CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Fermentation was described by Prescott et al. (2017) as any process involving the mass culture

of microorganisms, either aerobically or anaerobically, and also the use of an organic substrate as

the electron donor, with the same partially degraded organic substrate acting as an electron

acceptor. According to Pelezar et al. (2018), Louis Pasteur discovered that fermentation of fruits

and grains resulting in alcohol production was mediated by microorganisms.

Fermentation is the metabolic conversion of carbohydrates such as sugar into alcohol or acid

using yeast, bacteria, or a combination thereof (mixed culture) (Adams, 2020). It is also

described as the slow decomposition of organic substances induced by microorganisms or by

complex nitrogenous substances (enzymes) of plant and animal origin (Board, 2020). In this

process, starch is broken down into fermentable sugars by fungal enzymes like alpha-amylase

and glucoamylase, which facilitate fermentation by yeast, mainly Saccharomyces species.

Fermentation can occur under anaerobic or aerobic conditions, yielding lactate, acetic acid,

ethanol, carbon dioxide, or other simple products (Esechie, 2018).

The numerous important products obtained by fermentation, such as antibiotics, vitamins, feed

supplements, and blood plasma expanders, have made fermentation an industrial method for

producing specialty chemicals, gaining wide attention (Horold et al., 2019). The production of

industrial chemicals enhances the economic growth of nations. Ethanol, a versatile industrial

chemical, is used as a solvent for chemicals, as an intermediate in the production of liquid

detergents, drugs, plastics, polishes, plasticizers, and cosmetics, and as antifreeze and fuel

ethanol (Akpan et al., 2020). Ethanol can be produced by either ethylene hydration or
fermentation (Agu et al., 2018). Ethanol can be derived from renewable feedstocks, including

sugar crops like sugarcane, starch-containing grains like corn, and lignocellulosic materials

including agricultural residues, herbaceous crops, and wood (Wang et al., 2020).

During fermentation, Saccharomyces cerevisiae produces a range of aroma-active substances,

vital for the complex flavors of fermented beverages like beer, wine, and sake (Fleet et al.,

2020). Flavor-active substances produced by fermenting yeast cells can be classified into six

groups: sulfur-containing molecules, phenolic compounds, and volatile esters (Saerens et al.,

2020). Volatile esters, though trace compounds in fermented beverages, are particularly

important because they contribute to the highly desirable fruity, candy-like, and perfume-like

aroma of beer, wine, and sake (Fleet et al., 2020).

Flavor is one of the most distinguishing characteristics of fermented foods and is usually

classified according to the source of different compounds contributing to it. These include

flavors contributed by the substrate (pre-fermentative flavor, compounds formed during the

extraction and conditioning of the substrate), fermentative flavor (produced by yeast and bacteria

during alcoholic and malolactic fermentation), and post-fermentative flavor (compounds that

appear during the storage period) (Orlica et al., 2019). Post-fermentative flavor results from

enzymatic processes and is a complex phenomenon influenced by various factors. It depends on

the nature and concentration of compounds initially present in the substrate, the yeast's capacity

to transform them, and the fermentation conditions employed.

Yeasts are eukaryotic microorganisms classified as fungi, with over 1,500 species currently

described (Hutkins, 2021). It is believed that the species described so far represent only about

1% of the total number of yeast species that exist on Earth (Hutkins, 2021). Yeasts are

unicellular fungi that reproduce either asexually by budding and transverse division (binary
fission) or sexually through spore formation (Prescott, 2021). Although most yeasts are

unicellular, some species, like Saccharomyces cerevisiae, may form multicellular structures

through the development of pseudohyphae (false hyphae), resembling the growth patterns of

molds. Yeast cells vary in size depending on the species, typically measuring 3–4 μm in

diameter, although some can reach sizes over 40 μm. Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been used in

baking and fermenting alcoholic beverages for thousands of years (Legras et al., 2017).

Pineapple (Ananas comosus) is produced in large quantities in Nigeria. Madrid and Felice (2020)

reported that around 4,000 to 6,000 tons of pineapple fruits are produced annually, with a

significant amount wasted due to poor handling and storage methods. Fermenting pineapple juice

helps reduce waste and increases income for local farmers. The nutritional values of pineapple

fruits, according to Ihekoronye and Ngoddy (2017), are as follows: 54 mg/100 mL of vitamin C,

12% (w/v) of total sugars, 0.3% protein, 0.1% fats, 12 mg of calcium, 0.3 mg of iron, 0.08%

thiamine, and 0.1 mg of niacin.

