Analog Electronics

Lecture-2&3
Prof. Prasant Kumar Pattnaik
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
BITS Pilani Hyderabad Campus

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Review
Fundamental concepts
• Basic Laws, Circuit Theorems and
Analysis
• Basic Devices
• Electronic Circuit Analysis
and Design

1/22/2023 2

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Review of Basic Concepts

• Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

• Thevenin’s Theorem

• Norton’s Theorem

• Superposition Theorem

• Miller’s Theorem

1/22/2023 3

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Definition – Node

• A Node is a point of connection between two or more

circuit elements
• Nodes can be “spread out” by perfect conductors

1/22/2023 4

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Definition – Loop

• A Loop is any closed path through the circuit which

encounters no node more than once

1/22/2023 5

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL)

• The algebraic sum of all currents entering (or

leaving) a node is zero
• Equivalently: The sum of the currents entering a node
equals the sum of the currents leaving a node
• Mathematically:
N

i
k 1
k (t )  0

• We can’t accumulate
charge at a node

1/22/2023 6

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Kirchoff’s Current Law – continued

• When applying KCL, the current directions (entering

or leaving a node) are based on the assumed
directions of the currents
• Also need to decide whether currents entering the node
are positive or negative; this dictates the sign of the
currents leaving the node
• As long all assumptions are consistent, the final result
will reflect the actual current directions in the circuit

1/22/2023 7

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

• The algebraic sum of all voltage differences around

any closed loop is zero
• Equivalently: The sum of the voltage rises around a closed
loop is equal to the sum of the voltage drops around the
loop
• Mathematically:
N

v
k 1
k (t )  0

• If we traverse a loop, we end up

at the same voltage we started with

1/22/2023 8

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Circuit analysis – applying KVL and KCL

• In circuit analysis, we generally need to determine

voltages and/or currents in one or more elements
• We can determine voltages, currents in all elements by:
• Writing a voltage-current relation for each element (Ohm’s
law, for resistors)
• Applying KVL around all but one loop in the circuit
• Applying KCL at all but one node in the circuit

1/22/2023 9

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Example

Find current through 2 ohms resistor in the circuit shown below

1/22/2023 10

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Thévenin and Norton’s Theorems

• General idea:
• We want to replace a complicated circuit with a simple
one, such that the load cannot tell the difference

• Becomes easier to perform & evaluate load design

1/22/2023 11

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Thévenin and Norton’s Theorems

• We will replace circuit “A” of the previous slide with

a simple circuit with the same voltage-current
characteristics
• Requirements:
• Circuit A is linear
• Circuit A has no dependent sources controlled by circuit B
• Circuit B has no dependent sources controlled by circuit A

1/22/2023 12

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Thévenin’s Theorem

• Thévenin’s Theorem replaces the linear circuit with

a voltage source in series with a resistance
• Procedure:

1/22/2023 13

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Thévenin’s Theorem

• This is a general voltage-

current relation for a linear,
two-terminal network
• Voc is the terminal voltage if
i=0
– (the open-circuit voltage)
• RTH is the equivalent
resistance seen at the
terminals (the Thévenin
resistance)
1/22/2023 14

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Creating the Thévenin equivalent circuit

1. Identify and isolate the circuit and terminals for which

the Thévenin equivalent circuit is desired
2. Kill the independent sources in circuit and determine
the equivalent resistance RTH of the circuit
3. Re-activate the sources and determine the open-circuit
voltage VOC across the circuit terminals
4. Place the Thévenin equivalent circuit into the original
overall circuit and perform the desired analysis

1/22/2023 15

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Example

• Replace everything except the load resistor R with its

Thévenin equivalent

1/22/2023 16

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Example

1. Get RTH

2. Get VOC

1/22/2023 17

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Example

1/22/2023 18

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Norton’s Theorem

• Norton’s Theorem: any linear circuit can be modeled

as a current source in parallel with a resistor

1/22/2023 19

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Source Transformations

• The Thévenin and Norton equivalent circuits both

represent the same circuit
• They have the same voltage-current characteristics

1/22/2023 20

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Maximum Power Transfer

• We can use Thevenin’s Theorem to show how to

transfer the maximum amount of power to a load
• Problem: choose RL so that RL receives the maximum power

• For maximum power transfer, RL = RTH

• For ac circuits Z0=ZL*
1/22/2023 21

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Maximum Power Transfer

• Load voltage: • Delivered power:

2
V 2
V  2
RL 
PL  
L

OC

RL RL  RL  RTH 

RL
VL  VOC
RL  RTH

1/22/2023 22

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Maximum Power Transfer

• Set derivative of power to zero:

PL   2 RL 
0 VOC 2
0
RL RL  RL  RTH  
• Chain rule:
 ( R  R ) 2
 2 RL ( RTH  RL ) 
0
2 L TH
VOC 
 ( RL  RTH ) 4

• Set numerator to zero:
RL  RTH

1/22/2023 23

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Miller’s Theorem

Purpose: Vo   AVin
To reduce the complexity of circuit analysis when a
feedback impedance is introduced
1/22/2023 24
24
ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION
 Miller’s Theorem

Zf AZ f
Z1  Z2 
1 A 1 A
1/22/2023 25
25
ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION
 Nodal Analysis

• Why Nodal Analysis??

 Helps in analyzing
complicated circuits

• When is it used?

 Usually used if the circuit contains

more no. of current sources.

1/22/2023 26

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Nodal Analysis

• Identify independent nodes

• The voltages at these nodes are the node voltages

• Use Ohm’s Law to write KCL at each independent node

in terms of the node voltages
• Solve these equations to determine the node voltages
• Any desired circuit parameter can be determined from
the node voltages

1/22/2023 27

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Nodal Analysis: Example
Example:

Find the voltage across 1k resistor using nodal

analysis.

1/22/2023 28

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Nodal Analysis: Example
Example (Contd..):

Step 1: Reference Node

500 500

+
I1 V 1k 500 I2
500
-

The reference node is called the ground node.

1/22/2023 29

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Nodal Analysis: Example
Example (Contd..):
Step 2:
a. Assign nodal voltages at nodes 1, 2 and 3
b. Assign arbitrary currents for the branches

V1 i3 500 V2 i6 500 V3
i i i7 3
1 4 2 5

I1 1k 500 I2
500

1. The polarity for V1, V2, and V3 is positive at respective nodes.

2. Negative polarity for each of the node voltage is
at reference node.
1/22/2023 30

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Nodal Analysis: Example
Currents and node voltages

V1
V1 500 V2
I I

500
V1  V2
I=
500
V1
I=
500
1/22/2023 31

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Nodal Analysis: Example
Example (Contd..):
Step 3: KCL at node 1
I1 V1i3 500 V2
i4
V1  V2 V1 I1
  I1 500
500  500 

Algebraic sum of leaving currents from a node is equal to

the algebraic sum of currents entering the node V1.

1/22/2023 32

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Nodal Analysis: Example
Example (Contd..):
Step 3: KCL at node 2
V1 500 V2 500 V3

V2 V2  V3 V1  V2 1k
 
1k 500 500

Algebraic sum of leaving currents from a node is equal to

the algebraic sum of currents entering the node V2.

1/22/2023 33

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Nodal Analysis: Example
Example (Contd..):
Step 3: KCL at node 3
V2 500 i V3
6

i7
V2  V3 V3
 I2  500 I2
500 500

Algebraic sum of leaving currents from a node is equal to

the algebraic sum of currents entering the node V3.

1/22/2023 34

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Nodal Analysis: Example
Example (Contd..):
Step 4: Solve the system of equations
• Node 1:
 1 1   1 
  V1   V2  I1
 500 500   500 
• Node 2:
 1   1 1 1   1 
 V1     V2   V3  0
 500   500 1k 500   500 
• Node 3:

 1   1 1 
 V2  V3     I2
 500   500 500 
1/22/2023 35

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Mesh Analysis

• Applicable for planar networks

• Simultaneous equations
where variables are currents
• Main step is to identify the number of
meshes in the circuit

1/22/2023 36

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Mesh Analysis

• Identify mesh loops

• The currents around these loops are the mesh currents

• Use Ohm’s Law to write KVL around each loop in terms

of the mesh currents
• Solve these equations to determine the mesh currents
• Any desired circuit parameter can be determined from
the mesh currents

1/22/2023 37

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Mesh Analysis

1. Identify Meshes R1  R2 

V1 + +
Mesh 1 Mesh 2 V2
– –

R3 
R4  R2 
2. Assign Mesh current

V1 + R3  +
V2
– I1 I2 –

1/22/2023 38

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Mesh Analysis
3. Assign voltages to elements
+ V3 – + V4 –
+
V1 + + V2
– I1 V5 I2 –
–

4. Apply KVL around Mesh-1

– V 1 + V3 + V 5 = 0

–V1 + I1 R1 + (I1 – I2) R3 = 0

I1 R1 + (I1 – I2) R3 = V1
I1 (R1 + R3) – I2 R3 = V1 1
1/22/2023 39

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Mesh Analysis
5. Apply KVL around Mesh-2
V4+ V2 – V5 = 0
I2 R2 + V2 – (I1 – I2) R3 = 0
– I1 R3 +(R2 +R3 ) I2 = –V2 2

6. Solve the equations 1 and 2 for I1 and I2

1/22/2023 40

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Superposition Theorem

For linear circuits consisting of more than one independent sources,

We can find the response due to an individual source with the other
Independent source set to zero and add all the responses to get the
total response due to all sources

1/22/2023 41

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Devices

Diodes
- Diodes
- Zener diodes

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Field-Effect Transistors (FETs)

- JFETs
- MOSFETs

1/22/2023 43

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Diode

Ideal Diode
Ideally it conducts current in only one direction and
acts like an open circuit in the opposite direction

Forward bias,
reverse bias, i > 0A
v ≤ 0V

1/22/2023 44

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Diode
Ideal Diode

For v < 0, i = 0
and i > 0, v = 0

1/22/2023 45

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Diode
Example 1.10

For a given sinusoidal input signal with

peak value Vm and frequency f,
draw output waveform.
1/22/2023 46

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Diode
Example 1.10

(a) +ve half-cycle

(b) –ve half-cycle

1/22/2023 47

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Diode
Example 1.10

(c) Output waveform

1/22/2023 48

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Diode
Example 1.11

Plot Vo versus Io when V1 is varied from -1 V to 1 V.

