PHYSICS 221

Experiment #3
Forced Harmonic Motion
LAB REPORT

Jose Alberto Nitro

Partner: Keenan Kohlman
October 26, 2024
1 Introduction and Theory
(Summarized from Physics 221 Lab manual, p28-32, Fall 2024, UFV)

In this experiment, we investigate forced harmonic motion with a particular focus on resonance
phenomena. Forced harmonic motion occurs when an external periodic force is applied to a sys-
tem, causing it to oscillate at the frequency of the external force. Understanding this concept is
essential in various fields, including mechanical engineering and physics, where resonance can
lead to significant effects in system behavior.
Consider an air track glider connected to two identical springs, as illustrated in the accompa-
nying diagram. A motor applies a sinusoidal driving force represented by the equation:
F = F0 cos(ωt)
Figure 1: Air track glider with two identical springs

Reprinted from Physics 221 Lab Manual (p.28), Fall 2024, UFV

where F0 is the amplitude of the driving force and ω is the angular frequency. The glider’s dis-
placement x from its equilibrium position is affected by the forces exerted by the springs and the
damping force due to velocity. The net force acting on the glider can be expressed as:
F = −kx − k(x − ∆) − bv (3.1)
where k is the spring constant, b is the damping coefficient, and v is the velocity of the glider.
The displacement of the second spring, ∆, is defined as:
∆ = A0 cos(ωt)
where A0 is the maximum amplitude of the motor’s driving arm. Consequently, the total force on
the glider can be reformulated as:
F = −2kx + kA0 cos(ωt) − bv
Applying Newton’s second law ma = F leads to the following differential equation:
d2x
m = −2kx − bv + kA0 cos(ωt)
dt 2

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By rearranging, we obtain:
d2x
m + bv + 2kx = kA0 cos(ωt)
dt 2
dx
Dividing through by m and substituting v = dt , we derive the standard form:

d 2 x b dx 2k kA0
2
+ + x= cos(ωt) (3.2)
dt m dt m m
2k
To simplify, we define 2γ = mb , ω 2 = m, and F0 = kA0 , yielding:

d2x dx 2 F0
+ 2γ + ω x = cos(ωt) (3.3)
dt 2 dt m
This differential equation describes a forced harmonic oscillator, and solving it involves finding
the position x as a function of time t.
The general solution to this type of differential equation consists of a complementary solution
xc and a particular solution x p :
x = xc + x p
The complementary solution is obtained by setting the left side of the equation to zero:

d2x dx
2
+ 2γ + ω 2 x = 0
dt dt
The well-known solution is:
xc = Ce−γt cos(ωt + φ )
indicating that the amplitude Ce−γt decreases exponentially over time, leading to the transient
solution approaching zero.
Ignoring this transient solution, we focus on the particular solution. To solve the original
equation for the steady state, we utilize Euler’s formula:

eiωt = cos(ωt) + i sin(ωt)

F0
Multiplying by m allows us to write:

F0 iωt F0 F0
e = cos(ωt) + i sin(ωt)
m m m
Substituting this into the differential equation, we reformulate it as:

d2x dx 2 F0 iωt
+ 2γ + ω x = e (3.4)
dt 2 dt m
Assuming a trial solution of the form x = Ceiωt (Eq. 3.5), we differentiate to find:

dx d2x
= iωCeiωt , 2
= −ω 2Ceiωt
dt dt

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Substituting these derivatives into the differential equation leads to:
F0
−ω 2C + 2iγωC + ω02C =
m
To solve for C, the equation is rearranged to give:
F0
C=
−ω + 2iγω + ω02


m 2

To simplify, we define:

a = ω02 − ω 2 ,
b = 2γω.

Thus, C can be expressed as:

F0
C= .
m(a + ib)
Upon rationalization and simplification, we have:

F0 (a − ib)
C= (3.6)
m(a2 + b2 )
By converting the complex number into polar form, the expression for C simplifies to:

F eiφ
C= √0
m a2 + b2
Substituting this into Equation (3.5) and using Euler’s Equation yields:
F
x= √ 0 (cos(ωt + φ ) + i sin(ωt + φ ))
m a2 + b2
By omitting the imaginary component, we derive the steady-state solution for the original dif-
ferential equation:
F
x= √ 0 cos(ωt + φ ) (3.8)
m a2 + b2
Defining a and b as follows:

a = ω02 − ω 2 and b = 2γω

Equation (3.8) transforms to:
F0
x= q cos(ωt + φ ) (3.9)
m (ω02 − ω 2 )2 + (2γω)2
In this context, φ denotes the phase angle between the glider’s angular velocity and that of the
driving motor. The coefficient of the cosine term represents the steady-state amplitude A:

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 F0
A= q (3.10)
m (ω02 − ω 2 )2 + (2γω)2
The maximum force F0 exerted by the driving motor relates to the maximum displacement of
the motor’s vibrating arm A0 :

F = kA0
Thus, the amplitude expression becomes:
kA0
A= q (3.11)
m (ω02 − ω 2 )2 + (2γω)2
This amplitude function of the driving frequency ω is the focus of the upcoming experiment,
with an anticipated graphical representation of amplitude versus driving frequency:

Figure 2: Amplitude vs Driving Angular Frequency Graph

Reprinted from Physics 221 Lab Manual (p.32), Fall 2024, UFV

The maximum steady-state amplitude occurs at the resonance frequency (ωr ). If the damp-
ing coefficient (γ) is small, ωr is nearly equal to the natural frequency (ω0 ), resulting in a phase
angle of zero (φ = 0). This can lead to very large steady-state amplitudes, risking system dam-
age. For highly damped vibrations, the resonance frequency differs from the natural and driving
frequencies.

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2 Procedure
Refer to Appendix for the details of apparatus and procedure steps.

3 Results
3.1 Data section
The mass of the glider (with magnets attached), m, was measured as:

m = 0.2660 ± 0.0001 kg.

The lenth of each of the identical springs, L, was measured as:

L = 0.070 ± 0.002 m.

To determine T0 , we measured the time for 10 oscillations (10T0 ) over 5 trials to minimize
errors. The period T0 is then derived by dividing 10T0 by 10. Similarly, for T , we conducted 10
oscillations at each voltage value supplied to the motor and measured the time (10T ). We calculated
T by dividing the values by 10. Since each measurement was taken only once, calculating a
standard deviation is also not applicable.

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 Table 1: Data for Simple Harmonic Motion (i.e., motor is not running)

Trial Time for 10 Periods, 10T0 , ±0.20 s Period, T0 , ±0.020 s Natural Angular Frequency, ω0 , ±0.026 rad/s
1 22.03 2.203 2.852
2 22.12 2.212 2.840
3 22.00 2.200 2.856
4 22.00 2.200 2.856
5 22.09 2.209 2.844
Average 22.05 2.205 2.850

Table 2: Data for Forced Harmonic Motion (i.e., motor is running)

Trial Voltage, V Time for 10 Periods, 10T, ±0.20 s Period, T, ±0.02 s Peak-to-peak amplitude, 2A, ±0.002 m Driving Angular Frequency, ω, rad/s Amplitude, A, m
1’ 1.2 67.37 67.37 0.052 0.093 0.0260
1 2.6 25.72 2.572 0.202 2.443 0.1010
2 3.4 17.84 1.784 0.101 3.522 0.0505
3 1.7 49.16 4.916 0.078 1.278 0.0390
4 2.0 38.5 3.850 0.082 1.632 0.0410
5 3.8 15.75 1.575 0.054 3.989 0.0270
6 4.5 12.57 1.257 0.026 4.999 0.0130
7 2.4 28.84 2.884 0.115 2.179 0.0575
8 1.4 66.72 6.672 0.060 0.942 0.0300
9 1.3 95.18 9.518 0.054 0.660 0.0270
10 3.0 22.11 2.211 0.637 2.842 0.3185
11 3.2 19.84 1.984 0.260 3.167 0.1300
12 4.1 14.38 1.438 0.040 4.369 0.0200
13 2.8 23.37 2.337 0.351 2.689 0.1755
14 3.1 20.31 2.031 0.275 3.094 0.1375
15 3.3 19.06 1.906 0.160 3.297 0.0800
16 2.9 24.09 2.409 0.265 2.608 0.1325

Table 3: δ Values for ω and A

Trial Voltage, V δ ω, rad/s δ A, m

1’ 1.2 0.0028 0.00103
1 2.6 0.0190 0.00103
2 3.4 0.0395 0.00103
3 1.7 0.0052 0.00103
4 2.0 0.0085 0.00103
5 3.8 0.0507 0.00103
6 4.5 0.0796 0.00103
7 2.4 0.0151 0.00103
8 1.4 0.0028 0.00103
9 1.3 0.0014 0.00103
10 3.0 0.0257 0.00103
11 3.2 0.0320 0.00103
12 4.1 0.0608 0.00103
13 2.8 0.0230 0.00103
14 3.1 0.0305 0.00103
15 3.3 0.0346 0.00103
16 2.9 0.0217 0.00103

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3.2 Sample Calculations
For average values of T0 and ω0 :

2.203 + 2.212 + 2.200 + 2.200 + 2.209

T0 = s
5
T0 = 2.205 s

2.852 + 2.840 + 2.856 + 2.856 + 2.844 −1

ω0 = s
5
ω0 = 2.850 s−1

Note that also:

2π
ω0 =
T0
2π
ω0 =
2.205 s
ω0 = 2.850 s−1

For ω,

2π
ω=
T0
2π
ω=
2.572 s
ω = 2.443 /s
dA
For dω ,

F0 1
A= q
m (ω 2 − ω 2 )2 + (2γω)2
0

F0 1
A= ·
m g(ω)
q
g(ω) = (ω02 − ω 2 )2 + (2γω)2
dA F0 1
=− · · g′ (ω)
dω m g(ω)2
1
g′ (ω) = q · 2(ω02 − ω 2 )(−2ω) + 2(2γω)(2γ)
 
2 (ω02 − ω 2 )2 + (2γω)2

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 −2ω(ω02 − ω 2 ) + 4γ 2 ω
g′ (ω) = q
(ω02 − ω 2 )2 + (2γω)2

dA F0 −2ω(ω02 − ω 2 ) + 4γ 2 ω
=− ·
dω m (ω 2 − ω 2 )2 + (2γω)2
3/2
0
dA
Setting dω =0 and solving for γ,

dA F0 −2ω(ω02 − ω 2 ) + 4γ 2 ω
=− · =0
dω m (ω 2 − ω 2 )2 + (2γω)2
3/2
0

−2ω(ω02 − ω 2 ) + 4γ 2 ω = 0

ω −2(ω02 − ω 2 ) + 4γ 2 = 0

−2(ω02 − ω 2 ) + 4γ 2 = 0

4γ 2 = 2(ω02 − ω 2 )

ω2 − ω2
γ2 = 0
2
s
ω02 − ω 2
γ=
2
Now, determining γ, with ω0 = 2.850 s−1 and ω = ωr = 2.842 s−1 ,
r
2.8502 − 2.8422 −1
γ= s
2
γ = 0.1508907 s−1

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3.3 Graphs
Figure 3: Amplitude (A) vs Driving Angular Frequency (ω)
(Error bars are too small to be clearly visible)

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3.4 Error analysis and Error Propagation
A. Error Analysis

Table 4: Error Analysis

Error Mass, m, kg (Mass Balance) Time for 10 Natural Periods, 10T0 , s, Stopwatch Natural Period, T0 , s, Stopwatch
Instrumentation Error 0.0001 0.01 0.001
Observational Error 0 0.20 0.020
Standard Deviation ? 0.0544977 0.00544977
Standard Error of the Means ? 0.024372112 0.00243721
Most Probable Error 0.0001 0.201727539 0.02017275

Error Time for 10 Driving Periods, 10T, s, Stopwatch Driving Period, T, s, Stopwatch Peak-to peak Amplitude, 2A, m, Ruler
Instrumentation Error 0.01 0.001 0.0005
Observational Error 0.20 0.020 0.002
Standard Deviation ? ? ?
Standard Error of the Means ? ? ?
Most Probable Error 0.200249844 0.02002498 0.002061553

For the mass m, the observational error is recorded as 0, indicating that the electronic mass bal-
ance used in the experiment provides a precise digital reading, eliminating potential human error
in measurement interpretation. Digital balances are specifically designed for accuracy and consis-
tency. The standard deviation for m is noted as “?”, as each measurement was taken only once,
making it impossible to determine variability or dispersion in this context. Therefore, calculating
a standard deviation is not applicable.
The observational error for peak-to-peak amplitude 2A arose when a ruler was used to mea-
sure the total movement of the glider’s oscillation. Achieving precise alignment of the ruler with
the glider can be challenging, and even slight misalignments can lead to small deviations in the
recorded measurements. Additionally, human vision is limited when attempting to read the small-
est divisions on a ruler. For this experiment, an observational error value was determined based
on the ruler’s resolution, which has a smallest division of 1 mm (0.001 m). To account for these
factors, a more conservative observational error of 0.002 m was selected.
To determine the errors for T0 , we measured first the time for 10 oscillations (10T0 ) over 5 trials
to minimize random error. From these trials, the instrument errors, observation errors, standard
deviation and standard error of the mean were determined. The corresponding values for T0 are
then derived by dividing the values from (10T0 ) by 10.
Similarly, for T , we conducted 10 oscillations at each voltage value supplied to the motor and
measure the time took (10T ). We then calculated the errors for T by dividing the values for (10T )
by 10. Since each measurement was taken only once, calculating a standard deviation is also not
applicable.