Yeast species are crucial in many industrial processes, including the production of alcoholic

beverages, biomass, and various other metabolic processes (Frazier and Westhoff, 2020). In

baking and alcohol production, Saccharomyces cerevisiae is commonly used to convert sugars

into ethanol, producing carbon dioxide and alcohol as byproducts (Zhou, 2019).

Wine production is a form of old biotechnology (Alian and Musenge, 2020), though modern

methods carefully control the processes in bioreactors. The juice from crushed fruit is typically

fermented by pure cultures of specific strains of yeast (Maldonado et al., 2020). Processing steps,

including crushing, are described by Querol et al. (2020). The ability to produce palatable,

effervescent beverages through alcoholic fermentation of natural fruit juices showcases the
ingenuity of mankind. The nutritional role of wine is also significant, with its average

contribution to total energy intake estimated to be 10–20% in adult males (Macrae et al., 2019).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

In recent decades, grapes have been the primary fruit used for wine production. However, several

studies have explored the suitability of other fruits as substrates for wine production (Joshi and

Bhutani, 2019; Joshi et al., 2020; Ndip et al., 2019). The scarcity of grapes, especially in tropical

regions, has led to the search for alternative fruit sources for wine production in countries like

Nigeria (Alobo and Offonry, 2020). In Nigeria, there is an abundance of tropical fruits such as

passion fruit, watermelon, pineapple, and plum, which are highly perishable and prone to

bacterial and fungal contamination. As a result, they often fail to reach the market due to

spoilage, mechanical damage, and over-ripeness (Ihekoroye and Ngoddy, 2020). These fruits are

typically processed into juice or specialty products (Oyeleke and Olaniyan, 2020).

1.3 Justification of the Study

The high wastage of tropical fruits, especially pineapple, during peak production seasons

necessitates the need for alternative preservation methods to enhance the utilization of these

fruits. Producing wines from common fruits could help reduce postharvest losses and increase

the variety of wines (Okoro, 2019; Alobo and Offonry, 2020). While many genera and species of

yeasts are found in musts, Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the primary yeast strain responsible for

alcoholic fermentation (Pretorius, 2021; Querol et al., 2020). Several studies have also

investigated the use of alternative yeast strains (Ciani and Maccarelli, 2020; Okunowo et al.,

2019) and combinations of yeast strains (Clemente-Jimenez et al., 2020) in fermentation,

particularly for wine production. Research has shown that fermenting fruit juices with yeast from
different sources results in variations in flavor and alcohol content in wines (Clemente-Jimenez

et al., 2020).

The fermentation process for producing beverages relies on yeast to convert sugars into alcohol

and esters. The different yeast species that develop during fermentation influence the flavor and

aroma of the final product. Additionally, the different sugar compositions and acetic acid

concentrations in fruits require yeast strains to adapt to varying environments (Fleet, 2021; Duart

et al., 2020). While tropical fruits and various yeast strains have been screened for wine

production, most studies have focused solely on the suitability of either the fruit or the yeast

strains (Fleet, 2021).

1.4 Broad Aim of the study

The aim of the study is to produce wine from pineapple (Ananas comosus) using saccharomyces

cerevisiae.

1.5 Objectives of the study

Specifically, the purposes of the study are to;

1. To ferment ananas comosus pulp to alcohol (wine) using a saccharomyces cerevisiae

2. To determine the varying physiochemical parameters during the fermentation period.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 WINE

Wine is typically defined as an alcoholic beverage produced by the fermentation of the juice of

sound, ripe grapes. Among fruit-based alcoholic beverages, grape wine is of significant

economic importance, with the process receiving extensive research attention due to the

commercialization and industrialization of wine production (Selli and Canbas, 2019). Moreover,

microorganisms, particularly yeasts, have a tremendous potential for the production of food and

beverages, allowing for efficient utilization of food stocks and the conversion of waste materials

into valuable products (Zhou et al., 2021).