Find the equation relating Vo and Io
1/22/2023 49

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Diode
Example 1.11 Equation

I o  0 , for V o  0 . 6 V
V o  0 . 6  I o R F , for V o  0 . 6 V
1/22/2023 50

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Practical Diodes
i-v characteristic curve of a practical diode

1/22/2023 51

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Practical Diodes

i-v characteristic curve of

a practical diode

The relationship between

v and i is given by
 ηVv 
i  I s  e T  1
 
 
1/22/2023 52

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Practical Diodes

i-v characteristic curve of a practical diode

 v 
 ηV 
i  Ise T  1

 
 
Where,
IS = reverse saturation current
VT = kT/q = T / 11586 = 0.0258 V,
volt-equivalent temperature
k = Boltzmann’s constant , T = absolute temperature
η = emission coefficient
= 1 (Germanium semiconductor)
1/22/2023
= 2 (Silicon semiconductor) 53

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Practical Diodes

i-v characteristic curve of a practical diode

Assuming η =1 under normal conditions
v
VT
i  I se
 i 
v  VT ln  
 IS 
1/22/2023 54

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Analysis of simple diode circuits
A diode circuit

 v  V S  v  iR L (KVL)
 V 
i  I s  e T  1 1 VS
  i v
  RL RL
Solve these equations to find i
1/22/2023 55

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Analysis of simple diode circuits
Graphical analysis of diode circuit

Plot the equations

Q – Quiescent point, Q-point or operating point
1/22/2023 56

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Analysis of simple diode circuits
Example 1.12

i-v characteristic is shown. vS is a sinusoidal voltage

with peak amplitude of 20 mV and frequency f.
Plot io versus wt
1/22/2023 57

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Analysis of simple diode circuits
Example 1.12 Graphical analysis of circuit

1/22/2023 58

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Diode Models

(a) Piece-wise (b) Model in (c) Model in

linear Characteristic forward region reverse region

Graphical analysis of complex circuit  difficult

Diode replaced by its model or equation
1/22/2023 59

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Diode Models

(d) Combined model

- RF diode forward resistance

- Ideal diode is added to the reverse region model to allow
1/22/2023
RR to come into the circuit only under reverse-bias 60
ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION
 Small Signal Model

(a) i-v characteristic (b) Small-signal model

rd = diode small signal resistance, incremental resistance
or dynamic resistance
1
rd 
 i D /  v D I D  io
1/22/2023 61

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Small Signal Model

VT
rd 
The Circuit with ac and dc signals ID
1/22/2023 62

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Zener Diode
i-v characteristic of
a Zener diode

IZK = current at the knee

The zener diode should be operated at I > IZK (in –ve direction)
VZ = defined at the test current IZT
1/22/2023 63

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Zener Diode
Model of
a Zener diode

rZ = incremental resistance
or dynamic resistance of zener diode
V Z  V Z 0  I Z rZ

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Bipolar Junction Transistor

n-p-n transistor p-n-p transistor

1/22/2023 65

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Bipolar Junction Transistor
Regions of operations and biasing conditions

BJT amplifiers - Configurations

1. Common-emitter -> input at base, output at collector

2. Common-base -> input at emitter, output at collector
3. Common-collector -> input at base, output at emitter

1/22/2023 66

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Bipolar Junction Transistor
i-v characteristics of a BJT

IB1 < IB2 < IB3 < IB4

1/22/2023 67

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Bipolar Junction Transistor
Equations for BJT
vEB / VT vEB / VT
iC  I s (e 1)  I s (e )
iC   iE
iC   iB
ICEO  1   ICBO
  hFE   /(1   )
BVCBO
BVCEO  n  2 to 4
n 
1/22/2023 68

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Bipolar Junction Transistor
Biasing a BJT

CE amplifier with Thevenin’s equivalent

Self biasing circuit
1/22/2023 69

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Bipolar Junction Transistor

1/22/2023 70

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Bipolar Junction Transistor
Biasing a BJT R2
Voc  VCC  V BB
R1  R2
R1 R2
Ro   RB
R1  R2
V BB  V BE
IB  and I C   I B
R B  (1   ) R E
VCE  VCC  I C RC  ( I B  I C ) R E
 1  
 VCC  I C  RC    1  R E 
   
 VCC  I C RC  R E  as   1
1/22/2023 71

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Bipolar Junction Transistor

Graphical method to find Q-point

1/22/2023 72

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Bipolar Junction Transistor
Biasing

Constant current biasing Current mirror

V CC  V EE  V BE
I REF 
1/22/2023
R 73

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Bipolar Junction Transistor
AC Analysis
Graphical method for finding amplification in CE config.

1/22/2023 74

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Bipolar Junction Transistor
Analytical Method
- Replace the device with its model
(equivalent circuit)

Model depends on
- Level and frequency of signal

Types of models
• Small-signal
• High-frequency
• Large-signal
1/22/2023 75

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Bipolar Junction Transistor
Small-signal model

rp = base-emitter resistance = VT/IB

gm = transconductance = IC / VT
 = short-circuit current gain = rp gm
vp = vbe = ac base-emitter voltage
ro = output resistance   v c /  ic v 0
be
1/22/2023 76

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 CE Amplifier
Analysis of CE amplifier

1/22/2023 77

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 CE Amplifier
Equivalent circuit of CE amplifier

1/22/2023 78

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 CE Amplifier

Voltage Gain (AV)

The output voltage νo = -gm νπ (RC RL) where νπ =

Hence, the voltage gain is,

Avs = =- ( ) = -gm ( )

The voltage gain is negative indicating phase reversal between

the input and output voltages.

1/22/2023 79

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 CE Amplifier
Current Gain, 𝒊𝒔

( ǁ )
Since, and = , current gain = =
( ǁ )

Input Resistance, 𝒊:

The input resistance is given by = , where, RB=

Output Resistance, 𝒐:

To find the output resistance, we short circuit the input voltage source and remove the
load, RL. Now, we connect an external voltage source at the output terminals and find the
current delivered by this source. The ratio of the external voltage and the current drawn
by the amplifier gives the output resistance. Thus,

1/22/2023 80

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 CE Amplifier

High-frequency hybrid-p model

1/22/2023 81

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 CE Amplifier

VCC = 15V, beta=100, Rs=1 kΩ,

R1=60kΩ, R2= 30kΩ,Rc = 4kΩ
RL= 4kΩ, RE = 2kΩ,r0 =infinite,
VBE= 0.7V

Find the DC operating point

and performance parameters

1/22/2023 82

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 CE Amplifier

1/22/2023 83

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 CE Amplifier

1/22/2023 84

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 CE Amplifier

1/22/2023 85

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 CE Amplifier
High-frequency hybrid-p model
Cp  C de  C je
IC C j0
C de   F ; C je   2C j 0
VT 1  (V BE / V e ) m

C 0
C 
1  (VCB / V c ) 
m

gm 1
wT  ; f  ; fT   f 
Cp  C  
2prp Cp  C  
1/22/2023 86

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 CE Amplifier
Cut-off frequencies and BW
where, R =

where, C = µ and R= ,

Capacitance obtained from data sheet or can

be calculated from the relation, = , where fT is unity
common–emitter short–circuit current gain frequency.
= Collector – base junction capacitance obtained from data sheet
| = , where = the net ac load. The Bandwidth of
the Amplifier, BW = ( ).
1/22/2023 87

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Field Effect Transistor
Symbols of JFET

FETs used for amplification and switching

- High input impedance

3-terminal device,
Source, Drain, Gate (control terminal)
1/22/2023 91

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Home Work

Self Study: Section 1.3.3 and 1.4 of Key Text Book

1/22/2023 123

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 References

Text Book
TB1 L.K. Maheshwari and M.M.S. Anand, Analog Electronics,
PHI, 2005
TB2 L.K. Maheshwari and M.M.S. Anand, Laboratory
Experiments & PSPICE Simulation in Analog Electronics
Experiments, PHI, 2005.

