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TECHNOLOGY IN AC TION™
Beginning Sensor
Networks with
XBee, Raspberry Pi,
and Arduino
Sensing the World with Python
and MicroPython
—
Second Edition
—
Charles Bell
Beginning Sensor
Networks with XBee,
Raspberry Pi, and
Arduino
Sensing the World with Python
and MicroPython
Second Edition
Charles Bell
Beginning Sensor Networks with XBee, Raspberry Pi, and Arduino:
Sensing the World with Python and MicroPython
Charles Bell
Warsaw, VA, USA
v
Table of Contents
vi
Table of Contents
vii
Table of Contents
viii
Table of Contents
ix
Table of Contents
Arduino Tutorial�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������288
Learning Resources�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������289
The Arduino IDE�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������290
Project: Hardware “Hello, World!”����������������������������������������������������������������294
Hosting Sensors with Arduino���������������������������������������������������������������������������300
Project: Building an Arduino Temperature Sensor���������������������������������������������302
Hardware Setup�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������302
Software Setup��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������304
Writing the Sketch���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������306
Test Execution���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������310
Project: Using an Arduino As a Data Collector for XBee Sensor Nodes�������������312
XBee Sensor Node���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������312
Coordinator Node�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������313
Arduino with XBee Shield����������������������������������������������������������������������������314
Testing the Final Project������������������������������������������������������������������������������326
For More Fun�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������328
Component Shopping List���������������������������������������������������������������������������������328
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������331
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Table of Contents
xi
Table of Contents
xii
Table of Contents
xiii
Table of Contents
Appendix�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������683
Consolidated Shopping Lists�����������������������������������������������������������������������������683
Alternative Connection Systems�����������������������������������������������������������������������691
Grove�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������691
Qwiic�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������695
STEMMA QT������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������700
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������701
Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������703
xiv
About the Author
Charles Bell conducts research in emerging
technologies. He is a principal software
developer of the Oracle MySQL Development
team. He lives in a small town in rural Virginia
with his loving wife. He received his Doctor
of Philosophy in Engineering from Virginia
Commonwealth University in 2005.
Dr. Bell is an expert in the database field
and has extensive knowledge and experience in
software development and systems engineering.
His research interests include microcontrollers, three-dimensional printing,
database systems, software engineering, and sensor networks. He spends his
limited free time as a practicing maker focusing on microcontroller projects
and refinement of three-dimensional printers.
xv
About the Technical Reviewer
Sai Yamanoor is an embedded systems engineer working for an industrial
gases company in Buffalo, NY. His interests, deeply rooted in DIY and
open source hardware, include developing gadgets that aid behavior
modification. He has published two books with his brother, and in his
spare time, he likes to contribute to build things that improve quality of
life. You can find his project portfolio at http://saiyamanoor.com.
xvii
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank all of the many talented and energetic professionals
at Apress. I appreciate the understanding and patience of my managing
editor, Natalie Pao; coordinating editor, Jessica Vakili; and development
editor, James Markham. Each was instrumental in the success of this
project. I appreciate their encouragement and guidance as well as patience
in dealing with my many questions. I would also like to thank the small
army of publishing professionals at Apress for making me look so good in
print. Thank you all very much!
I’d like to especially thank the technical reviewer, Sai Yamanoor, for
his patience, insight, and impressive attention to detail. Most importantly,
I want to thank my wife, Annette, for her unending patience and
understanding during the many hours I spent hunched over my laptop or
conducting science experiments on the dining table.
xix
Introduction
The world of microcontrollers and increasingly capable and popular small
computing platforms is enabling many more people to learn, experience,
and complete projects that would previously have required dedicated (and
expensive) hardware. Rather than purchase a commercial or made-for-
consumers kit, enterprising developers can now build their own solutions
to meet their needs. Sensor networks are just one example of how these
small, powerful, and inexpensive components have made it possible for
anyone with a moderate skill set to build their own sensor network.
This book presents a beginner’s guide to sensor networks. I cover topics
including what types of sensors exist, how they communicate their values
(observations or events), how they can be used in Arduino and Raspberry Pi
projects, and how to build your own home temperature sensor network.
I also include an introduction to the MySQL database server and how
you can connect to, store, and retrieve data. Why, I even show you how to
do it directly from an Arduino!