The yeast species Saccharomyces cerevisiae plays a critical role in winemaking by converting

the sugars in the juice into alcohol, distinguishing wine from regular fruit juice. Most industrial

winemaking relies on commercial strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae due to their consistent

performance in fermentation processes (Zhao et al., 2021). Studies have also explored the

potential of traditional fermentations, such as palm wine, as a rich source of indigenous yeasts

that can be applied in industrial fermentation. Palm wine is considered a nutritionally rich

medium for microorganism growth, including yeasts, making it an ideal candidate for isolating

fermentation strains (Adeniji et al., 2018).

Recent research by Ukwuru and Awah (2019) confirmed that yeasts isolated from palm wine

exhibit high metabolic activity and ethanol tolerance, particularly Saccharomyces cerevisiae,

making them suitable for various fermentation applications, including industrial wine production.

In addition to these studies, palm wine has been identified as a valuable source for yeast strains

with diverse industrial applications (Awah et al., 2020).

Despite the potential of indigenous yeasts, the high cost and limited availability of effective

commercial Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains for fermentation remain significant challenges for

local fermentation industries. This highlights the potential of using yeasts isolated from

alternative sources, such as palm wine, as economically viable and sustainable solutions for

fermentation (Adewuyi et al., 2020).

Wine is produced through the fermentation of fruit juices, typically using Saccharomyces species

that metabolize sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide, along with various volatile compounds

like esters, aldehydes, and acids, which contribute to the flavor profile of the wine (Boulton et

al., 2006). Grapes are the primary fruit used in winemaking, but many other fruits, including

mango, apple, pineapple, and plum, have been fermented to produce alternative fruit wines (Agu

et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2021).

Although grape wine dominates the market, many fruits, such as pawpaw, mango, and pineapple,

are also used for fermentation. These fruits are processed into musts, which undergo

fermentation to produce fruit wines. This process is carried out by adding yeast species that

convert the sugars into ethanol and CO2, while also generating flavor compounds that define

each wine's unique characteristics (Robinson, 2020).

In the European Union, wine is legally defined as the fermented juice of grapes (Harding, 2019).

However, the potential of other fruits to be used in winemaking is increasingly being recognized.

For instance, the fermentation of fruits like apples, pineapples, and even strawberries has been

successfully commercialized (Agu et al., 2021).

Palm wine, a traditional alcoholic beverage, is produced from the sap of Elaeis guineensis and

Raphia hookeri species. It contains essential nutrients such as amino acids, proteins, and sugars,
which provide a conducive environment for microbial growth, including yeasts (Okafor, 2007).

Several studies have highlighted the potential of palm wine yeasts for industrial applications, as

these yeasts exhibit various metabolic properties beneficial for fermentation processes. For

instance, Ogbonna (2020) and Onyedinma (2020) used palm wine isolates of Saccharomyces

cerevisiae to produce artificial palm wine and beer, respectively.

Recent research by Okafor et al. (2021) isolated 18 yeast strains from palm wine, with 14

belonging to the genus Saccharomyces, four to Candida, and one to Kluyveromyces. This further

demonstrates the diversity of yeast species in palm wine, offering a valuable resource for the

fermentation industry.

The production of wine from various fruits has gained significant attention in recent years. While

grapes remain the dominant source of wine, several other fruits such as apples, mangoes,

pineapples, and strawberries have been investigated for their potential in winemaking

(Gouvinhas et al., 2021). Pineapples are particularly suitable for winemaking due to their high

sugar content, which is essential for alcohol fermentation (Chanprasartsuk et al., 2019).

Furthermore, pineapple fermentation is already established in many countries, including Brazil,

India, and Thailand, where it is used to produce wines with unique fruity characteristics (Isitua

and Ibeh, 2020).

2.2 PINEAPPLE

The pineapple (Ananas comosus) is a tropical fruit of the Bromeliaceae family, widely cultivated

for its sweet and juicy fruit. In Benin, pineapple production is significant, with the country

ranked 17th globally and 3rd in Africa for pineapple production, producing approximately

375,636 tons in 2012 (FAOSTAT, 2021). Despite the large-scale production, post-harvest losses
are significant due to the highly perishable nature of the fruit. This loss has prompted exploration

into alternative methods of fruit preservation, such as fermenting pineapple into wine, which can

improve its nutritional value and provide a long shelf life (Fadimu et al., 2019).