Reference Book
R1. A.S. Sedra, K.C. Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, 5th Ed.,
Oxford, 2004
R2. S. Franco, “Design with Operational Amplifiers and
Analog Integrated Circuits”, 3rd Ed. McGraw Hill, 2002

1/22/2023 124

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Operational Amplifier
Basics
Prof. Prasant Kumar Pattnaik
Department of Electrical Engineering
BITS Pilani Hyderabad Campus
ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION
 Outline
• Introduction- Differential Amplifier
• Opamp Symbol, Equivalent Circuit
and Transfer Characteristic
• Ideal Opamp
• Basic configurations of Opamp
• Practical Opamp
• Applications and Examples

2/9/2023 2

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Differential Amplifier

(a) (b)
(a) Two emitter-biased circuits (b) Differential amplifier

Identical Q1 and Q2; Rc1=Rc2; RE1=RE2; |VCC|=|VEE|

2/9/2023 3

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Differential Amplifier

(a) Dual input balanced output

(b) Dual input unbalanced output
(c) Single input balanced output
(d) Single input unbalanced output

(a) (b)

2/9/2023 (c) (d) 4

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 DC Analysis of Differential Amplifier
Apply KVL to base-emitter of Q1

VC =VCC – IC RC
and VCE = VC – VE Since voltage drop across Rs1 is negligible
= VCC – IC RC + VBE VE= -VBE
VCE = VCC + VBE – ICRC

2/9/2023 5

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Differential Amplifier

Dual Input Balanced Output AC Equivalent of Dual Input Balanced Output

2/9/2023 6

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Differential Amplifier
Applying KVL in loop 1 and 2

Using ib1=ie1/ ib2=ie2/

Taking Rs1/ Rs2/ E e

2/9/2023 7

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Differential Amplifier

Hence VO = VC2 - VC1

= -RC iC2 - (-RC iC1)
= RC (iC1 - iC2)
= RC (ie1 - ie2)

2/9/2023 8

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Input and output impedances
Differential input resistance at Q1

Similarly for Ri2, Ri2= 2 e

Output resistance R01=R02= RC

Since VO = Ad (v1 – v2)

When v2 = 0, vO = Ad v1 & when v1 = 0, vO = - Ad v2

V1: Non-inverting input and V2 is inverting input

2/9/2023 9

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Problem
For a given dual-input balanced output BJT based differential amplifier Rc= 2.2 kΩ,
RB=4.7 kΩ, Rs1= Rs2= 50 Ω, VCC=10V, VEE= 10V, BE .
(i) Find the operating point of transistor (IC, VCE)
(ii) Voltage Gain
(iii) Input and output resistances

2/9/2023 10

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Solution

2/9/2023 11

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Differential Amplifier

Common mode signal drives both the inputs equally.

Typically it is interference, static or pickup

Sources of common mode signals

Noise,
50 Hz hum pickups,
Radiating signals that couple equally to both lines,
A driver circuit’s offset,
A ground differential between the transmitting and the receiving
locations (ground points located at considerable distance away from
one another).

2/9/2023 12

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Differential Amplifier

Common mode signal drives both the inputs equally.

Typically it is interference, static or pickup

When v1 and v2 are inputs to two transistors of differential amplifier

vd= v1-v2 is differential signal
vc= ½(v1+v2) is the common mode signal

When A1 and A2 are voltage gain for 1 or 2 (while other is grounded)

V0=A1v1+A2v2
But v1= vc+vd/2 and v2= vc- vd/2
V0= Ac vc+ Ad vd
CMRR= Ad/Ac
2/9/2023 13

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Differential Amplifier

1. In a CE amplifier, RE the emitter degenerative resistor is included

to control the gain and to make amplifier performance insensitive
to temperature variations.
2. A differential amplifier is two CE amplifiers connected in push
pull manner in such a way that the two emitters are tied together
and biased by a constant current source. Also a differential
amplifier has RE included in its common emitter.
3. In general a differential amplifier amplifies differential input
signals with large gain and common mode input signals with very
less gain. This is possible because of the presence of RE.

2/9/2023 14

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Differential Amplifier

4. In case of difference mode input signals applied, RE even if it is

present it does not have any effect on gain and the differential
gain Ad is – gmRc = – Rc/ re which is a large value.
5. But when common mode signal is applied, gain will be affected
by RE and the common mode gain Ac is – Rc / (re + 2 RE ) which is
a small value.
6. CMRR of a differential amplifier is (1+ 2 gmRE).

2/9/2023 15

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Differential Amplifier

CMRR
 CMRR indicates the ability of difference amplifier to reject
common mode signals
 CMRR can be improved by
 Increasing RE
 IC and IE will decrease. Q point will shift towards cutoff.
To keep Q point at same position with high value of RE,
power supply voltage has to be increased
 Power dissipated in RE will be high
 Efficiency of amplifier will be decrease
 Fabrication of large passive resistor is difficult and
requires more space.

2/9/2023 16

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Differential Amplifier

Hence
 Active resistance (constant current source – current mirror)
can be used in place of RE

 Has very high dynamic or ac equivalent resistance which

provides high value of RE in case of CMRR.
 Provides constant current to Q1 and Q2 so Q point remains
stable.

2/9/2023 17

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Differential Amplifier
 Current mirror is used as active resistance to improve CMRR
.
 Provides constant current bias
 Generally RE and VEE set up the dc emitter current and the
operating point stability will not be good.
 RE can be replaced by constant current circuit to provide
stable operating point.
 Current mirror is a special case of constant current bias
circuit and is used to setup constant emitter currents in
differential amplifier circuits.

 Acts as active load

Provides high voltage gain due to its high dynamic resistance
2/9/2023 18

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Problems with Differential Amplifier

1. Perfect symmetry between two transistors can not be achieved

2. Gain is not very high
3. Input impedance is low and output impedance is high
4. Can not amplify DC signals due to presence of coupling capacitors
5. Large by pass capacitors may be used but it is not possible to
fabricate large capacitors on a IC chip. The capacitors fabricated
are usually less than 20 pF.

2/9/2023 19

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Operational Amplifiers
An operational amplifier is a direct coupled high gain amplifier consisting
of one or more differential amplifiers followed by a level translator and
an output stage.

In the first two stages cascaded differential amps are used to provide
high gain and high input resistance
2/9/2023 20

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 IC 741 Op-Amp

2/9/2023 21

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Op-Amp
Input stage:
 It consists of a dual input, balanced output differential amplifier.
 Its function is to amplify the difference between the two input
signals.
 It provides high differential gain and high input impedance.

Intermediate stage:
 The overall gain requirement of an Op-Amp is very high.
 Since the input stage alone cannot provide such a high gain an
intermediate stage is used to provide the required additional
voltage gain.
 It consists of another differential amplifier with dual input, and
unbalanced (single ended) output.
2/9/2023 22

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Op-Amp
Buffer and Level shifting stage:
As the op-amp amplifies dc signals also (as it is direct coupled), the
small dc quiescent voltage level of previous stages may get amplified
and get applied as the input to the next stage causing distortion the
final output.
• Level shifting stage is used to bring down the dc level to ground
potential, when no signal is applied at the input terminals.
• Buffer is usually an emitter follower used for impedance matching.

Output stage:
• It consists of a push-pull complementary amplifier which provides
large ac output voltage swing and high current sourcing and sinking
along with low output impedance.
2/9/2023 23

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Introduction
Operational Amplifier or Opamp
- High-gain dc differential input amplifer
- Versatile component with variety of applications
- Signal processing, instrumentation, controls,
etc.

Original application
- Analog computers for
addition, subtraction, multiplication, integration
differentiation of signals
-Vacuum tubes, then BJTs
- ICs after 1965
2/9/2023 24

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Opamp Symbol

Commonly used
symbol

Inverting input (II) and noninverting input (NII) terminals

Supply voltage = + 15V
Voltage swing in +ve and -ve
2/9/2023 25

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Transfer characteristic

2/9/2023 26

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Transfer characteristic

Linear region : Vo  A (V1  V2 )

Vo VCC
V1  V2  V1  V2 
A A
For VCC  15 V , A  10 5
V1  V2  150 μV
If V1  V2 by 150 μV, Vo  V SAT
If V1  V2 by 150 μV, Vo   V SAT
In open loop, Range of operation is very small
-ve Feedback increases the range of operation
2/9/2023 27

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Equivalent Circuit

VCVS Vo  AV id  A(V1  V2 )
2/9/2023 28

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Open-loop Configuration

R S 1 , R S 2 negligible
(a)Open  loop Diff amp : Vo  A(V S 1  V S 2 )
(b)Open  loop noninv amp : Vo  AV S 1
(c)Open  loop inv amp : Vo   AV S 2
2/9/2023 29

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Ideal Op amp
Ideal Op-amp Equivalent Circuit

2/9/2023 30

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Ideal Op amp
i1 , i2  0 A  
Vid Vid
V1  Vcm  ; V2  Vcm 
2 2
V1  V2
Vid  V1  V2 ; Vcm 
2
Vo
Ac  when Vid  0
Vcm
Vo
Ad  when Vcm  0
Vd
Vo  AcVcm  Ad Vid
2/9/2023 31

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Ideal Op amp
Example : V1  V2  20 mV
Vo Vo
Ac   for V1  V2
Vcm V1
V1  10 mV V2   10 mV
Vo Vo
Ad   for V1  V2
Vd 2V1
Ad
CMRR 
Ac
dV o
Slew Rate SR 
dt max
2/9/2023 32

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Ideal Op amp
For ideal opamp
Ad   ; Ac  0
Ro  0 ; Rid   ; Ric  
For V1  V2  0, Vo  0
means offset voltage Voffset  0

Vo  Ad ( V1  V2 ) and Ad  
Vo
V1  V2  0
Ad
Therefore V1  V2 ; Also i1  i2  0
2/9/2023 33

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Ideal Op amp
Characteristics of Ideal Op-amp

2/9/2023 34

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Config. Of Opamp
Inverting Amplifier

V N  0 as A  
V S  V N V N  Vo
By KCL 
ZI ZF
ZF RF
Therefore Vo   V S ; if Z  R , Vo   VS
ZI RI
2/9/2023 35

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Current-to-voltage converter

Vo   IR F
Applications:
Optoelectronics, electro-pneumatic converters
2/9/2023 36

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 What does this circuit do?

2/9/2023 37

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Summing amplifier

V1 V2 V3 Vn Vo
   ...   (KCL)
R1 R2 R3 Rn RF
 RF R R R 
Vo    V1  V 2  V3  ...  V n 
F F F
 R1 R2 R3 Rn 
Vo   V1 V 2 V3  ... V n  for all R equal
Applications:
Summing amplifier
Weighted summer in DAC
2/9/2023 38

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 What does this circuit do?