Better still, this edition has been updated to include updated tools
and software, project examples, as well as the latest use and programming
of the XBee 3 modules. Yes, we’re writing code to control them in
MicroPython. There’s an entire chapter dedicated to MicroPython as well
as extended coverage of the XBee platform.
xxi
Introduction
Strategies
I have tried to construct the projects so that the majority of readers can
accomplish them with little difficulty. If you encounter topics that you are
very familiar with, I recommend working through the projects anyway
instead of simply reading or skipping through the instructions. This is
because some of the later projects build on the earlier projects.
xxii
Introduction
On the other hand, if you encounter topics that you are unfamiliar
with, I recommend reading through the chapter or section completely at
least once before attempting the project. Take some time to fully absorb
the material, and pay particular attention to the numerous links, tips, and
cautionary portions. Some of those are pure gold for beginners.
Perhaps the most significant advice I can offer when approaching the
projects is to attempt them one at a time. By completing the projects one
at a time, you gain knowledge that you can build on for future projects.
It also helps you establish a pace to work through the book. Although
some accomplished readers can probably complete all the projects in a
weekend, I recommend working through the book at a pace best suited for
your availability (and enjoyment).
With some exceptions, the earlier chapters are independent and can be
tackled in any order. This is especially true for the Raspberry Pi (Chapter 5)
and Arduino (Chapter 6) chapters. Regardless, it is a good idea to read the
book and work on the projects in order.
xxiii
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Introduction
The lists include the name of each component and at least one link
to an online vendor that stocks the component. In addition, I include the
quantity needed for the chapter and an estimated cost. If you add up all
the components needed and sum the estimated cost, the total may be a
significant investment for some readers.
The following sections are for anyone looking to save a little on the cost
of completing the projects in this book or wanting to build up their own
inventory of sensor network hardware on a budget.
Online Auctions
One possible way to save money is to buy your components at a discount
on online auction sites. In many cases, the components are the very same
ones listed. In other cases, the components may be from vendors that
specialize in making less expensive alternatives. I have had a lot of success
in buying quality hardware from online auction sites (namely, eBay).
xxiv
Introduction
If you are not in a hurry and have time to wait for auctions to close
and the subsequent shipping times, you can sometimes find major
components like Arduinos, shields, power supplies, and the like at a
reduced price by bidding for them. For example, open source hardware
manufacturers sometimes offer their products via auctions or at special
pricing for quantities. I have found a number of Arduino clones and
shields at nearly half the cost of the same boards found on other sites or in
electronics stores.
The projects in this book are designed for a current, readily available
version of the Arduino as well as the most recently retired boards. The
projects can be completed with the Uno or Mega 2560 boards without
modification. Although you can use the Leonardo (see specific notes in the
chapters about the differences), you should consider the newer boards
carefully before buying.
1
nd replace the components you implode, explode, or otherwise turn into silicon
A
slag. Hey, it happens.
xxv
Introduction
D
ownloading the Code
The code for the examples shown in this book is available on the Apress
website, www.apress.com. A link can be found on the book’s information
page under the Source Code/Downloads tab. This tab is located
underneath the Related Titles section of the page.
R
eporting Errata
Should you find a mistake in this book, please report it through the Errata
tab on the book’s page at www.apress.com. You will find any previously
confirmed errata in the same place.
xxvi
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
to Sensor Networks
Sensor networks are no longer expensive industrial constructs. You can
build a simple sensor network from easily procured, low-cost hardware.
All you need are some simple sensors and a microcontroller or computer
with input/output capabilities. Yes, your Arduino and Raspberry Pi are
ideal platforms for building sensor networks. If you’ve worked with either
platform and have ever wanted to monitor your garden pond, track
movement in your home or office, monitor the temperature in your house,
monitor the environment, or even build a low-cost security system, you’re
halfway there!
As inviting and easy as that sounds, don’t start warming up the
soldering iron just yet. There are a lot of things you need to know about
sensor networks. It’s not quite as simple as plugging things together and
turning them on. If you want to build a reliable and informative sensor
network, you need to know how such networks are constructed.