Pineapple fermentation, whether spontaneous or controlled by introducing commercial yeast

strains, produces a complex wine that varies in composition depending on the fruit and

fermentation parameters (Amerina et al., 2007). Recent research by Chanprasartsuk et al. (2019)

explored the fermentation profiles of pineapple wine, highlighting the use of different yeast

species to optimize fermentation.

Fermentation of pineapple for wine production is not widely practiced in Benin despite the

country’s significant production, as highlighted by FAOSTAT (2021). However, research in

other countries, including Nigeria, has explored its potential for wine production, with findings

suggesting that pineapple fermentation can yield wines with a good flavor profile and desirable

ethanol content (Sarah et al., 2005).

Pineapple is a highly nutritious fruit, containing approximately 81.2–86.2% moisture, 13–19%

total solids, and significant levels of vitamins and minerals such as vitamin C, calcium, and

phosphorus (Dull, 2003). It also contains natural proteolytic enzymes like bromelain, which are

known for their medicinal properties, including digestive benefits and anti-inflammatory effects

(Zhang et al., 2020). Furthermore, the high sugar content in pineapple makes it a suitable

substrate for fermentation, allowing the conversion of sugars into alcohol and contributing to the

unique flavor profile of pineapple wine (Adaikan and Ganesan, 2004).

The production of wine from pineapple is a promising approach to preserving this tropical fruit,

particularly in regions where pineapple production is high but local markets face challenges
related to post-harvest losses (Fadimu et al., 2019). Further studies on fermentation parameters

and yeast optimization could improve the quality and commercial viability of pineapple wines,

expanding their potential in both local and international markets.

2.3 HISTORY OF WINEMAKING

The practice of winemaking is one of humanity's oldest and most enduring traditions, dating

back over 8,000 years. Wine has been integral to human culture for millennia, providing not only

a source of refreshment but also a significant role in religious ceremonies and social rituals.

Unlike many perishable foods and beverages, wine does not spoil if stored properly. The alcohol

in wine, particularly ethanol, acts as a preservative, killing harmful microorganisms. Historically,

wine was often safer to drink than water or milk, as it helped prevent waterborne diseases

(Sullivan and McConnell, 2020). Ancient civilizations recognized this beneficial property,

attributing wine to divine origins because it was believed to protect against disease (Lopes et al.,

2019).

According to Desrosier and Desrosier (1997), fermented beverages like wine and beer have

ancient roots. These alcoholic drinks were independently discovered in various regions of the

world. While alcohol production in pre-Columbian America was less widespread, other ancient

civilizations, such as those in Egypt, Greece, Rome, and the Far East, developed sophisticated

methods of fermentation (Desrosier and Desrosier, 1997). The ability to ferment natural juices

into palatable beverages is a testament to early human ingenuity and experimentation with

fermentation. From the earliest known historical records, wine and beer have been important

commodities in trade (Boulton et al., 2018).

Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest known wine production, involving fermented

grapes, dates back to as early as 6000 BC in the regions that are now Georgia and Iran

(Berkowitz, 2006). Wine also made its way to Europe, likely around 4500 BC in areas such as

modern-day Bulgaria and Greece. The ancient Greeks and Romans played a significant role in

the development of viticulture and winemaking, and wine was central to their religious and

social practices (McGregor and Bower, 2003). Notably, the Greek god Dionysus and his Roman

counterpart Bacchus symbolized wine, and the drink was used in sacred rituals (Lopes et al.,

2020).

A 2003 report by archaeologists suggested that mixed fermented beverages, potentially made

from grapes and rice, might have been produced in ancient China around 7000 BC. Pottery jars

from this period contained traces of tartaric acid and other organic compounds typically found in

wine (McGregor and Bower, 2003).

2.4 WINES OF AFRICAN ORIGIN

In nearly every region of the world, traditional alcoholic beverages unique to the local culture

have been produced and consumed. In tropical Africa, the production of alcoholic beverages,

especially from indigenous plants and fruits, is widespread. These drinks can be broadly

categorized into:

1. Palm wine: Produced from the sap of palm trees, particularly in the rainforests of West

and Central Africa.

2. Cereal-based beers: Brewed primarily from sorghum, maize, and to a lesser extent,

wheat.
 3. Fruit wines: Produced from a variety of fruits, including bananas, mangoes, and

pineapples.