D to A Converter, How?
2/9/2023 39

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Total current I i  I1  I 2  I 3  I 4  I f
 b1 b2 b3 b4 
Vout   R f I f   R f Vr     
 2 R 4 R 8 R 16 R 
Rf
 Vr (b1 2 1  b2 2  2  b3 2  3  b4 2  4 )
R

Vout  sum of binary weights

Values of input R  1/binary weights
Lowest valued R (2R)  MSB
Highest - value R (16R)  LSB
2/9/2023 40

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 What does this circuit do?

How does it work?

2/9/2023 41

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Example 2.15 (TB)

Find V0/Vs of the above circuit

2/9/2023 46

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Opamp with finite gain

2/9/2023 47

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Noninverting Amplifier

RI
VN  Vo
RI  RF
VP  VS  V N
 RF 
Vo   1  V S
 RI 
RF RF
Vo is in phase with VS For large , Vo  VS
RI RI
2/9/2023 48

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Opamp with finite gain

2/9/2023 49

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Inverting/Noninverting Opamps

2/9/2023 50

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Voltage Follower

In noninverting amplifier
make RF  0, RI  
Vo  VS
2/9/2023 51

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Role of Buffer

Circuit-1 Opamp Buffer Circuit-2

Low-impedance

2/9/2023 52

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Difference Amp/Subtractor

2/9/2023 53

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Difference Amp/Subtractor

2/9/2023 54

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Difference Amp/Subtractor

2/9/2023 55

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Difference Amp/Subtractor
Thevenin’s representation for V2 = 0

2/9/2023 56

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Difference Amp/Subtractor
Using superposition theorem
RF
Set V1  0, Vo 2   V2
RI
RF
Set V2  0, VTH  V1 , RTH  RF RI 
RI  RF
 RF   RF  RF R
Vo1  1  VTH  1   V1  F V1
 RI   RI  RI  RF RI

RF
Vo  Vo1  Vo 2  V1  V2 
RI
If RF  RI , subtractor
2/9/2023 57

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Application

2/9/2023 58

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Problem

2/9/2023 59

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Diff. Input-Diff. Output Amplifier

2/9/2023 60

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Diff. Input-Diff. Output Amplifier

Connect 2 non - inverting amp back - to - back

 RF   RF 
Vo1  1  V1 ; Vo 2  1  V2
 RI   RI 

 RF 
Vo1  Vo 2   1  V1  V2 
 RI 
 RF 
Vo  1   Vin
 RI 
2/9/2023 61

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Bridge Amplifier

Also known as wide deviation bridge

Converts change in transducer resistance to voltage
Offset voltage zeroed by potentiometer.
2/9/2023 62

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Bridge Amplifier
Assuming voltage at noninverting input  0
R  R
Vo 2   VREF ;
R
Assuming Voltage at inverting input  0
 R  R  VREF
Vo1  1  
 R  2

Vo  Vo1  Vo 2
 R  R  VREF R  R R
 1    VREF   VREF
 R  2 R 2R
2/9/2023 63

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Reference voltage sources
(a) Noninverting V reference (b) Inverting V reference

 RF  RF
Vo  1   VZ Vo   VZ
 RI  RI
2/9/2023 64

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Charge Amplifier

Home Study

2/9/2023 65

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Inverting Integrator

To avoid open-loop condition

in DC, large shunt R is
t
connected across C
1
Vo  
RC 0 V S dt  VC (t  0 ) ; RC  T

Vo 1 Vo 1 Vo
 or  ; when   0, 
VS jRC VS RC VS
2/9/2023 66

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 2/9/2023 67

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 2/9/2023 68

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 2/9/2023 69

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 2/9/2023 70

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Inverting Integrator

S1 closed and S2 open  integrator

S1 and S2 open  Vo held at the voltage at the time
of switching (hold mode)
S1 open and S2 closed  set initial condition
RF
Vo   ( VCC ) after delay determined by R F C
R2
2/9/2023 71

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Differentiator

dV S Vo dV S
C  ; Vo   RC
dt R dt
Vo ZF Vo
   jRC or  RC ; RC  T
VS ZI VS
2/9/2023 72

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Differentiator

2/9/2023 73

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 2/9/2023 74

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Practical Opamps

2/9/2023 75

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Practical Opamps
For mA741
Parameter Typical
Value
Ric = common-mode input High
resistance
Rid = differential input 2 MOhms
resistance
Ro 75 Ohms
Open-loop voltage gain 80-120 dB
CMRR 100 dB
PSRR 20 mV/V
2/9/2023 76

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Practical Opamps

Parameter Typical
Value
Input offset voltage Vi0 6 mV
Input bias current few mA
Input offset current 0.5 mA
Slew rate 1 to 20 V/ms

2/9/2023 77

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Slew Rate

Maximum rate at which the output of an op-amp can change

Units: V/ms

2/9/2023 78

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Slew Rate

2/9/2023 79

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Practical Opamps

For mA741

For sinusoidal signal V  A sin t

dV dV
 A cos t ;  A when t  0
dt dt max
Ouput signal will be distorted if A  slew rate
slew rate
f max 
2 A

2/9/2023 80

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Practical Opamps

Settling time:
Time required for the output to settle within
some % of final value (example: 5%)

Acquisition time
= delay + slew (rise time) + settling time
- Important in switching applications like ADC and MUX

Bandwidth:
dc to small-signal open-loop unity gain

2/9/2023 81

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Practical Opamps
Absolute max rating:
Max. output voltage and max. output current
when exceeded will distort the output and
device may be damaged.

PL  PT  PD
PL  max. load power dissipatio n
PT  total power dissipatio n
PD  device power dissipatio n
2/9/2023 82

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Practical Opamps

Absolute max rating:

- Max. differential input voltage

- Built-in overload protection
- Input protection circuits for preventing ‘latch up’

2/9/2023 83

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Effects of non-ideal behavior on
Amplifier Performance

Equivalent circuit of inverting amplifier

2/9/2023 86

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Effects of non-ideal behavior on
Amplifier Performance
Closed-loop gain
Assuming Rid  very large Ro  small
VS  Ve Ve  ( AVe )
Vo   AVe ; 
R2 R1
Eliminating Ve , closed  loop gain
Vo  AR1 /( R1  R2 )
Av  
VS 1   AR2  /( R1  R2 )

As   R2 /( R1  R2 )
 R1 / R2 A
Av 
2/9/2023
1  A 87

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Effects of non-ideal behavior on
Amplifier Performance
Closed-loop gain
R1
As A  1, Av  
R2
R1
Ideal gain Avi  
R2

A  1 
Av  Avi  Avi 1  
1  A  A 
Av Avi  Av 1
Therefore  
Av Av A
2/9/2023 88

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Input resistance

Circuit for input resistance calculation

Rin  R2  Req
2/9/2023 89

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Input resistance
Input resistance calculation

From equivalent circuit

Ve Ve  ( AVe )
Ii  
Rid R1
1
Ve  1 1  A 
Req     
I i  Rid R1 

Therefore Rin  R2  Req

2/9/2023 90

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Output resistance
Output resistance calculation

To calculate Rout , make VS  0

Assuming Rid  very large
R2

R1  R2
Ro
Rout  R1  R2 
1  A
For large A Rout  Ro

2/9/2023 91

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Output resistance

2/9/2023 92

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 dc offset voltage
Circuit showing effect of input offset voltage

When both input terminals are grounded,

finite dc Vo appears

Vo is made zero by connecting a voltage source

at the input terminals with appropriate magnitude
and polarity
2/9/2023 93

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 dc offset voltage
Inverting amp showing offset voltage

 RF 
Output voltage Vo  Vos 1 

 R1 
Some opamps have additional terminal
to make Vo due to offset = 0
2/9/2023 94

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 dc offset voltage
Integrator showing offset voltage

Vo increases until opamp saturates.

RF connected in shunt with C so current I = Vos/R can flow
 RF 
Output voltage Vo limited to  Vos 1 
2/9/2023
 R  95

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 dc offset voltage
Integrator showing offset voltage

2/9/2023 96

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Bias current
Opamp showing input bias current

Input bias current I B 

 I B1  I B 2 
2
Input offset current I os  I B1  I B 2
2/9/2023 97

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Effect of offset voltage and
offset current

2/9/2023 98

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Effect of offset voltage and
offset current
When VS  0 ,
v  I B 2 RB  v
VR1  Vos  I B2 RB
VR2  Vos  I B2 RB  Vo
By KCL at node 1
Vos  I B 2 RB Vos  I B2 RB Vo
I B1  
R1 R2
2/9/2023 99

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Effect of offset voltage and
offset current
 R2   R2 
Vo  1 Vos  RB 1  I B 2  R2 I B1
 R1   R1 
R1R2
By choosing RB 
R1  R2
 R2 
Vo  1 Vos  R2 I B2  I B1 
 R1 
I B 2  I B1, With RB  R1 R2
the effect of current offset is cancelled
2/9/2023 100

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Offset balancing techniques

In mA 741, Terminals 1 and 5 : offset null terminals

Balancing arrangement is shown in figure
2/9/2023 101

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Offset Balancing

Offset balancing in inverting amplifier

– Another arrangement

2/9/2023 102

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Offset Balancing
Offset balancing in noninverting amplifier

Ra , Rb , Rc  same range as in inverting amp.

Rb  R2
2/9/2023 103

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Offset Drift

Vos , I B 2 , I B1 not constant

Change with temperature and
power supply voltage

For inverting amplifier

 
Vo  1
R 2 
Vos  R2 I os


R 1


2/9/2023 104

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 CMRR
Effect of CMRR

Vo  AdVe  AcVcm
 A   V 
 Ad Ve  c Vcm   Ad Ve  cm 
 A   CMRR 
2/9/2023
 d  105

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 CMRR on Voltage Follower

Effect of finite CMRR on voltage follower

Here Vi1  Vo , Vi 2  VS

2/9/2023 106

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 CMRR on Voltage Follower

 V  V 
Vo  A V  V  i 2 i1 


d i 2 i1 2CMRR 

 
 
 V 
 A V V 
 S 
d S o CMRR 


 


 1 
Vo  A Vo  A V 1  
d d S 
 CMRR 
Vo 1  1 / CMRR 
V
S


1  1/ A
d

2/9/2023 107

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 References

Text Book
TB1 L.K. Maheshwari and M.M.S. Anand, Analog Electronics,
PHI, 2005
TB2 L.K. Maheshwari and M.M.S. Anand, Laboratory
Experiments & PSPICE Simulation in Analog Electronics
Experiments, PHI, 2005.