In addition, you may have heard of something called the Internet of
Things (IoT). This phrase refers to the use of devices that can communicate
over a network (local or Internet). IoT devices are therefore network-aware
devices that can send data to other resources, thereby virtualizing the
effects of the devices on users and their experience. Sensor networks play
a prominent role in the IoT. What you will learn in this book will provide a
firm foundation for building IoT solutions using sensor networks.
If you want to know more about IoT in general, several books have
been written on the topic, including the following. If you’re interested in
learning more about the IoT and how sensor networks are used, check out
some of these titles:
• Building Internet of Things with the Arduino by
Charalampos Doukas (CreateSpace Independent
Publishing Platform, 2012)
2
Chapter 1 Introduction to Sensor Networks
A
utomotive
Almost every modern automobile has a network of sophisticated sensors
that monitor the performance of the engine and its subsystems. Some
cars have additional sensors for monitoring external air temperature, tire
pressure, and even proximity to objects and other vehicles. Newer vehicles
have a host of safety mechanisms including lane departure, obstacle
avoidance, auto braking, and more.1
If you take a late-model car in for service and get a chance to look in
the garage area, you may notice several machines that resemble computer
terminals, tablet computers, or in some cases an iPad. These systems
are diagnostic machines designed to connect to your car and read all the
data the sensors and computer have stored. Some manufacturers use the
industry standard interface called onboard diagnostics (OBD).2 There are
several versions of this interface and its protocols; most dealerships have
equipment that supports all the latest protocols.
1
I nterestingly, I have heard a few motorists who despise some of these features
because their driving habits place the vehicle more to one side of the road
or another, which triggers the lane departure warning. Similarly, those that
habitually cross the center line when driving on curving roads tend to turn off
the departure warning. Clearly one of these is an understandable annoyance,
whereas the other is exactly why the feature is needed.
2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-board_diagnostics
3
Chapter 1 Introduction to Sensor Networks
4
Chapter 1 Introduction to Sensor Networks
Notice the level of detail displayed. The image shows three metrics in
the trace, but if you look at the top of the screen, you will see many more
metrics that can be monitored. The data shown in the graph was gathered
in real time and displayed using the sophisticated sensor networks Porsche
employs.
The use of sensors in automobiles has begun to spill over into related
machinery such as motorcycles, boats, and even the venerable farm
tractor. Many modern farm machines such as combines have sophisticated
sensors that enable amazing capabilities such as auto header height, auto
pilot, and more.
For example, modern combines can be purchased with a suite of GPS-
based tools that permit the operator to plot the boundaries of the harvest
field and calculate the best paths for minimal time and maximum harvest.
In the case where the harvest field is very large, the operator can practically
5
Chapter 1 Introduction to Sensor Networks
take a nap while the combine does the work.3 This is a far cry from older
combines that required manual adjustment of the header.
E nvironment
The environment is on many peoples’ minds, and many scientists are
actively monitoring it. Motives for monitoring the environment range
from checking a specific area or room for gases and tracking the area’s
temperature and humidity to monitoring and reporting anomalies
for sensitive equipment, such as running chemical analyses for clean
rooms. Examples of environment sensor networks include those used
to monitor air pollution, detect and track forest fires, detect landslides,
provide earthquake early warnings, and provide industrial and structural
monitoring.
Sensor networks are ideal for all forms of environmental monitoring.
Due to the sensors’ small size, low energy requirements, and low cost, they
can be easily installed at specific locations or on specific machines for
precise reporting. For example, a clean-room environment often requires
very precise temperature and humidity control as well as extremely
low levels of contaminants (loose particles floating in the air). Sensors
can be used to measure these observations at key locations (windows,
doors, air vents, and so on); the data is sent to a computer that records
it and generates threshold alerts. Most sophisticated clean rooms tie the
filtration, heat, and cooling systems into the same computer system (using
their own sensors) to control the environment based on the data collected
from the sensor network.
3
I t may be hard to imagine a 46,000-pound plus machine that resembles a
medieval torture device or a serial killer’s weapon being driven by a computer,
but it’s true. Some of the most expensive combines have more sophisticated
technology than your favorite sports sedan including air conditioning, cruise
control, and fully adjustable seats.