Palm wine, which is traditionally consumed in countries such as Nigeria, Ghana, and Congo, is a

clear example of an African alcoholic beverage. It is a naturally fermented drink, often cloudy,

effervescent, and sweet, due to its live fermentation culture. The yeast strain Saccharomyces

cerevisiae, found in fresh palm wine, has been shown to be effective in the production of

acceptable wines from tropical fruits (Aina and Soetan, 2007; Obisanya et al., 2003). Unlike

grape wine, palm wine is typically consumed while still fermenting, making it unique in its

appearance and flavor (Adewuyi et al., 2020).

Banana and plantain wines, commonly known as Agadagidi wine in Nigeria, are also widely

consumed in tropical Africa. These wines have similar effervescent and sweet-sour properties,

often enjoyed in the southwestern parts of Nigeria (Okafor, 2007). In Ethiopia, Tej, a honey

wine, has cultural and ritual significance, highlighting the importance of fermented beverages in

African societies (Yemataw, 2021).

Fruit wines from tropical sources such as pineapple, mango, apple, and citrus are also gaining

popularity. These wines are generally named after the fruits from which they are produced (e.g.,

pineapple wine, banana wine). The production process for these fruit wines is similar to that of

grape wines, including pressing the fruit, fermenting, aging, and bottling (Boulton et al., 2019).

2.5 CLASSIFICATION OF WINES

According to Agrawal and Pradeep (2006), wines can be classified into three primary categories:
 1. Table Wines (Still Wines): These wines, often consumed as complements to food, are

the most common and are typically between 9-14% alcohol by volume.

2. Sparkling Wines: Examples like Champagne, distinguished by their effervescence, are

commonly consumed on festive occasions.

3. Fortified Wines: Wines such as Sherry and Vermouth have higher alcohol content (15-

22% ABV) and are often consumed before or after meals. Fortification occurs through

the controlled addition of spirits like brandy during fermentation.

In line with Pearson’s (1970) research, wines are also classified into fruit wines, fortified wines,

table wines, and sparkling wines based on production methods, ingredients, and alcohol content.

2.6 USES OF WINE

Wine has long been used in religious rituals, social gatherings, and even medicinal practices. In

many cultures, including ancient Greece and Rome, wine was central to religious ceremonies.

The Greek god Dionysus and the Roman Bacchus symbolized the divine connection between

wine and spirituality (McGregor and Bower, 2003). In Christianity, wine holds a central role in

the sacrament of the Eucharist, symbolizing the blood of Christ during the Last Supper (Gospel

of Luke, 22:19).

In addition to religious uses, wine has significant health benefits when consumed in moderation.

Epidemiological studies consistently show that moderate wine consumption, particularly red

wine, is linked to a reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases (Lindberg and Amsterdam, 2008). A

2007 study found that both red and white wines possess antibacterial properties, which may help

protect against infections caused by Streptococcus (Daglia et al., 2007). Furthermore, moderate
consumption of red wine has been associated with a decreased risk of lung cancer in men (Red

Wine May Lower Lung Cancer Risk, 2008).

However, excessive alcohol consumption has adverse effects, including liver cirrhosis and

addiction (Pederson, 1971). Public health organizations, including the American Heart

Association, recommend consulting healthcare professionals to assess the risks and benefits of

alcohol consumption (Lindberg and Amsterdam, 2008).

2.7 WINE PRODUCTION

The production of wine involves several key steps: juice preparation (crushing and extracting),

fermentation, aging and storage, clarification, and packaging (Agrawal and Pradeep, 2006).

2.7.1 Juice (‘Must’) Preparation

The fruit used in winemaking is typically crushed to extract the juice. For white wines, the skins

are usually separated from the juice, whereas for red wines, the skins are left in contact with the

juice. Sulfur dioxide is added to the juice (usually between 75–200 ppm) to prevent the growth

of unwanted microorganisms, including wild yeasts (Zhao et al., 2021). Pectinase enzymes may

be added to break down the pectin in the fruit and facilitate clarification (Amerine et al., 1980).

After sulfiting, the juice is inoculated with a starter culture of Saccharomyces cerevisiae or other

suitable yeasts. This inoculation, called "pitching," is typically 2-5% of the total volume of juice

(Frazier and Westhoff, 1995).