Reference Book
R1. A.S. Sedra, K.C. Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, 5th Ed.,
Oxford, 2004
R2. S. Franco, “Design with Operational Amplifiers and
Analog Integrated Circuits”, 3rd Ed. McGraw Hill, 2002

2/9/2023 115

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Special Purpose
Linear Op-amp Circuits

Prof. Prasant Kumar Pattnaik

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
BITS Pilani Hyderabad Campus

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Outline
• Introduction
• Instrumentation Amplifier
• Isolation Amplifier
• Programmable Gain Amplifier
• Negative Feedback Amplifiers
and Controlled Sources
• Inductance Simulation
2/19/2023 2

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Differential Amplifier

- Special purpose circuits using

linear operation of Opamps
- Available in the form of ICs
- Applications of Popular ICs

2/19/2023 3

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Instrumentation Amplifier

Instrumentation Amplifier
- Closed-loop gain amplifier
- Differential input, single-ended output
- Impedance of input terminals balanced,
> 109 Ohms
- Input bias currents = 1 nA to 50 nA
- Output impedance = few mOhms at low freq.

2/19/2023 4

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Instrumentation Amplifier

Instrumentation Amplifier
- Gain fixed by internal resistors
isolated from signal input terminals
- Gain is preset or user-set using pins
(external or internal gain resistors)
- High CMRR
- Common-mode signals reduced
from 80 dB to 120 dB

2/19/2023 5

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Instrumentation Amplifier
Difference Amplifier

RF
Vo  (V1  V2 )
RI

2/19/2023 6

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Difference Amplifier

2/19/2023 7

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Difference Amplifier

2/19/2023 8

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Difference Amplifier

2/19/2023 9

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Instrumentation Amplifier

Limitations
- Difference in input impedances
Input impedance to V2  RI
Input impedance to V1  RI  RF
- Different input currents flow
- Degrades CMRR
- Need closely matched Resistors
- Otherwise affect CMRR

2/19/2023 10

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Instrumentation Amplifier
Difference Amplifier with input buffering

RF
Vo  (V1  V2 )
RI

2/19/2023 11

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Instrumentation Amplifier

Three opamp Instrumentation amp circuit

- Matched, high-input impedances

- Minimum effect of input sources on CMRR
- Buffer opamps drive current thro’ R
- Dual Buffer opamps track each other over
temperature

2/19/2023 12

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Instrumentation Amplifier
Instrumentation Amplifier

2/19/2023 13

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Instrumentation Amplifier

2/19/2023 14

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Instrumentation Amplifier

Instrumentation Amplifier
RF ' '
Vo  (V1  V2 )
RI
R1
(V1'  V2' )  (V1  V2 )
R1  2R2
 2R2  RF
Vo  1   (V1  V2 )
 R1  RI

2/19/2023 15

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Instrumentation Amplifier
Instrumentation Amplifier

2/19/2023 16

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Instrumentation Amplifier

Instrumentation Amplifier
- Input buffers with gain
- Overall gain  variable
- Differential gain varied by changing R1
- No further R matching required when
changing gains

2/19/2023 17

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Instrumentation Amplifier
Instrumentation Amplifier
Voltage across R1  Vin  (V1  V2 )
Vin
Current through R1 
R1
Buffers operate with gain
For common mode signals, no current thro' R1
Therefore unity gain for common - mode signals
 2 R2 
Differential gain  1  
 R1 
2/19/2023 18

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Instrumentation Amplifier

Instrumentation Amplifier
-Gain in front end, no increase in
common-mode gain or error
- Differential signal increased by gain,
common-mode error not.
- CMRR increases with gain
- Common-mode errors cancel out
by output subtractor

2/19/2023 19

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Instrumentation Amplifier
Symbol of Instrumentation Amplifier

All resistors  R , R1  aR
 2
Vo  1   (V1  V2 )
 a
2/19/2023 20

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Problem 3.2(TB)

RI=RF=R2=10 kΩ
Choose R1 such that Ad= 25
Thermistor: R+ΔR, ΔR(T)=-100 T
R=10 kΩ, Find V0 for 100C, 50C,
-50C and -100C

2/19/2023 21

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Amplifier

Applications
- Low-level signals detected and amplified
in the presence of high voltages
- Remote sensing, motor control,
data acquisition, medical monitoring

Example:
- 50 Hz signal could cause cardiac arrest
- EEG, ECG use 1012 Ohms isolation
between patient and ac power cord.

2/19/2023 22

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Amplifier

Isolation amplifier
- Acts as an interface between external
devices and data acquisition systems
- Galvanic isolation between I/P and O/P
- Rejects large common-mode signal at I/P
- Breaks ground loops as I/P and O/P
are floating
- Other devices may not provide galvanic
isolation

2/19/2023 23

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Amplifier
Symbol of Isolation Amplifier

2/19/2023 24

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Amplifier
Equivalence of Isolation Barrier

 VCM VISO 
Vo  VSIG    Gain
2/19/2023
 CMRR IMRR  25

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Amplifier

Isolation Devices – basic concepts

- Passes signal between i/p and o/p across
an isolation barrier
- No galvanic connection between i/p and o/p
- High breakdown voltage
- Low dc leakage (high barrier resistance)
- Low ac leakage (low barrier capacitance)

Isolation Device
Transmit input signal VSIG across barrier and
reproduce perfectly at the o/p
2/19/2023 26

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Amplifier

Isolation Devices – basic concepts

VISO = isolation mode voltage across barrier
or dielectric withstand voltage
- Measure of the device’s ability to protect itself
and the surrounding circuitry against
physical damage resulting from
different voltage potentials
- Depends on insulating material, packaging
VISO = 750 V to 7.5 kV

2/19/2023 27

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Amplifier
Isolation Devices – basic concepts
RISO = 1000s of MOhms
CISO < 10 pF
At 10 MHz
1 1
XC    1.6 k
2 f C ISO 2 (107 )10 1012
- 10 MHz signal due to edges of
digital systems of switching power supplies
- Stray capacitance can couple signals
between i/p and o/p
2/19/2023 28

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Amplifier
Isolation-mode Rejection Ratio (IMRR)
- Measure of how well the isolation device
rejects isolation-mode voltage
- Isolation mode voltage make spurious signal
to appear at output,Input  referred signal  VISO
IMRR
1  IMRRdB 
IMRR V/V  log  
 20 
IMRR  160 dB, VISO  1000 Vdc,
103
input error   105  10 μV
108
2/19/2023 29

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Amplifier
Isolation-mode Rejection Ratio (IMRR)

- IMRR is also defined as conductance, pA/V

V/V IMRR  pA/V IMRR  input source resistance

2/19/2023 30

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Amplifier
Common-mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
- Measure of how well the amplifier rejects
common-mode signals
VCM at the input causes
AVCM
output  referred error 
CMRR
where A  isolation amplifier input stage gain
- CMRR is also defined as conductance, pA/V
V/V CMRR  pA/V CMRR  input source resistance

2/19/2023 31

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Device Technology
Barrier schemes

- Optical

- Inductive or transformer

- Capacitive

2/19/2023 32

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Device Technology
Isolation amplifier with optical isolation

2/19/2023 33

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Device Technology
Optical isolation

- Consists of LED made of GaAsP or AlGaAs

and a photodetector
- Input signal modulates light from LED
- Photodetector converts light back into current
- LED output decreases over time,
increasing temperature or operating current,
hastens deterioration
leads to device failure
- Compensating techniques used
2/19/2023 34

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Device Technology
Optical isolation
In digital applications,
LED driver must have built-in overdrive capability
- Increases power consumption
In analog applications
- Second matched photodiode
for feedback compensation
- Offers real-time continuous analog signal
transmission
- Relatively immune to interference
- No modulation or demodulation ripple
2/19/2023
voltage at the o/p 35

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Device Technology
Isolation amplifier with A/D and D/A Converters

2/19/2023 36

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Device Technology

Isolation amplifier with A/D and D/A

Converters
- Signal digitized, passed across the barrier
and converted back to analog using DAC
- Avoids use of 2nd expensive photodiode
- Increases complexity of circuit
- ADC and DAC stages
introduce additional errors

2/19/2023 37

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Device Technology
Isolation amplifier using Transformers

2/19/2023 38

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Device Technology
Isolation amplifier using Transformers

- Optical isolators have linearity problems

In isolation amplifier using transformers

the signal modulates a high-freq carrier
and transformer-coupled from i/p to o/p

2/19/2023 39

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Device Technology
Power supply Isolation

2/19/2023 40

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Device Technology
Power supply Isolation
- Achieved using transformer
- Transformer coupling most effective way
of transmitting power
- Used in dc/dc converters

Disadvantages:
- Low transient immunity due to inter-winding C
- Electromagnetic radiation
- Susceptibility to Electromagnetic Interference
- Difficult to package transformer
2/19/2023
for high-volume manufacturing 41

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Device Technology
Capacitor Isolation
- Capacitor used to couple modulated signal
across the barrier
- Signal modulates HF signal and
capacitively-coupled from i/p to o/p
- Duty-cycle or Freq modulation used
- 25 pF C made using lead frame materials

Disadvantage
- Lower transient immunity
- Fast transient common-mode pulses
2/19/2023
can be interpreted as signals 42

