I.

TOPIC 6

Navigation and Weather Impact

 Navigation safety considerations.
 Case studies on historical weather-related navigation incidents.

II. LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lessons, the learners should be able to:

Evaluate the potential impact of weather conditions on maritime navigation, considering factors
like visibility, wind speed, wave height, and storm surges.

III. NSTRUCTION/LEARNING ACTIVITY

Introduction
Pressure varies from day to day at the Earth’s surface - the bottom of the atmosphere. This is,
in part, because the Earth is not equally heated by the Sun. Areas where the air is warmed
often have lower pressure because the warm air rises. These areas are called low pressure
systems. Places where the air pressure is high, are called high pressure systems.

A low pressure system has lower pressure at its center than the areas around it. Winds blow
towards the low pressure, and the air rises in the atmosphere where they meet. As the air rises,
the water vapor within it condenses, forming clouds and often precipitation. Because of Earth’s
spin and the Coriolis effect, winds of a low pressure system swirl counterclockwise north of the
equator and clockwise south of the equator. This is called cyclonic flow. On weather maps, a
low pressure system is labeled with red L.

A high pressure system has higher pressure at its center than the areas around it. Winds blow
away from high pressure. Swirling in the opposite direction from a low pressure system, the
winds of a high pressure system rotate clockwise north of the equator and counterclockwise
south of the equator. This is called anticyclonic flow. Air from higher in the atmosphere sinks
down to fill the space left as air is blown outward. On a weather map, you may notice a blue H,
denoting the location of a high pressure system.

Pressure gradient is defined as the magnitude of change in atmospheric pressure per unit of
horizontal distance. But a better pressure gradient definition might simply be the change in
pressure per unit distance. Pressure gradients are studied in meteorology, of course, but they
are also important to mountain climbers trying to predict what the air might be like on a
mountaintop. They are used in the drilling industry to determine the pressure that might be
required to pump oil or natural gas from the ground.
But when someone asks, "What is a pressure gradient?" they are most often referring to its
existence in the atmosphere, most often in the horizontal direction. For decades, studying
pressure gradients, as well as the related high- and low-pressure systems, has been an
important part of weather forecasting. They are used to predict the direction and magnitude of
the wind, forecast precipitation, and even predict the formation of storms.
Pressure gradients exist in the atmosphere for a number of reasons. A vertical pressure
gradient exists naturally due to the weight of air molecules pulled down by gravity. But
horizontal pressure gradients mostly exist because of uneven heating of Earth's surface. This
causes air to rise in some places and fall in others, forming convective loops that cause air
molecules to pile up in some locations (high pressure) and spread out in others (low pressure).
This complex network of rising, falling, and sliding air masses, many of which are being heated
at ground level and dropping water at cloud level, is exactly what makes weather so hard to
predict.
What causes pressure gradient?
Pressure gradients have many causes. But within Earth's atmosphere, most pressure gradients
are caused by uneven heating of Earth's surface.

Geostrophic wind is the wind that is caused by two important effects in the earth's
atmosphere. One of these, the pressure gradient force, is the force that occurs when air
moves from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. The other, the Coriolis effect, is
the diversion of the air in the Northern Hemisphere of the earth. The movement due to
pressure, in a combination with this diversion, is called the geostrophic wind. This wind is also
called the geostrophic flow. Both the Coriolis effect and the pressure gradient force will be
discussed in more detail below.
While many researchers examine geostrophic winds as an actual phenomenon, many persist in
believing that geostrophic winds are theoretical rather than real. The strength of geostrophic
winds is affected by the Coriolis force. The direction of geostrophic winds is determined by the
balance created by the pressure gradient force.
What causes geostrophic winds?
The phenomenon of geostrophic winds is caused two forces. The Coriolis effect determines the
strengths of the geostrophic wind. The pressure gradient force determines the direction of the
wind.
Coriolis force is an apparent force caused by the earth’s rotation. An inertial (or fictitious)
force that acts on objects in motion within a frame of reference that rotates with respect to
an inertial frame. In a reference frame with clockwise rotation, the force acts to the left of the
motion of the object. In one with anticlockwise (or counterclockwise) rotation, the force acts to
the right. Deflection of an object due to the Coriolis force is called the Coriolis effect.
 The Pattern Of The Local, Regional And Global Wind Circulation

The global circulation

Over the major parts of the Earth's surface there are large-scale wind circulations present. The
global circulation can be described as the world-wide system of winds by which the necessary
transport of heat from tropical to polar latitudes is accomplished.