2.7.2 Aging

The aging process is vital for the maturation of wine, improving its flavor and complexity. Wines

can age from a few months to several years, depending on the type of wine. During aging, wines

are stored in barrels, casks, or tanks at controlled temperatures between 11–16°C (Johnson and

Pederson, 1974). The aging process leads to various chemical reactions that improve the flavor,

including the formation of esters from alcohol and acids, and the oxidation of tannins (Amerine

et al., 1980). Wines with higher acidity often require longer aging to reach their peak flavor

(Nmema, 2010).

2.7.3 Clarification
Clarification is the process of removing suspended particles and stabilizing the wine. While some

wines naturally clarify during aging, others require artificial clarification. Fining agents such as

gelatin, isinglass, and albumin are used to precipitate unwanted substances, helping the wine

achieve clarity and stability (Amerine et al., 1972). Potassium ferrocyanide can be used to

remove excess metals like copper and iron, which can cause off-flavors in the wine (Nmema,

2010).

2.7.4 Packaging/Bottling

Once the wine has aged and clarified, it is bottled in sterilized containers. Some wines,

particularly sparkling wines, require filtration before bottling. -Bottles are sealed and stored at

appropriate temperature.

2.8 Quality evaluation of wine

Thorngates (1997) reported that the history of wine quality evaluation is longer than any other

food product. With increasing consumer demand for better wines, keen competition among wine

producers, and the development of appropriate statistical procedures for sensory data analysis,

many wine experts have concluded that it is unsound to rely on the judgment of only one or two

individuals regarding quality and standards of identity. Attributes of wine quality have been

elucidated through sensory evaluation, microscopic examinations, fining tests, and determination

of constituents like alcohol, total acidity, sugar extract, tannins, sulfur dioxide, and intensity of

color. These tests are necessary to evaluate whether a wine is sound and to assess its sensory

quality to ensure consumer acceptability (Amerine et al., 1972). Sensory evaluation of wine

quality can be used to assess the following parameters:

2.8.1 Clarity/Appearance

Experienced personnel are significantly better at evaluating wine quality than inexperienced

individuals. Correct impressions about wine are distinctively evaluated by trained assessors.

Wines that have become brown are usually oxidized or over-aged, often due to low sulfur

dioxide levels. Oxidation can also be detected through odor, which expert panelists can identify

(Usha and Chandra, 2007).

2.8.2 Odor/Smell

This can be categorized into two types: odor developed during aging and aroma derived from

fresh fruits and fermentation products. Excess sulfur dioxide or the presence of hydrogen sulfide

(H₂S) in the wine can alter its aroma (Amerine et al., 2007).

2.8.3 Taste

Wine tasting is the sensory examination and evaluation of wine. Wines consist of chemical

compounds that are similar or identical to those found in fruits, vegetables, and spices. The four

aspects of taste—sour, sweet, salty, and bitter—are all important in wine evaluation (Usha and

Chandra, 2007). Sour or acidic tastes come from organic acids, which are particularly essential

for table wines. The sweetness of wine is determined by the residual sugar left after

fermentation, relative to the acidity in the wine. Bitter taste primarily comes from phenolic

compounds and tannins in red wine. The quality of wine depends on the harmony between these

different tastes, and one should not dominate the others. The salty taste is rarely encountered and

is not considered a key element in wine evaluation.

2.8.4 Color

Color is a key attribute of wine that is relatively easy to assess and is often associated with

quality (Usha and Chandra, 2007). Factors influencing color assessment include the fruit

cultivar, wine-making methods, wine pH, redox potential, and content of sulfur dioxide,

aldehydes, and oxygen. The anthocyanin pigment content is particularly important in red wines,

with some studies suggesting it is more significant than total pigment content (Sanni and Oso,

2009).

2.9 Nutritional value of pineapple

Pineapple is a tropical fruit known for its exceptional juiciness, vibrant flavor, and numerous

health benefits. It is rich in calcium, potassium, vitamin C, carbohydrates, crude fiber, water, and

various minerals that support the digestive system, aid in maintaining ideal weight, and

contribute to balanced nutrition. Pineapple is a common fruit in Bangladesh, with minimal fat

and sodium content. It contains 10-25 mg of vitamins per serving. Pineapple composition has

primarily been studied in the edible portion, which contains 81.2–86.2% moisture and 13–19%

total solids, primarily consisting of sucrose, glucose, and fructose. Carbohydrates make up up to

85% of the total solids, while fiber constitutes 2–3%. Citric acid is the most abundant organic

acid in pineapple. The pulp has low ash content, nitrogenous compounds, and lipids (0.1%).