6
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
necessarily the same as at first announced; for the trial might bring
to light facts to mitigate or to aggravate the sentence. The
presentation of the case to the comitia by the magistrate was termed
the fourth accusation.[1580] If anything prevented the voting in the
comitia, the accused was discharged,[1581] and could not be legally
brought to trial again for the same offence excepting under a
different form of action.[1582]
In the belief of the Romans the tribunes of the plebs, originally two,
were instituted in 494 as a concession to the seceding commons to
win them back to the state.[1583] The historical truth of the first
secession need not be discussed here; but there is no good ground
for rejecting the view of the ancients either that the tribunate of the
plebs owed its existence to a revolution or that it began at as early a
date. According to our sources the plebeian tribunes, hence we may
infer also the aediles, were for a time elected, and other business
affecting the interests of the common people was transacted, in
comitia curiata composed potentially of all the citizens.[1584] The
change in the form of organization in 471, from curiate to tribal, will
be considered below. The president of the comitia which elected the
first plebeian tribunes was necessarily a patrician magistrate,[1585]
probably the pontifex maximus;[1586] thereafter, with the exception of
the comitia for the election of the first plebeian officials after the
overthrow of the decemvirs, tribunes of the plebs presided not only
for elections but also for judicial business and for the enactment of
plebiscites (plebi scita).
The object of the office of tribune was the protection of individual
citizens, plebeian and patrician alike,[1587] from oppression; and the
means was the auxilium (official aid),[1588] which could be rendered
in no other way than by personal contact; hence the law prohibiting a
tribune from being absent over night from the city[1589] and requiring
him to leave the door of his house open during the night.[1590] In the
further interest of the citizens the tribunes had the unrestricted right
to call the plebs to a contio and address them at any time and on any
subject, to form them when so assembled into voting groups, at first
curiae and after 471, tribes, and to take their votes on proposals
affecting plebeian interests, plebiscites being from the beginning
binding on the plebeian body in so far as they harmonized with the
laws of the state.[1591]
These were the two original functions from which the vast powers
of the later tribunes gradually developed. As strictly plebeian officials
they had no authority to summon patricians, to exclude them from
the place of assembly,[1592] or to condemn them judicially.[1593] It
follows that their alleged prosecutions of past consuls for
maladministration[1594] are fictions[1595]—an anticipation of their
jurisdiction at a later age. Directly they possessed no power of
judgment or of coercion;[1596] but for the enforcement of the auxilium
and of the ius agendi cum plebe their persons were made sacred—
sacro sancti—by an oath which the plebs swore at the time they
instituted the office,[1597] namely that any one who killed a tribune or
aedile of the plebs or did him bodily harm, or who commanded
another to inflict harm or death upon him might as a person devoted
to Jupiter be killed with impunity, and his property be confiscated.
[1598] The avenger was necessarily either a private plebeian or an
official of the plebs.[1599] The formal act which rendered the tribunes
sacred was termed a lex sacrata. The essence of such a law is (1)
that it was sworn to by the community—in this instance by the
community of plebs, (2) that the offender against it became a homo
sacer and could be put to death with impunity.[1600] This idea of
sanctity the plebeians may have derived partly from the Greek
asylum;[1601] but it seems also to have been influenced by the
condition of ambassadors, hence the later, ill-founded conception of
the plebs as a state, and of the plebeian officials and other
institutions as based on a treaty ratified with fetial ceremonies
between the patrician government and the seceding plebs.[1602]
Though termed lex sacrata because it was passed and sworn to in
the community, as it were, of the plebs, like any plebiscite of this
period the resolution had no legal validity for the state or for the
patricians. Under compulsion, however, the government yielded to
the demands of the plebeians without formally acknowledging the
sanctity of their officials; so that the patricians, by asserting that
Roman law did not recognize an inviolability founded purely on
religion,[1603] could afterward deny that the tribunes were really
sacrosanct. Till the enactment of the Valerian-Horatian laws of 449,
[1604] accordingly, the inviolability of the tribunes existed in so far
only as the plebeians were in a position to maintain it by holding over
their opponents and over the government the threat of violence and
revolution. That under the circumstances domestic peace was on the
whole preserved should be credited to the orderly character of the
great mass of citizens.