In each hemisphere there are three cells (Hadley cell, Ferrel cell and Polar cell) in which air
circulates through the entire depth of the troposphere. The troposphere is the name given to the
vertical extent of the atmosphere from the surface, right up to between 10 and 15 km high. It is the
part of the atmosphere where most of the weather takes place.

Hadley cell
The largest cells extend from the equator to between 30 and 40 degrees north and south, and are
named Hadley cells, after English meteorologist George Hadley.

Within the Hadley cells, the trade winds blow towards the equator, then ascend near the equator
as a broken line of thunderstorms, which forms the Inter-Tropical-Convergence Zone (ITCZ). From
the tops of these storms, the air flows towards higher latitudes, where it sinks to produce high-
pressure regions over the subtropical oceans and the world's hot deserts, such as the Sahara
desert in North Africa.

Ferrel cell
In the middle cells, which are known as the Ferrel cells, air converges at low altitudes to ascend
along the boundaries between cool polar air and the warm subtropical air that generally occurs
between 60 and 70 degrees north and south. This often occurs around the latitude of the UK
which gives us our unsettled weather. The circulation within the Ferrel cell is complicated by a
return flow of air at high altitudes towards the tropics, where it joins sinking air from the Hadley
cell.

The Ferrel cell moves in the opposite direction to the two other cells (Hadley cell and Polar cell)
and acts rather like a gear. In this cell the surface wind would flow from a southerly direction in the
northern hemisphere. However, the spin of the Earth induces an apparent motion to the right in the
northern hemisphere and left in the southern hemisphere. This deflection is caused by the Coriolis
effect and leads to the prevailing westerly and south-westerly winds often experienced over the
UK.
Polar cell
The smallest and weakest cells are the Polar cells, which extend from between 60 and 70 degrees
north and south, to the poles. Air in these cells sinks over the highest latitudes and flows out
towards the lower latitudes at the surface.1

Regional Wind Systems

Differences in atmospheric pressure are what cause the wind to blow. Pressure differences—also
called pressure gradients—can happen at many scales. They can be global or local, but no matter
what size, they develop because of differences in heating and cooling of the Earth's surface. It is
the heating/cooling cycles that happen on a daily basis that cause many of the local wind systems.

Air flows from high pressure to low pressure. This pressure gradient is set up when an area of land
receives more sunshine than another area and begins to heat up faster. As evidenced by a hot air
balloon, warm air rises. The Earth's surface warms the air directly above it through the process of
conduction and convection. This forms an area of high pressure, which will then naturally flow to
an area of low pressure, because a pressure gradient has been set up. An upper air low pressure
may exist because of the presence of clouds, keeping the ground beneath it cooler than the
section of ground beneath the high pressure.

As the upper air high pressure air flows to the upper air low pressure, this air then sinks to the
Earth's surface, which creates a high pressure on the ground. Along the ground, this high pressure
air flows to the low pressure area under the upper air high, where it is lifted, creating a circulation
cell as the air travels in a circular pattern from one pressure gradient to another.

The presence of land also makes a difference in weather patterns and seasons. Seasons are
much more greatly defined over land than they are over the oceans. Because of this, there is a
significant difference between the seasonality of climate in the Earth's Northern Hemisphere than
in the Southern Hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere, where most of the Earth's landmasses
are located today, weather differences are much more dramatic. This is because land heats up
and cools down more rapidly than water, making the resulting temperature ranges much greater.
Thus, the impacts of global warming will be felt more strongly in the Northern Hemisphere.
There are various atmospheric circulation patterns that affect local and regional wind systems,
such as (a) high and low pressure systems as a result of heating the Earth's surface; (b)
development of a sea breeze due to the more rapid heating of land during the day; (c)
development of a land breeze due to the more rapid cooling of land during the night;
(d) development of a valley breeze during the day; (e) development of a mountain breeze at night;
(f) typical monsoon patterns of winter and summer creating a pronounced dry and wet season;
and (g) orographic precipitation, creating a windward and leeward side of the mountain with
distinct vegetation patterns.2

Local Wind Circulations

Consider the seacoast. During the daytime, the land becomes warmer than the water (the water
has very little diurnal temperature difference, staying the same temperature day and night). The
warm air rises by convection over the land. Air sinks over the ocean, creating a breeze from the
sea toward the coast (sea breeze) during the day, and from the land to the sea (a land breeze) at
night (Fig. 4.29).

Fig 4.29a Heating of the land during the day causes convection over the land. Air sinks over the
cooler water and the closed circulation is set up.