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Device Technology
Capacitor Isolation
Dual-capacitor differential circuits
- Minimize errors

Capacitor barrier techniques

- Used for both digital and analog

When BW and speed are more important

than gain, accuracy, and linearity
Use optically or capacitively coupled amplifiers

2/19/2023 43

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Categories of isolation Devices
Isolation dc/dc converters

- Provide isolated dc power

- Eliminate ground loops
- Provide point-of use analog supplies
- Generate negative voltages
- Available in regulated and unregulated forms
- Wide range of output powers

2/19/2023 44

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Device Technology
Analog Isolation amplifiers
- i/p amp followed by unity gain isolation stage
- Barriers – optical, capacitive, or inductive
- Specialized input stages – RTD interfaces
- Unpowered and powered topologies

Applications
- Process control
- Instrumentation
- Data acquisition
- Medical monitoring
2/19/2023
and others 45

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Isolation Device Technology
Isolated Digital Devices
- Include transceivers and couplers used to
provide galvanic isolation in digital systems

Applications
- Microprocessor interfaces
- Digital isolation for A/D and D/A conversion
- Switching power transistor isolation
- External I/O isolation
- Ground loop elimination

2/19/2023 46

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Programmable Gain Amplifier

An inverting PGA Gain for different

switch conditions

S = 1, Closed S= 0, Open

Switch 1,2,3,4: Gain

0000 100
1000 50
0100 10
0010 2

0001 1

2/19/2023 47

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Programmable Gain Amplifier
Inverting PGA
- Necessity for an amplifier with variable gain
under the control of microprocessor

- FET switches are used to include/exclude

resistors in feedback circuit
to vary the gain

2/19/2023 48

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Programmable Gain Amplifier

A noninverting PGA Gain for different

switch conditions
S = 1, Closed S= 0, Open

Switch 1,2,3: Gain

000 1
100 2
010 3
001 5

Q: Design PGA with gain 1,3,5,9

2/19/2023 49

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Programmable Gain Amplifier
Noninverting PGA
- Switches can be electronic
- Amplifier gain controlled
by opening/closing switches

2/19/2023 50

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Feedback Amplifiers

2/19/2023 51

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Properties of Negative feedback

1. Gain Desensitivity
2. Bandwidth extension
3. Interference reduction (SNR improvement)
4. Nonlinear distortion reduction

2/19/2023 52

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Properties of Negative feedback
(Gain Desensitivity)

2/19/2023 53

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Properties of Negative feedback

2/19/2023 54

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Properties of Negative feedback
(Badnwidth Extension)

2/19/2023 55

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Properties of Negative feedback

Bandwidth Extension

2/19/2023 56

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Properties of Negative feedback
Signal to Interference Reduction

2/19/2023 57

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Properties of Negative feedback
Signal to Interference Reduction

2/19/2023 58

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Properties of Negative feedback

Nonlinear distortion Reduction

2/19/2023 59

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Negative Feedback Amplifiers
Ideal amplifier
Input power drawn from source = 0
Output load power = finite

For input power = 0

(i) Vi = 0, Ii = finite (Zin  0)
(ii) Ii = 0, Vi = finite (Zin  inf )

Output side
Ideal voltage source (Zout  0) or
Ideal current source (Zout  inf )
Output Value depends on input
3/5/2023 60

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Voltage Controlled Voltage Source
VCVS or ideal voltage amplifier
(Zin  inf Zout  0, A = Av)
Voltage series feedback amplifier

3/5/2023 Series-Shunt Feedback 61

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Current Controlled Voltage Source

CCVS or ideal transresistance amplifier

(Zin  0 Zout  0, A = Rm)
Voltage shunt feedback amplifier

3/5/2023 Shunt-Shunt Feedback 62

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Voltage Controlled Current Source

VCCS or ideal transconductance amplifier

(Zin  inf Zout  inf, A = Gm)
Current series feedback amplifier

3/5/2023 Series-Series Feedback 63

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Current Controlled Current Source
CCCS or ideal current amplifier
(Zin  0 Zout  inf, A = Ai)
Current shunt feedback amplifier

3/5/2023 Shunt-Series Feedback 64

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Negative feedback effects

Negative feedback affects

- gain
- input impedance
- output impedance
- bandwidth

A
(i) Gain with feedback A f 
1  A
Vf
Feedback factor  
Vo
3/5/2023 65

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Negative feedback effects
(ii) Input impedance with feedback Z inf
for series feedback to input Z inf  Z in (1  A )
Zin
for shunt feedback to input Z inf 
1  A

(iii) Output impedance with feedback Z outf

Z out
for voltage feedback Z outf 
1  A
for current feedback Z outf  Z out (1  A )

3/5/2023 66

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Negative feedback effects

(iv) Bandwidth with feedback ( f hf  f lf )

fl
f hf  f h (1  A ), f lf 
1  A

Bandwidth increases with feedback

3/5/2023 67

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source
VCVS circuit models

3/5/2023 68

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source

VCVS or Voltage amplifier

Noninverting amplifier
3/5/2023 69

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source

Gain
Vi  Vin  V f
Vo R2
Vf 
R1  R2
Since Vin  0 and V f  Vi
Vo R1
 1
Vi R2
3/5/2023 70

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source

Equivalent circuit for calculation of Zinf

3/5/2023 71

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source

Input Impedance
Vi Vi Vi
Z inf    Z in
I i Vin / Z in Vin
Vi A
 Z in  Z in
Vout / A Af
 Z in (1  A )

3/5/2023 72

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source

Equivalent circuit for calculation of Zoutf

3/5/2023 73

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source
Output Impedance
Vout
Z outf 
I out
Neglecting loading effects of feedback network
Vout  AV f Vout (1  A )
I out  
Z out Z out
R2
Vf  Vout  Vout
R1  R2
3/5/2023 74

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source

Total output impedance including

potential - divider network
Z out
Z outf  ( R1  R2 )
(1  A )
Z out
Since  ( R1  R2 )
(1  A )
Z out
Z outf 
(1  A )
3/5/2023 75

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Current-Controlled Voltage Source
The transresistance amplifier
CCVS circuit models

3/5/2023 76

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Current-Controlled Voltage Source

CCVS circuit

This is a simple I-V converter

3/5/2023 77

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Current-Controlled Voltage Source

Analysing using Miller's Theorem

R
Z inf 
(1  A)
Z out
Z outf 
(1  A )
RS

RS  R
where RS  current source resistance
3/5/2023 78

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Voltage-Controlled Current Source
The ideal transconductance amplifier
VCCS circuit models

3/5/2023 79

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Voltage-Controlled Current Source

VCCS circuit

3/5/2023 80

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Voltage-Controlled Current Source

Load is floating type

I i  0 ,Vi  V f  I o R
Vi
I o   GmVi
R
Vf R
 
Vo R  RL

3/5/2023 81

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Voltage-Controlled Current Source

Series feedback, input impedance 

Z inf  Z in (1  A )
Vi
I o  , independent of RL
R
Z outf  AR
Perfect V - I converter
1
Z inf   , Z outf   , Gm 
R
3/5/2023 82

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Voltage to current converter

V-I converter for grounded load

3/5/2023 83

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Voltage to current converter

3/5/2023 84

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Differential Voltage to current converter

3/5/2023 85

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Constant High Current Source

3/5/2023 86

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Digitally controlled 4-20 mA current source

Digitally controlled 4-20 mA current source

3/5/2023 87

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Current-Controlled Current Source
The ideal current amplifier
CCCS circuit models

3/5/2023 88

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Current-Controlled Current Source

Practical CCCS circuit

3/5/2023 89

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Current-Controlled Current Source

Using Kirchoff's laws

Io  I f  IS
I f  I i and V f   I S R2   I f R1
 IS   R1 
I o  I i  I S  I i  1    I i  1  
 Ii   R2 
R1
Ai 1 
R2
Ex : R1  99 k , R2  1 k, I i  1μA, I L  ?
3/5/2023 90

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Inductor Simulation

Inductance simulation circuit

3/5/2023 91

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Inductor Simulation
Using KCL at node a
Vi  Vo
I i  jC (Vi  V ) 
R2
R1Vi
V , Vo  V
R1  1 / jC 
Vi
Solving for Z i 
Ii
2 2
R2 ( R1R2C   1) R2C ( R1  R2 )
Zi   j
2 2 2 2 2 2
3/5/2023
1   R2 C 1   R2 C 92

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Inductor Simulation

This is of the form

Z i  Rx  jLx
Lx C ( R1  R2 )
Q 
Rx 2 2
R1R2C   1
1 R1 1
If R1  R2 Qmax  at  
2 R2 C R1R2
Ex : C  0.1 μF, R1  100 k, R2  100 , L  1 H
Qmax  15.8 at 505 Hz
3/5/2023 93

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Measurement of L and Q
Setup for Inductance measurement

With Capacitor C1, the circuit forms a tank circuit

1 fo
fo  , Q
2 LxC1 f
Determine Qmax by repeating with several C1
3/5/2023 94

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Capacitance Multiplier

3/5/2023 95

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Lossy Inductor

The circuit behaves as a lossy inductor at the input port

3/5/2023 96

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Problem 3.7 of TB (HW)

Determine the equivalent inductance between the two

input terminals of the circuit shown below.

3/5/2023 97

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 References

Text Book
TB1 L.K. Maheshwari and M.M.S. Anand, Analog Electronics,
PHI, 2005
TB2 L.K. Maheshwari and M.M.S. Anand, Laboratory
Experiments & PSPICE Simulation in Analog Electronics
Experiments, PHI, 2005.