Applied to the holding of contiones and comitia, this inviolability
protected the presiding tribune from interruption, contradiction, and
every disturbance. The principle was afterward extended to verbal
abuse anywhere publicly indulged in.[1605] Even if a man showed
disrespect by not stepping out of the way of a tribune who was
passing along the street, he was liable to the death penalty.[1606]
Under normal conditions, however, the rigorous execution of this lex
sacrata could not be thought of; in place of outlawing the offender
against his person the tribune was ordinarily willing to impose a fine
upon him, from which an appeal might be made to the plebeian
assembly; or in cases of violence to his person, he might resort to
capital prosecution, which was likewise appealable. These principles
were formulated in an alleged Icilian plebiscite of the year 492.[1607]
From what has just been said it is clear that the tribune’s
coercive[1608] and judicial functions resulted, not from usurpation as
has often been asserted,[1609] but from a mitigation of the harsh lex
sacrata. In a word, the ultimate basis of tribunician authority was the
revolutionary power of the plebs, upon which rested the sanctity of
the tribunes, and thereon their jurisdiction. Of the judicial activity
attributed by the annalists to the plebeian officials in the period
before the decemvirs we do not know how much is mythical; but it is
safe to say that all the capital cases, probably all the cases without
qualification, which they actually settled as judges were submitted to
by the patrician government for the sake of peace, without being
accepted as legal.
To the third year of the tribunate, 491, is assigned the first
mentioned exercise of tribunician jurisdiction. C. Marcius Coriolanus,
the accused, had advocated in the senate the abolition of the
tribunician office,[1610] and had done personal violence to the
aediles, in this way rendering himself liable to the penalty of the lex
sacrata on which rested the sanctity of the plebeian officials. Instead
of declaring him a homo sacer, a tribune brought him to trial before
the tribes, which condemned him by a narrow majority.[1611] The
story is now regarded by all scholars as a myth. The vote by tribes at
this early time is either exceptional or more likely an anticipation of
later usage.[1612]
In accordance with the Icilian plebiscite a capital charge is said to
have been brought by a tribune of the plebs against Kaeso Quinctius
on the ground that he had repeatedly driven the tribunes from the
Forum and had dispersed their assembly.[1613] After providing
sureties the accused went into exile,[1614] and the sentence of
banishment was passed—in Cicero’s opinion by the comitia
centuriata, in Livy’s by the tribal comitia of plebs, 461.[1615] Another
case prior to the decemvirate is recorded for the year 455.
Representatives of three illustrious patrician families were charged
with having disturbed an assembly under tribunician presidency.
Their estates were forfeited to Ceres.[1616] Naturally under this
arrangement between the plebs and the government there was room
for much misunderstanding: the leaders of the plebs stretched their
claims to the uttermost; and the patricians, after granting the radical
concession, endeavored to recall as much of it as possible. They
plausibly urged that while the sacrosanctitas, so far as it existed,
[1617] might protect the person of the tribune, it gave him no authority
The following literature is for the whole period from 449 to 287.
Schulze, C. F., Volksversammlungen der Römer, 341-70; Hüllmann, K. D.,
Staatsrecht des Altertums, 354-67; Niebuhr, B. G., Römische Geschichte, i. 624 ff.,
Eng. 283 ff.; see also index, s. Tributcomitien; Schwegler, A., Röm. Geschichte,
see index, s. Tributcomitien; Mommsen, Th., Röm. Staatsrecht, iii. 300 ff.; Röm.
Forschungen, i. 151-66; Röm. Strafrecht, 462-8, 473-8, 1014-6, et passim; Ihne,
W., History of Rome, bk. VI. chs. i, viii; Ueber die Entstehung und die ältesten
Befugnisse des röm. Tribunats, in Rhein. Mus. N. F. xxi (1866). 161-79;
Entwickelung der Tributcomitien, in Rhein. Mus. N. F. xxviii (1873). 353-79; Peter,
C., Gesch. Roms, bks. ii, iii; Lange, L., Röm. Altertümer, i. 586-681, 821-56; ii.
459-94, 533-42, 565-97, 613-42; De legibus Porciis libertatis civium vindicibus, in
Kleine Schriften, i. 342-429; De plebiscitis Ovinio et Atinio disputatio, ibid. ii. 393-
446; Ueber das poetelische Gesetz de ambitu, ibid. ii. 195-202; Kleineidam, F.,
Beitr. z. Kentniss d. lex Poetelia, in Festg. f. F. Dahn, ii. 1-30; Ihm, Ambitus, in
Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encycl. i. 1800-3; Madvig, J. N., Verfassung und Verwaltung
des röm. Staates, i. 234-46; Voigt, M., XII Tafeln, i. 683-90; Karlowa, O., Röm.
