MCE 503: CONTROL ENGINEERING II 2 Credits

Introduction; Concepts of feedback control. Mathematical model of physical systems. Block

diagrams. Reduction techniques. Block diagram algebra. Signal flow graphs. Mason’s rule.
Analysis and design in S-plane. Steady state and transient response to step and ramp input. Use of
P+ I, P + D lag, lead and tacho compensators for improvement of overall response. Negative
velocity and positive acceleration feedback. Error rate damping. Stability analysis; Roulth’s
stability criterion. Frequency response methods using polar, Bode and Nichol’s methods. Nyqyist
compensation. Design of system with lead, lag, lead-lag compensators in frequency domain.
System identification from experimental data. Analog computing; basic computing element.
Solutions of linear ODE. Simulation of simple transfer functions. D.C Bias design. Analysis and
design of single stage and multiple stage amplifiers at low and high frequencies. Dealington pair,
Cascoe amplifiers. Bootstrapping. Negative feedback concepts and feedback amplifiers.
30h(T);45h(P);C.

1.0 Introduction
With the advancement of technology, control systems have gained an increasingly
importance in the development and advancement of the modern civilization and technology. Figure
1.0 shows the basic components of a control system. Regardless of the complexity of the system;
it consists of an input (objective), the control system and its output (result). There are two main
branches of control systems:-
- Open-loop systems and
- Closed-loop systems.

Figure 1.0: Basic components of a control system

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Figure 1.1: A control system under analysis

Considering figure 1.1, which is an experimental setup, the following are to be known:

i. Pybench is being used to drive the DC motors and is known as “open-loop control”
ii. The desired speed is set with the Potentiometer (as voltage value)
iii. The Pybench board running Python produces control signals and PWM duty cycle. It acts
as the controller
iv. The motors is the actuator
v. The motor is the thing being controlled and it is called “the process” or ”the plant”
vi. The Hall effect sensors detect the speed and direction of the motor
vii. The problem here is: error in the desired speed setting vs the actual speed you get

In this arrangement, control is being applied to the DC motors, without feedback. The
potentiometer provides the desired motor speed. This is also known as the “set point”. The purpose
of the setup is to control the motor. In control terminology, the motor is known as the “system”,
the “process” or the “plant”.

This system is subjected to “open-loop” control because the drive signal is independent of the
output – there is no looping back of information to the drive input.

Since in the system, to control the speed of the motor is the focus, therefore motor speed is the
‘control variable’.

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1.1 Problems with Open-Loop Control

Quite a number of problems exist with open-loop control and for that shown in figure 1.2.,
they could be as follows:

i. First, the two motors may not respond in the same way to the drive input signal PWM_A
and PWM_B. (For example, the two gear boxes may present different resistance to the
motor, and the magnet inside the motors may have different strengths.)
ii. The consequence is that the two motors are not balanced and the Segway (a motorized
personal vehicle consisting of two wheels mounted side by side beneath a platform that the
rider stands on while holding on to handlebars) will not go in a straight line.
iii. This is an example of the variation and uncertainty in the system characteristic. In this case,
the steady-state behaviour of each motor may be different. It results in the actual speed of
the two motors being different.

One could use different gains to drive PWM_A and PWM_B to compensate for the difference in
system characteristic. But this does not solve all the problems.

Figure 1.2: Uncertainty in the characteristics of open-loop control system

The two motors shown in figure 1.2, may be driven by the same PWM values, but the speed
of the motors may be very different. Open-loop control relies on known system behaviour. Any
change in system behaviour (i.e. the process) will result in error in the outputs of the control
variables.

NOTE: Open-Loop Control is not always bad. If the system characteristics is well defined and is
not changing over time or under different operating conditions, open- loop control is easy to
implement and will not subject to a major problem inherent in feedback or closed-loop control,

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which is the possibility of instability. Open-loop control will not cause instability, while feedback
control could.

1.2 Open-Loop Control System: Disturbance and Noise

In a control system, two other major problems exist as shown in Figure 1.3:

a. Perturbation – the motor may go on uneven surface or there may be some obstacles in the
way;
b. Sensor noise - The Hall effect sensors may not produce perfectly even pulses, the magnetic
poles in the cylindrical magnet may not be evenly spaced.

These two other factors will DIRECTLY affect the response of the system (i.e. the speed of
the motor).

Figure 1.3: Perturbation and noise effects on an open-loop control system

The system (i.e. the motor) may experience disturbances or perturbations. Furthermore, the
sensor may have noise associated with it. These two factors p(t) and n(t) will affect the output
behaviour. Open-loop control cannot mitigate against these problems in any control systems. A
feedback, or closed-loop control has the potential of mitigating against these undesirable factors.

1.3 Closed-Loop Control System

A generic closed-loop control system employs feedback as shown in Figure 1.4. The
following occur in such a system:

i. The control variable is detected using the sensor, producing the sensed value s(t).

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 ii. The sensed value is compared with the set point r(t) (i.e. the reference value) to produce
the error signal e(t).
iii. The error signal e(t) is used as input to the controller (such as an amplifier) in order to
provide the signal for the actuator which drives the system.
iv. The key to this feedback control system is that the system is driven by the controller that
responds to the difference between what is desired r(t) and what actually happens at the
output y(t) measured by the sensor.

Figure 1.4: closed-loop control system

The purpose of this loop back (closed-loop feedback) is that by choosing or designing a
proper controller, we can:

1. Provide regulation function, i.e. make the control variable tracks the set point.

2. Make the closed-loop system immune to variations in the process (e.g. motor characteristics).

3. Make the closed-loop system less prone to disturbances or perturbations and reduce the effect
of noise.

4. Change the system dynamic behaviour such as its step response to what you want.

5. Make an inherently unstable system (such as the Segway) stable.

1.4 Closed-Loop Control System: Negative versus Positive feedback

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 Negative feedback example: sensor of the control variable is SUBTRACTED from the
desired parameter. Here is a control system for dispensing insulin to a diabetic patient as shown in
Figure 1.5.

Note: Control system generally uses negative feedback.

Figure 1.5: negative feedback

The measured output is compared and subtracted from the desired value and the input is
adjusted to zero the error.

Figure 1.5b: Positive feedback

A system could have positive feedback, if it is designed as shown in figure 1.5b. Here is a
model for wage inflation. Such a system will have its control parameter ever-increasing. Such a
system is not stable, meaning that it never reaches a stable final value.

In the control of systems, negative feedback is used for the control of a system. Subtraction
of the output variable (or some form of feedback value) from the set point is always done, not
addition.

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 If addition is done instead of subtract, the system will go unstable or goes to infinity – it
would not settle to a final value. This is called positive feedback.

1.5 Closed-Loop System with Disturbance and Sensor Noise

All systems are not ideal and there can be perturbation and sensor noise. Two real-life
factors are captured in the closed-loop system model. The perturbation or disturbance p(t) just
before the process and the noise signal n(t) injected into the sensor. These will have impact on the
final output y(t). The example of this system is depicted in the insulin dispensing system shown in
the figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6: closed-loop system model with perturbation and noise