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B. Error Propagation

Sample Calculations:

For A = 0.1010 m,
s
∂A 2

δA = (δ (2A))2
∂ (2A)
s 
1 2
δA = (δ (2A))2
2
s 
1 2
δA = (0.002061553)2 m
2
δ A = 0.0010307765 m
For ω0 = 2.850 s−1 (the average value),
s 2
∂ ω0
δ ω0 = · (δ T0 )2
∂ T0
s 2
2π
δ ω0 = − 2 · (δ T0 )2
T0
s 2
2π
δ ω0 = − · (0.02017275)2 s−1
(2.205)2

δ ω0 = 0.0260739 s−1
For ω = 2.443 s−1 ,
s 2
∂ω
δω = · (δ T )2
∂T
s
2π 2

δω = − 2 · (δ T )2
T
s 2
2π
δω = − · (0.02002498)2 s−1
(2.572)2

δ ω = 0.01901998 s−1

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 For γ,
s 2  2
∂γ ∂γ
δγ = · (δ ω0 )2 + · (δ ω)2
∂ ω0 ∂ω

v
!2 !2
u 1  ω 2 − ω 2 −1/2 −1/2
u
ω02 − ω 2

0 1
δγ = t ω0 · (δ ω0 )2 + (−ω) · (δ ω)2
2 2 2 2

v
!2 !2
u 1  (2.850)2 − (2.842)2 −1/2 −1/2
u
(2.850)2 − (2.842)2

1
δγ = t (2.850) · (0.02607394)2 + (−2.842) · (0.025737981)2 s−1
2 2 2 2

δ γ = 0.3455211 s−1

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4 Discussion/Analysis of the Results
The primary objective of this experiment was to investigate forced harmonic motion, with a par-
ticular focus on the phenomenon of resonance. In forced harmonic motion, a system is driven by
an external force at varying frequencies, leading to oscillations that can reach maximum amplitude
at specific resonant frequencies. The theoretical predictions suggest that as the driving frequency
approaches the system’s natural frequency, the amplitude of oscillation will increase significantly,
resulting in a peak known as resonance. This behavior is a fundamental characteristic of oscillating
systems, where energy is transferred efficiently at certain frequencies, leading to amplified motion.

4.1 Key Findings

The natural angular frequency was calculated as:

ω0 = 2.850 ± 0.026 s−1

From Table 2 and/or Figure 3, the resonant angular frequency was determined as:

ωr = 2.842 ± 0.026 s−1

The maximum steady state amplitude was calculated as:
A = 0.3185 ± 0.0010 m
The damping coefficient was calculated as:

γ = 0.15 ± 0.35 s−1

4.2 Analysis
The close values of ω0 and ωr strongly suggest an lightly damped, near-resonant system where
damping is minimal, but still sufficient to cause a small shift in the resonant frequency. The small
difference in frequency values (0.008 s−1 ) may be attributed to minor damping effects or measure-
ment uncertainties.

4.3 Potential Sources of Error

• Instrument precision limitations could have affected the accuracy of frequency and amplitude
measurements.
• External factors such as air resistance and friction may have contributed to energy dissipa-
tion, influencing the observed frequencies.
• The assumption of a linear response within the system may not hold under all conditions.
• Equipment constraints, such as the response time of sensors, might have impacted the data
quality.

4.4 Graphical Analysis

The graph of steady-state amplitude against driving angular frequency distinctly illustrates the res-
onance phenomenon, with the maximum amplitude clearly labeled at ωr . This graphical analysis
corroborates our numerical findings and enhances the understanding of the system’s behavior.

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4.5 Future Improvements
To enhance the reliability and accuracy of future experiments, the following steps are recom-
mended:
• Utilize higher-precision measuring instruments to reduce uncertainties in frequency and am-
plitude readings.
• Conduct multiple trials to average out discrepancies and improve data consistency.
• Consider environmental controls to minimize the effects of external factors on the system’s
performance.

5 Conclusion
In this experiment, the objective was to investigate forced harmonic motion, with a specific focus
on the phenomenon of resonance. The key findings revealed that the natural angular frequency of
the glider was calculated as ω0 = 2.850 ± 0.026 s−1 , while the resonant angular frequency was de-
termined to be ωr = 2.842 ± 0.026 s−1 . These results indicate that the system was lightly damped,
as the natural and resonant frequencies are approximately equal. The damping coefficient was
calculated as γ = 0.15 ± 0.35 s−1 , further confirming the lightly damped nature of the system.
The experimental results confirm the theoretical predictions that resonance occurs when the
driving frequency approaches the natural frequency of the system. The analysis demonstrated that
the system’s response to varying driving frequencies aligns with the expected behavior of forced
harmonic motion.
To improve the accuracy and reliability of the results, future experiments should consider uti-
lizing higher-precision measuring instruments, conducting multiple trials to average out discrep-
ancies, and implementing environmental controls to minimize external influences.

References
[1] Department of Physics (2024, Fall). Physics 221 Lab Manual. University of The Fraser Valley,
Abbotsford, BC
[2] Taylor, J. R. (2005). "Classical Mechanics". University Science Books.

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Just kidding, I couldn’t figure out how to remove it!

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6 Appendix - Raw Data and Experimental Procedure

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