Fig 4.29b The opposite situation occurs at night with the land being now being cooler than the
water.3

Katabatic wind, wind that blows down a slope because of gravity. It occurs at night, when the
highlands radiate heat and are cooled. The air in contact with these highlands is thus also cooled,
and it becomes denser than the air at the same elevation but away from the slope; it therefore
begins to flow downhill. This process is most pronounced in calm air because winds mix the air
and prevent cold pockets from forming.
Anabatic wind, local air current that blows up a hill or mountain slope facing the Sun. During the
day, the Sun heats such a slope (and the air over it) faster than it does
the adjacent atmosphere over a valley or a plain at the same altitude. This warming decreases the
density of the air, causing it to rise. More air rises from below to replace it, producing a wind. An
anabatic wind often attains a velocity of 3–5 metres per second (7–11 miles per hour).

The Effects Of Monsoon To Weather Conditions

Monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind in the region of South and Southeast Asia, blowing from
the southwest between May and September and bringing rain (the wet monsoon), or from the
northeast between October and April (the dry monsoon).
A monsoon is a seasonal change in the direction of the prevailing, or strongest, winds of a region.
Monsoons cause wet and dry seasons throughout much of the tropics. Monsoons are most often
associated with the Indian Ocean.

Monsoons always blow from cold to warm regions. The summer monsoon and the winter monsoon
determine the climate for most of India and Southeast Asia.
Summer Monsoon

The summer monsoon is associated with heavy rainfall. It usually happens between April and
September. As winter ends, warm, moist air from the southwest Indian Ocean blows toward
countries like India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. The summer monsoon brings a humid
climate and torrential rainfall to these areas.

India and Southeast Asia depend on the summer monsoon. Agriculture, for example, relies on the
yearly rain. Many areas in these countries do not have large irrigation systems surrounding lakes,
rivers, or snowmelt areas. Aquifers, or supplies of underground water, are shallow. The summer
monsoon fills wells and aquifers for the rest of the year. Rice and tea are some crops that rely on
the summer monsoon. Dairy farms, which help make India the largest milk producer in the world,
also depend on the monsoon rains to keep cows healthy and well-fed.

Industry in India and Southeast Asia also relies on the summer monsoon. A great deal of
electricity in the region is produced by hydroelectric power plants, which are driven by water
collected during the monsoons. Electricity powers hospitals, schools, and businesses that help the
economies of these areas develop.

When the summer monsoon is late or weak, the regions economy suffers. Fewer people can grow
their own food, and large agribusinesses do not have produce to sell. Governments must import
food. Electricity becomes more expensive, sometimes limiting development to large businesses
and wealthy individuals. The summer monsoon has been called Indias true finance minister.

Heavy summer monsoons can cause great damage. Residents of such urban areas as Mumbai,
India, are used to the streets flooding with almost half a meter (1.5 feet) of water every summer.
However, when the summer monsoon is stronger than expected, floods can devastate the region.
In cities like Mumbai, entire neighborhoods can be drowned. In rural areas, mudslides can bury
villages and destroy crops.

In 2005, a strong monsoon devastated western India. As the summer monsoon blew in from the
southwest, it first hit the state of Gujarat. More than 100 people died. Then, the monsoon rains hit
the state of Maharashtra. Flooding in Maharashtra killed more than 1,000 people. On July 26,
2005, the city of Mumbai, Maharashtra, received almost a meter (39.1 inches) of rain.

Winter Monsoon
The Indian Oceans winter monsoon, which lasts from October to April, is less well-known than its
rainy summer equivalent. The dry winter monsoon blows from the northeast. These winds start in
the air above Mongolia and northwestern China.
Winter monsoons are less powerful than summer monsoons in Southeast Asia, in part because
the Himalaya Mountains prevent much of the wind and moisture of the monsoons from reaching
the coast. The Himalayas also prevent much of the cool air from reaching places like southern
India and Sri Lanka, keeping them warm all year. Winter monsoons are sometimes associated
with droughts.

Not all winter monsoons are dry, however. Unlike the western part of Southeast Asia, the eastern,
Pacific coast of Southeast Asia experiences its rainy season in the winter. The winter monsoon
brings moist air from the South China Sea to areas like Indonesia and Malaysia.

Other Monsoons

The Asian-Australian monsoon, which includes the Indian Ocean, stretches from northern
Australia to Russias Pacific coast. This huge monsoon wind system then stretches into the Indian
Ocean. Finally, it reaches its end on the Indian coast of Africa.

Monsoon winds exist in other parts of the world, too. The North American monsoon happens once
a year, usually in the middle of summer. Warm, moist air from the Gulf of California blows
northeast, while warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico blows northwest. These two winds meet
over the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains in central Mexico. The monsoon brings moisture to
the mountain ecosystem before continuing north to the U.S. states of Arizona, New Mexico, and
Texas.