Reference Book
R1. A.S. Sedra, K.C. Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, 5th Ed.,
Oxford, 2004
R2. S. Franco, “Design with Operational Amplifiers and
Analog Integrated Circuits”, 3rd Ed. McGraw Hill, 2002

3/5/2023 98

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Active Filters

Prof. Prasant Kumar Pattnaik

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
BITS Pilani Hyderabad Campus
ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION
 Outline
• Introduction
• Basic Theory of Filters
• Realization of Active filters
– Transfer function synthesis
– Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
– Multiple Feedback Filters
– Switched Capacitor Filters
• IC Filters
3/8/2023 2

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Introduction

Applications
- Communication systems
- Instrumentation

Filters : Pass signal only at desired frequencies

Categories
- Low-pass
- High-pass
- Band-pass
- Notch or Band-reject
3/8/2023 3

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Introduction

Analysis and Design

Functions
- Amplitude
- Phase
- Group delay

Parameters
- Cut-off frequency fc
- Quality factor Q
- Pass-band gain H
3/8/2023 4

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Introduction

Types of filters
- Passive
- Active

Passive filters
- Consist of RLC

RC filters LC filters_________
Real poles High Q factor
Small Q factor Sharper freq. response
High L for low freq
3/8/2023 5

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Introduction

Active filters
- Consist of at least one active component
- Reliable, more economical, small sizes

Finite BW upper bound for pole frequency

- Trade-off between BW and Q
- Need to be optimized to design criteria
- Sensitive to element values
- Need external power source

3/8/2023 6

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Introduction

Active filters
- Characterized by transfer function
- Order of filter = power of s in denominator
- Poles and zeros

Second order filter

Sufficient for basic applications

Higher order filters

- Cascade first-order and second-order filters
3/8/2023 7

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Introduction
Example: First Order Filter

3/8/2023 8

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Introduction
Example: First Order Filter

3/8/2023 9

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Introduction

Active filters
Ideal filter
- Transmits frequencies in its pass-band,
unattenuated and without phase shift
- Not allowing any signal components
in stop-band to get through

Filter Characteristics
- Pass-band
- Stop-band
- Cut-off frequency fc
3/8/2023 10

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters
Ideal Filter amplitude characteristics

(a) low-pass (b) high-pass

(c) band-pass (d) band-reject

PB: Pass-band SB: Stop-band

3/8/2023 11

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters
Filter order
- Related to number of components
hence cost
size
complexity of design

Higher-order filters
- More expensive
More difficult to design
Take up more space
- Steeper roll-off
3/8/2023 12

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters
Roll-off rate
- Attenuation in dB per ratio of given frequencies
- dB/octave or dB/decade
- Low-pass or High-pass : 20 dB/decade per pole
- Band-pass : 20 dB/decade
per pair of poles
- Some filters have steeper roll-off near fc

Attenuation rate near cut-off freq

- Reject signal very close in freq.
- Sharp cut-off desirable
- Steep slope many not continue to extreme freq.
3/8/2023 13

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters

Transient Response
- Amplitude response shows response
to steady-state sinusoidal signals
- Input signals are complex
- Input step function provides indication
of response in transient condition

Response
- Critically damped, under-damped,
over-damped
- Sharper cut-off or High Q more ringing
3/8/2023 14

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters

Monotonicity
- Gain slope never changes its sign
- Gain always increases or decreases with f
- Only for low-pass or high-pass filter
- Band-pass or notch :
monotonic on either side of
center frequency f0

3/8/2023 15

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters
Ripple voltage

Ripple voltage from a full-wave rectifier,

before and after the application
of a smoothing capacitor
3/8/2023 16

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters

Pass-band ripple

- Peaks and valleys in transfer function

- To be limited to 1 dB or less
- Band-pass and notch: NO monotonicity
But ripple-free in pass-band

3/8/2023 17

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters
Ripple on a fifth order prototype Chebyshev filter

3/8/2023 18

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters

Stop-band ripple
- Not of much concern as long as the signal
is sufficiently attenuated

3/8/2023 19

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters
Amplitude response of a practical low-pass filter

Ideal response : Brick-wall response

- Not realizable
- Compromise among properties
3/8/2023 20

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters

Ideal filter response not realizable

- Need to choose an acceptable approximation

Acceptability of filter
design
- Amplitude response
- Transient response
- Size
- Cost

3/8/2023 21

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters

Parameters
1. Amax
Max. allowable change in gain or attenuation
in pass-band
Also called max. pass-band ripple
Can be applied to monotonic response curve

2. Amin
Min. allowable attenuation
(with respect to max. pass-band gain)
in stop-band
3/8/2023 22

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters

Parameters
3. fc
Cut-off frequency of pass-band limit

4. fs
Frequency at which stop-band begins

( fs- fc ) = Transition frequency

3/8/2023 23

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters

Filter Design
Amplitude response curve may differ in
- Transient response
- Pass-band and stop-band
flatness and complexity

Classic filter functions

- Butterworth
- Chebyshev
- Bessel, etc.
Designed to optimize particular filter property
3/8/2023 24

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Different types of filters
1. Butterworth:
Maximally flat pass band and stop band
2. Chebyshev:
Equiripple pass band and
Maximally flat stop band
Phase response is more nonlinear than Butterworth
3. Elliptic:
Equiripple pass band and stop band
Minimum Transition band
4. Bessel:
Linear phase response over wide freq range
3/8/2023 25

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters
Amplitude response of different types of low-pass filter

3/8/2023 26

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters

Phase response
Filters introduce time delay between i/p and o/p
delay = phase shift in sine wave signal
- Phase shift depends on
filter transfer function
- Phase shift changes with signal frequency

d
Group delay t gr  
d
Slope in linear phase vs. frequency plot
3/8/2023 27

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters

Phase response
Normalized group delay
Actual delay 
Actual corner frequency ( f c ) in Hz
Example:
Normalized group delay tgr = 1 s
Corner frequency fc = 1 kHz
Actual delay = 1 ms

3/8/2023 28

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters
Low-pass (8-pole) group-delay response

Elliptic

Butterworth
Const. delay
Bessel

3/8/2023 29

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters
Butterworth low-pass filter response

2-pole

4-pole
6-pole

8-pole

3/8/2023 30

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters

Observations
Butterworth
- Flat pass-band
- 20N dB/decade roll-off
where N = order of the filter

Chebyshev
- Pass-band ripple
- Sharper cut-off than Butterworth

3/8/2023 31

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Basic Theory of Filters

Observations
Elliptical
- Pass-band and stop-band ripple
- Sharper cut-off

Bessel
- No signal distortion in pass-band
(linear phase response)

3/8/2023 32

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Butterworth Filter

Butterworth Filter Characteristics

- Most popular
- Nearly flat pass-band response and
no ripple
- Smooth roll-off and monotonic
- 20 dB/decade roll-off for each pole

Example:
For a 5th order filter, roll-off = ?

3/8/2023 33

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Butterworth Filter
Transfer function
N (s)
Transfer function H ( s )  K
D(s)
M M 1 M 2
s  bM 1s  bM  2 s  ...  b1s  b0
K
s N  a N 1s N 1  a N  2 s N  2  ...  a1s  a0
M-1
 ( s-z m )
 K m0 For a stable filter circuit
N-1 M<N
 ( s-p n )
3/8/2023
n0 34

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Butterworth Filter
Transfer function

Transfer function
2 2
( s  b11s  b10 )( s  b21s  b20 )...
H (s)  K
2 2
( s  a11s  a10 )( s  a21s  a20 )...
This form
- Useful to design higher order or complex filters
- Cascade 2nd order filters

3/8/2023 35

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Butterworth Filter
Maximally flat magnitude response
Squaring the Transfer function
2
H ( j )  H ( j ) H ( j )  H ( s ) H ( s ) at s  j
2 4 2M
1  c1  c2  ...  cM 
2
T  H ( j )  K
1  d1 2  d 2 4  ...  d N  2 N
Approximated to K at   0 by McClaurin's series
2  T ( 2)
2 T
( 4)
4

T  H ( j )  K 1      ...
 2! 4! 
3/8/2023 36

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Butterworth Filter
Maximally flat magnitude response
d 2T d 4T
T ( 2)  , T ( 4)  , ...
2 4
d d
For T to be equal to K at   0,
( 2) ( 4)
T T  ...  0 at   0
Since M  N , by long division
2
H ( j )  K {1  (c1  d1 ) 2
 (c2  d 2 )  d1 (c1  d1 )   ...}
4

3/8/2023 37

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Butterworth Filter
Maximally flat magnitude response
For MFM at   0,
c1  d1 , c2  d 2 , upto c M  d M ,
and d M 1  d M  2  ..  d N 1  0, d N  0
Since M  N , by long division
2 1  c1 2  c2 4  ...  c M  2 M
H ( j ) ( MFM )  K
1  c1 2  c2 4  ...  c M  2 M  d N  2 N
with M  N
When M  0 (no finite zeros)  all pole response
H ( j )  0 only at   
3/8/2023 38

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Butterworth Filter
For Butterworth approximation
Denominator polynomial is Maximally flat at   0
1
H ( j ) 
2 2N
1   ( / c )
 determines the max deviation in pass - band
2
Amax  20 log 1   at   c

  10  Amax / 10 
1
3/8/2023 39

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Butterworth Filter

At the edge of the stop - band,   s

 
1
Attenuation A(s )  20 log  
 1   2 ( /  ) 2 N 
 s c 
  s 
2N 
2
 10 log 1     
  c  
 
Order of filter N  lowest value of N
for which A( s )  Amin
3/8/2023 40

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Butterworth Filter (Problem)

3/8/2023 41

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Butterworth Filter

Normalizing the expression for c  1,   1

2 1
H ( j )  H ( j  ) H (  j ) 
2N
1 
1
H ( s) H ( s) 
2N
1  (s / j)
Poles occur at
2N
s N 2N
   1  0 or (1) s 1  0
 j
3/8/2023 42

