
amplifier, the output voltage is 180° out of phase with the input voltage.
 Operational Amplifiers 667
(b) When only one output terminal is available, the phase of the output of single-ended input
DA depends on which input receives the input signal. This is illustrated in Fig. 25.7.

(i) Noninverting input (ii) Inverting input

Fig. 25.7
When signal applied to the input of DA produces no phase shift in the output, it is called non-
inverting input [See Fig. 25.7 (i)]. In other words, for noninverting input, the output signal is in
phase with the input signal. When the signal applied to the input of DA produces 180° phase shift,
it is called inverting input [See Fig. 25.7 (ii)]. In other words, for inverting input, the output signal
is 180° out of phase with the input signal. Since inverting input provides 180° phase shift, it is often
identified with –sign. The noninverting input is then represented by +*sign. It may be noted that
terms noninverting input and inverting input are meaningful when only one output terminal of DA is
available.

25.5 Common-mode and Differential-mode Signals

The importance of a differential amplifier lies in the fact that the outputs are proportional to the
difference between the two input signals. Thus the circuit can be used to amplify the difference
between the two input signals or amplify only one input signal simply by grounding the other input.
The input signals to a DA are defined as :
(i) Common-mode signals (ii) Differential-mode signals
(i) Common-mode signals : When the input signals to a DA are in phase and exactly equal in
amplitude, they are called common-mode signals as shown in Fig. 25.8. The common-mode signals
are rejected (not amplified) by the differential amplifier. It is because a differential amplifier
amplifies the difference between the two signals (v1 – v2) and for common-mode signals, this
difference is zero. Note that for common-mode operations, v1 = v2.
(ii) Differential-mode signals. When the input signals to a DA are 180° out of phase and
exactly equal in amplitude, they are called differential-mode signals as shown in Fig. 25.9.
The differential-mode signals are amplified by the differential amplifier. It is because the
difference in the signals is twice the value of each signal. For differential-mode signals, v1 = –v2.
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* Note that in Fig. 25.7, the noninverting input terminal is given the +ve sign while the inverting input
terminal is given the –ve sign.
668 Principles of Electronics

Fig. 25.8 Fig. 25.9

Thus we arrive at a very important conclusion that a differential amplifier will amplify the
differential-mode signals while it will reject the common-mode signals.
670 Principles of Electronics

It is important to note that common-mode signals are rejected by DA. This action is called
common-mode rejection. Most of noises and other unwanted signals are common-mode signals.
When these unwanted signals appear on the inputs of a DA, they are virtually eliminated on the output.
25.7 Voltage Gains of DA
The voltage gain of a DA operating in differential mode is called differential-mode voltage gain and
is denoted by ADM. The voltage gain of DA operating in common-mode is called common-mode
voltage gain and is denoted by ACM.
Ideally, a DA provides a very high voltage gain for differential-mode signals and zero gain for
common-mode signals. However, practically, differential amplifiers do exhibit a very small
common-mode gain (usually much less than 1) while providing a high differential voltage gain
(usually several thousands). The higher the differential gain w.r.t. the common-mode gain, the better
the performance of the DA in terms of rejection of common-mode signals.
25.8 Common-mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
A differential amplifier should have high differential voltage gain (ADM) and very low common-
mode voltage gain (ACM). The ratio ADM/ACM is called common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) i.e.,
ADM
CMRR =
ACM
Very often, the CMRR is expressed in decibels (dB). The decibel measure for CMRR is given by;
ADM
CMRRdB = 20log10 = 20log10CMRR
ACM
The following table shows the relation between the two measurements :
CMRR CMRRdB
10 20dB
103 60dB
5
10 100dB
7
10 140dB
Importance of CMRR. The
CMRR is the ability of a DA to
reject the common-mode signals.
The larger the CMRR, the better the
DA is at eliminating common-mode
signals. Let us illustrate this point.
Suppose the differential amplifier
in Fig. 25.12 has a differential
voltage gain of 1500 (i.e., ADM =
1500) and a common-mode gain of
0.01 (i.e., ACM = 0.01).

Fig. 25.12
 Operational Amplifiers 671
1500
∴ CMRR = = 150, 000
0.01
This means that the output produced by a difference between the inputs would be 150,000
times as great as an output produced by a common-mode signal.
The ability of the DA to reject common-mode signals is one of its main advantages. Common-
mode signals are usually undesired signals caused by external interference. For example, any RF
signals picked up by the DA inputs would be considered undesirable. The CMRR indicates the DA’s
ability to reject such unwanted signals.
Practical Illustrations. Fig. 25.13 shows how a differential amplifier (DA) rejects hum and
static voltages induced into its input leads.

(i) Signal input to input 1

(ii) Signal input to input 2

(iii) Differential input signal

Fig. 25.13
(i) In Fig. 25.13(i), the signal is applied to input 1 of the DA. However, a low frequency hum
voltage is also induced into the lead wire. This hum is produced due to building and collapsing
magnetic field generated by adjacent conductor carrying 50Hz current. The resultant waveform is
shown in Fig. 25.13 (i). If this waveform is amplified by a conventional amplifier, the 50 Hz hum
in the output will be stronger than the desired signal.

Low voltage differential amplifier for test and measurement applications.

672 Principles of Electronics
(ii) However, a DA also has second input (input 2). Therefore, the lead of second input has the
same phase 50 Hz hum induced into it. This is the only voltage (i.e., hum) applied to input 2 as
shown in Fig. 25.13(ii).
(iii) As shown in Fig. 25.13 (iii), the hum components of the two inputs form a common-mode
signal which is largely rejected by the DA. If the input hum signals are equal at the input, then
differential input to DA will be devoid of hum. Therefore, the amplified output of DA will be free
from the hum.
Note : We have considered the ideal case i.e. ACM = 0. Even in a practical case, the value of
ACM is less than 1 while ADM is over 200. This means that the desired signal would be over 200 times
larger than the hum at the output terminal.
Example 25.2. A certain differential amplifier has a differential voltage gain of 2000 and a
common mode gain of 0.2. Determine CMRR and express it in dB.
ADM 2000
Solution. CMRR = = = 10,000
ACM 0.2
CMRRdB = 20 log10 10,000 = 80dB
Example 25.3. A differential amplifier has an output of 1V with a differential input of 10 mV
and an output of 5 mV with a common-mode input of 10 mV. Find the CMRR in dB.
Solution. Differential gain, ADM = 1V/10 mV = 100
Common-mode gain, ACM = 5 mV/10 mV = 0.5
∴ CMRRdB = 20 log10 (100/0.5) = 46 dB
Example 25.4. A differential amplifier has a voltage gain of 150 and a CMRR of 90 dB. The
input signals are 50 mV and 100 mV with 1 mV of noise on each input. Find (i) the output signal (ii)
the noise on the output.
Solution.
(i) Output signal, vout = ADM(v1 – v2) = 150 (100 mV – 50 mV) = 7.5 V
(ii) CMRRdB = 20 log10 (150/ACM)
or 90 = 20 log10 (150/ACM)
–3
∴ ACM = 4.7 × 10
–3 –6
Noise on output = ACM × 1 mV = 4.7 × 10 × 1mV = 4.7 × 10 V