The North American monsoon can be a natural aid to firefighters. Summer temperatures in
Arizona regularly reach more than 100 degrees Fahrenheit, making wildfires difficult to contain.
The North American monsoon is also the primary water source for most desert ecosystems in the
region. However, it can also confuse and interrupt daily life for people and businesses not used to
dealing with heavy rain.4
Geotropic Wind Scale And The Theoretical Value Of Wind

Geostrophic-Wind Scale
A graphical device used for the determination of the speed of the geostrophic wind from the isobar
or contour-line spacing on a synoptic chart; it is a nomogram representing solutions of the
geostrophic-wind equation.5
GEOSTROPHIC AND GRADIENT WIND SCALES

Wind scales are used to compute wind speed or isobaric spacing in sparse data areas. There are
many sizes, types, and shapes of scales, but they all have one thing in common. They are in the
form of tables and graphs which solve geostrophic or gradient wind equations. Those types com-
monly used by personnel in our rating are

Figure 7-2-3.Isobaric spacing according to wind speed.

presented in the publication Meteorological Wind-Scales, NAVPERS 50-1P-551. Wind scales are
designed based on map projection (Polar Stereo-graphic, Mercator, and Lambert Conformal) and
map scale. They can also be designed for surface or upper air use. Most maps have a wind scale
printed on them, but many overlay types have also been developed.

GEOSTROPHIC and GRADIENT WINDS are approximations of the true wind. When these winds
are computed, the effect of friction is dis-counted, and the pressure field is considered un-
changing. Geostrophic wind parallels straight isobars, and Gradient wind parallels curved isobars.
The gradient wind is a better approxima-tion of the true wind, because the path of true wind is
more curved than straight, as evidenced by pressure patterns. Even though gradient wind is more
representative, gradient wind scales are not widely used. This is due to the curvature fac-tor,
which is very complicated and difficult to determine.
Use of Geostrophic Wind Scale (Printed on base map)

See illustration of this type scale in figure 7-2-4.

At the point on your map where you want to DETERMINE THE WIND SPEED, measure the
perpendicular distance between the isobars on either side of the point. You can use a pair of
dividers or simply mark the distance on a piece of paper. Make note of the latitude at this point.
You will need to know both to use the wind scale. Lets suppose the distance between the two
isobars is equal to line AB as shown in figure 7-2-4, and your point of latitude is 40N. Starting at
the left side of the wind scale, measure off the distance AB along the line for 40. You can see point
B falls on a curved line. Follow down this line to the base of the scale. Read the geostrophic wind
(10 knots). This example used a latitude and isobar spacing that fell directly on lines of the wind
scale. If your point of latitude falls between lined increments on the scale, simply measure mid-
way between the increments. When the measured spacing fails between speed curve lines, you
must interpolate the wind speed.

TO DETERMINE ISOBARIC SPACING, you must know the wind speed and latitude. Taking the
known wind speed, move up the curve to the latitude increment corresponding to the point of
latitude youve chosen. Measure the distance from this point to the scales left edge.

GEOSTROPHIC WIND SCALE-SEA LEVEL SURFACE

Figure 7-2-4.Use of geostropbic wind scale commonly printed on base maps.

This distance is the correct spacing. As an example, use a wind speed of 10 knots and a latitude
of 40 as in the preceding example. Move up the speed curve marked 10 knots to the 40 line.
Measure from this point (point B) to the left edge of the scale (point A). The line BA is the correct
spacing for the isobars on either side of the 10-knot wind speed point on your map.6

Use of Geostrophic Wind Scale (Overlay type)

See illustration shown in figure 7-2-5. TO DETERMINE THE WIND SPEED, select the appropriate
wind scale for your map and map scale. Determine the latitude at the point you want to compute
the wind speed. Place the corresponding latitude number from your overlay on one side of the
isobars closest to your point. Count the number of millibars between the latitude mark on the
overlay and the overlay index (interpolation may be required). Multiply this number by 10 to obtain
the geostrophic wind speed.

In our illustration, the point of latitude is 45. Align the 45-degree mark on the over-lay with the
1012 isobar at this latitude. The index mark rests on what would be the 1010 mb. Therefore, the
number of millibars between the 45-degree mark and the index is 2 mb. Multiplying this number (2)
times 10 gives us a geostrophic wind speed of 20 knots.

Figure 7-2-5.Use of geostrophic wind scale (overlay type).7