Around 25-30% of nitrogenous compounds are true proteins, with approximately 80% of these

exhibiting proteolytic activity due to the enzyme bromelain. Fresh pineapple contains essential

minerals such as calcium, chlorine, potassium, phosphorus, and sodium (Berkowitz, 2020;

Verma et al., 2020).

Pineapple juice is an excellent source of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), which helps fight bacterial

and viral infections, acts as an antioxidant, and aids in iron absorption. Half a cup of pineapple

juice provides 50% of the recommended daily intake of vitamin C. Additionally, pineapples

contain manganese, a trace mineral vital for bone formation and the activation of certain

enzymes, and copper, which helps regulate blood pressure and heart rate (Bisson and Butzke,

2019).

Recent studies indicate that the Honey Queen variety of pineapple is superior in nutritional

content and sweetness compared to the Giant Kew variety. The Honey Queen variety contains

10% total soluble solids (TSS), 4.84% total sugar, and 1.59% non-reducing sugar, whereas the

Giant Kew variety has 6% TSS, 3.88% total sugar, and 1.75% non-reducing sugar. Honey Queen

also contains higher levels of calcium, though Giant Kew has higher vitamin C content. Ascorbic

acid in Nigerian pineapples ranges from 22.5-33.5 mg/100g fresh weight, with higher levels of

reducing sugar found in pineapple pulp than in pineapple waste (Bisson and Butzke, 2020).

2.10 Uses as food

Pineapple fruits are rich in moisture, sugars, soluble solids, and ascorbic acid, while having low

crude fiber content. Thus, pineapple can serve as a supplementary fruit for good personal health.

It is commonly consumed fresh or as fresh pineapple juice. Field-ripe fruits are best for eating

fresh, with only the crown, rind, eyes, and core needing removal. Pineapple can also be canned,

juiced, and used in various food products such as desserts, fruit salads, jams, yogurts, ice cream,

candy, and as a complement to meat dishes. In Panama, small pineapples are cut with a few

inches of stem to serve as handles, while larger fruits are eaten fresh, in salads, pies, cakes,
puddings, or as garnishes on ham. In the Philippines, fermented pineapple pulp is made into a

popular sweetmeat (Rojas, Rodríguez and López, 2021).

2.11 Medicinal value of pineapple

Pineapple fruits are an excellent source of vitamins and minerals. One ripe pineapple fruit can

supply about 16.2% of the daily requirement for vitamin C, which is the body's primary water-

soluble antioxidant. Vitamin C supports collagen formation in bones, blood vessels, and muscles

and helps absorb iron. It also helps prevent urinary tract infections during pregnancy and reduces

the risk of certain cancers (Rojas et al., 2021).

Pineapple is also rich in malic acid, which boosts immunity, promotes smooth skin, maintains

oral health, and reduces the risk of toxic metal poisoning. Other important nutrients include

vitamin B1, vitamin B6, copper, and dietary fiber. Pineapple is renowned for its digestive and

anti-inflammatory properties. It contains bromelain, a proteolytic enzyme that helps break down

protein, aiding digestion and promoting the healing of injuries (Rojas et al., 2021).

Pineapple juice has been found to hydrate the body, restore the immune system, and strengthen

bones. Rich in manganese, it supports bone health, particularly in growing individuals and those

in need of bone strengthening. Pineapple's enzymes have anti-inflammatory effects, reducing

swelling in conditions like acute sinusitis, sore throat, and arthritis (Maldonado, Rolz, and

Schneider de Cabnera, 2008).

Bromelain is commonly used for reducing inflammation in conditions such as rheumatoid

arthritis and gout, as well as speeding recovery from injuries, surgery, and ulcers. Pineapple also

reduces blood clotting, alleviates swelling, and improves circulation in those with narrowed

arteries, such as angina sufferers. It can also help cure bronchitis and throat infections and is used
in traditional medicine for various ailments, including constipation, heart problems, and skin

health (Díaz et al., 2021).

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Berkowitz, R. (2020). Nutritional composition of tropical fruits: A comparative analysis. Journal

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Bisson, L. F., and Butzke, C. E. (2009). Wine Analysis and Production. CRC Press.

Bisson, L. F., and Butzke, C. E. (2019). The role of yeasts in wine fermentation. Wine Science
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