Rechtsgeschichte, i. 409; Girard, P. F., Histoire de l’organisation judiciaire des
Romains, i. 149-59, 237 ff.; Puchta, G. F., Cursus der Institutionen, i. (10th ed.
1893) 166-9 (on lex and plebiscite); Mispoulet, J. B., Institutions politiques des
Romains, i. 207-30; Études d’institutions Romaines, 66-81; Willems, P., Droit
public Romain, 160 ff., 173 ff.; Greenidge, Legal Procedure of Cicero’s Time, 327-
49; Herzog, E., Geschichte und System der röm. Staatsverfassung, i. 153 ff., 189-
96, 216 ff., 248-64, 279-88, 1128-88; Glaubwürdigkeit der Gesetze bis 387 der
Stadt; Lex Sacrata und das Sacrosanctum, in Jahrb. f. Philol. xxii (1876). 139-50;
Dupond, A., De la constitution et des magistratures Romaines sous la république
Romaine, 75 ff.; Borgeaud, C., Histoire du plébiscite, 57-76, 117-67; Hallays, A.,
Comices à Rome, ch. iii; Morlot, E., Comices électoraux sous la république
Romaine, ch. iv; Ptaschnik, J., Die Wahl der Volkstribunen vor der Rogation des
Volero Publilius, in Zeitschr. f. österreich. Gymn. xiv (1863). 627-38; Publilische
Rogation, ibid. xvii (1866). 161-200; Die Centuriatgesetze von 305 und 415 U. C.,
ibid. xxi (1870). 497-525; Lex Hortensia 473 U. C. ibid. xxiii (1872). 241-53;
Stimmrecht der Patricier in den Tributcomitien, ibid. xxxii (1881). 81-102; Ruppel,
K. W., Teilnahme der Patrizier an den Tributkomitien; Soltau, W., Gültigkeit der
Plebiscite, in Berliner Studien, ii (1885). 1-176; Clason, D. O., Kritische
Erörterungen über den röm. Staat, 30-9; Schmidt, J., Die Einsetzung der röm.
Volkstribunen, in Hermes, xxi (1886). 460-6; Meyer, E., Der Ursprung des
Tribunats und die Gemeinde der vier Tribus, in Hermes, xxi (1895). 1-24,
controverted by Vassis, in Athena, ix (1897). 470 ff.; Pais, Ancient Italy, chs. xx,
xxi; Garofalo, F. P., L’origine e l’elezione dei tribuni e degli edili della plebe con un
indice alfabetico dei loro nomi; Podestà, G., Il tribunato della plebe in Roma dalla
secessione sul monte sacro all’approvazione della legge di Publilio Volerone;
Eigenbrodt, A., De magistratuum Romanorum iure intercedendi; Ackermann, H.,
Ueber die raümlichen Schranken der tribunizischen Gewalt; Tophoff, De lege
Valeria Horatia, Publilia, Hortensia; Hennes, Das dritte valerisch-horatische Gesetz
und dessen Wiederholungen; Long, G., On the Passage in Appian’s Civil Wars (i.
8) which relates to the Licinian Law, in Classical Museum, iii (1846). 78 ff.;
Kubitschek, Aedilis, in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encycl. i. 448-64; Humbert, G.,
Aedilis, in Daremberg et Saglio, Dict. i. 95-100; Bloch, L., Die ständischen und
sozialen Kämpfe in der römischen Republik; Willoughby, W. W., Political Theories
of the Ancient World, ch. xvi; Strachan-Davidson, T. L., Decrees of the Roman
Plebs, in Eng. Hist. Rev. v (1890). 462-74; Dreyfus, R., Les lois agraires sous la
république Romaine, pt. I. chs. i-iii; De Sanctis, G., Storia dei Romani, I. chs. xiii,
xiv, xvii; Billeter, G., Gesch. d. Zinsfusses, 115 ff.
CHAPTER XIII
THE COMITIA TRIBUTA AND THE RISE OF POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY
From 449 to 287
I. Elective
II. Judicial
a. TRIBUNICIAN
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