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Butterworth Filter

Case 1 : When N  even

2N j ( 2 k 1)
s  1  e
 2k  1 
2 N roots are pk  exp  j  , k  1, 2, ...,2 N
 2N 
Case 2 : When N  odd
2N j 2 k
s 1 e
 k 
2 N roots are pk  exp  j  , k  0,1, ...,2 N  1
 N 
3/8/2023 43

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Butterworth Filter
Transfer functions
(a) N  even
1 2k  1
H (s)  where   k  
N /2 2N
 (s 2
 2 cos  k s  1)
k 1
(b) N  odd
1 k
H (s)  where   k  
( N 1) / 2 2N
( s  1)  2
( s  2 cos  k s  1)
k 1
3/8/2023 44

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Butterworth Filter
Example
1
for N  1, H(s) 
s 1
1
for N  2, H(s) 
2
s  2 s 1
1 1
for N  3, H(s)  
2 3 2
( s  1)( s  s  1) ( s  2 s  2 s  1)
For odd N, there is a pole on - ve real axis
Poles in j axis  oscillations
Design scaled to c by replacing s by s / c
3/8/2023 45

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Butterworth Filter

If   1, then pk  pk   1 / N

Scaling the second order low - pass filter expression

c2 c2
H(s)  
2
s  2
2 c s  c s 2
 c / Q s  c
2

c 1
Poles p1, p2    j c 1 
Q 2
4Q
For complex roots, Q  0.5
3/8/2023 46

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Butterworth Filter

- Varying c changes pole distance from origin

- Decreasing Q moves poles towards each other
- Increasing Q moves poles in a semicircle
away from each other and towards j axis
- When Q =0.5, poles meet at – c
at –ve real axis

3/8/2023 47

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Butterworth Filter
Amplitude response of low-pass 2-pole filter

3/8/2023 48

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Butterworth Filter

For Butterworth filter

Q = 0.707, Response is maximally flat
with 3 dB fall off at  = c

Chebyshev filter
Q > 0.707, No zeros

Bessel filter
Q = 0.577

3/8/2023 49

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Butterworth Filter

Band - pass and band - reject filters

0 0
Q 
H  L BW
0  Center frequency (   H  L )
2
0

BW  3 dB bandwidth   H   L

3/8/2023 50

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Butterworth Filter
Filter Transformation
Can get transfer functions of other filters using
following transformations

3/8/2023 51

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Realization of Active Filters

1. Transfer function synthesis

2. Sallen-Key (VCVS) based filters
3. Multiple Feedback Filters
4. Switched capacitor Filters

3/8/2023 52

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Realization of Active Filters
Synthesis of first-order transfer function

3/8/2023 53

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Realization of Active Filters
Transfer function synthesis
Transfer function
Vo RF / RI

Vs RF C F s  1
1
Simple low  pass filter wit h f c 
2 R F C F
RF
dc gain   decreases by 3 dB at f  f c
RI
Two-terminal networks for ZI and ZF
Powers of s differs by 1 between numerator and
denominator -> restricts design of circuits
3/8/2023 54

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Realization of Active Filters

An op-amp with two-port input and feedback

networks

3/8/2023 55

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Realization of Active Filters
For two - port input network
I1  y11Vi  y12V
I 2  y21Vi  y22V
I2I I2F
Since V  0, y21I  , y21F 
Vi Vo
KCL at node V ,
I 2 I  I 2 F  0 i.e. y21I Vi  y21F Vo  0
Vo y21I Desired transfer function
Hence  realized by choosing input and
Vi y21F
feedback networks
3/8/2023 56

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Realization of Active Filters
Networks for transfer function synthesis

3/8/2023 57

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Realization of Active Filters
Networks for transfer function synthesis

3/8/2023 58

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Realization of Active Filters
Networks for transfer function synthesis

3/8/2023 59

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Realization of Active Filters

To realize filter networks

for specific type of response
- Standard transfer function of desired filter
used as a reference
- F and I are chosen so that
desired transfer function is obtained using y21
- Compare the std. transfer function
and network transfer function coefficients
design relations obtained

3/8/2023 60

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Realization of Active Filters

Standard transfer functions for Low-pass

Butterworth filters

3/8/2023 61

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Realization of Active Filters
Realization of second-order low-pass filter
Example

Input network : Low-pass T

Feedback network : Bridge T
3/8/2023 62

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Realization of Active Filters
Realization of second-order filters

Filter type Input Feedback

Network Network
Low-pass Low-pass T Bridge-T

High-pass High-pass T Bridge-T

Band-pass Single-pole Twin-T

Single-zero

3/8/2023 63

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key Active Filters

R.P Sallen and E.L.Key of MIT Lincoln Laboratory introduced in 1955

Second order active filters

Inductors are completely avoided in BPF and BRF

Non-inverting configuration of op-amp

VCVS configuration

3/8/2023 65

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters

General second-order active filter

Gain = K

3/8/2023 66

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
General second-order active filter
Writing KCL at node V1
(Vs  V1 )Y1  (V1  V2 )Y2  (V1  Vo )Y3
Writing KCL at node V2
(V1  V2 )Y2  V2Y4
Y2  Y4
But Vo  KV2 : V1  Vo
KY2
Vo KY1Y2
H (s)  
Vs Y1Y2  (1  K )Y2Y3  Y4 (Y1  Y2  Y3 )
3/8/2023 67

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Second-order VCVS low-pass filter

3/8/2023 68

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
RB 1 1
Here K  1  , Y1   G1 , Y2   G2
RA R1 R2
Y3  sC1 , Y4  sC2
Vo K 2
H (s)   2 c
Vs s  2kc s  c
2

1
where  2
c
R1 R2C1C2
 1 1 1 K 

2k     
 R1R2C1C2 1/ 2

 R1C1 R2C1 R2C2 

3/8/2023 69

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Second-order VCVS low-pass filter

Comparing with the transfer function

of Butterworth filter
2k = 1.414

3/8/2023 70

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Scaling
To design a filter
Design circuit for c = 1 and Z =1
Then scale for desired c and Z

(a) Impedance scaling

To scale impedance while maintaining c
Z new
KZ 
Z old
R  KZ R ; C  C / KZ
3/8/2023 71

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Scaling
(b) Frequency scaling
To scale frequency while maintaining
const. impedance
new
K 
old
R  same C  C / K
Combining two scaling factors
1
Rnew  K Z R , Cnew  C
K Z K
3/8/2023 72

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Design: A Butterworth LPF with c = 200 rad/s, gain
(K) = 10
(a) Alternative 1 (R1 = R2 = 1)
Design low-pass Butterworth filter
for c = 1, gain = 10
Vo 10
H (s)  
Vs s 2  2ks  1
1 1 9
where C1C2  1, 2k     2
C1 C1 C2
Gives C1  0.4, C2  2.5
3/8/2023 73

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Design
(a) continued
for c = 200 rad/s, impedance = 10 kΩ

K Z  10 4 K  200
4
 R1  R2  10 k , C1  0.4 /( 200  10 )  0.2 μF
4
C2  2.5 /( 200  10 )  1.25 μF
To select R A , RB use gain value
For gain  10, R A  1 k, RB  9 k
3/8/2023 74

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Design: A Butterworth LPF with c = 200 rad/s, gain
(K) = 10
(b) Alternative 2 (C1 = C2 = 1)
Design low-pass Butterworth filter
for c = 1, gain = 2
Vo 2
H (s)  
Vs s 2  2ks  1
1
where R1R2  1, 2k   2
R1
1
Gives R1  , R2  2
3/8/2023 2 75

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
(b) continued
for c = 200 rad/s, C1 = C2 = 1 mF
K  200 , To find K Z
1 C
Cnew  C  KZ   5  103
K Z K Cnew K
3
R1  (5  10 ) / 2  3.54 k
R2  (5  103 ) 2  7.07 k
To select R A , RB use gain value
For gain  2, R A  RB  1 k
3/8/2023 76

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Design
(c) Alternative 3 R1 = R2 = R , C1 = C2 = C
2
Vo Kc
H (s)  
Vs s 2  2kc s  c2

where c  1 /( RC ) , 2k  3  K
For known R find C , or for known C find R
For Butterworth filter 2k  2
Gain K  3  1.414  1.586
If R A  1 k, RB  0.586 k
3/8/2023 77

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Second-order VCVS high-pass filter

3/8/2023 78

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Second-order VCVS high-pass filter
To get high - pass filter from low - pass filter
Use frequency and GC : CG transfo rmation
1
For c  1, s 
s
2
Vo Ks
H (s)   2
Vs s  2ks  1
 1 1 1 K 
2k     R1 R2C1C 2 1/ 2

 R2C 2 R2C1 R1C1 

3/8/2023 79

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters

According to CG:GC Transformation

G  C, C G of the same value
Low-pass High-pass
Resistor R Capacitor C= 1/R
Capacitor C Resistor R= 1/C

3/8/2023 80

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Design
(a) Alternative 1 C1 = C2 = 1
Design high-pass Butterworth filter
for c = 1, gain = 10
2
Vo 10 s
H (s)  
Vs s 2  2ks  1
In Alternative 1 for low  pass filters R1  R2  1
1 1 9
where C1C2  1, 2k     2
C1 C1 C2
Gives C1  0.4, C2  2.5
3/8/2023 81

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Design
(a) Alternative 1 Continued

Using CG : GC transformation, for high - pass filter

1 1
C1   1, C2   1,
R1 R2
1 1
R1   2.5, R2   0 .4
C1 C2

3/8/2023 82

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Design (a) continued
For c  200 rad/s, C1  C2  1 μF
K  200
To find K Z
C C 3
use Cnew  or K Z   5  10
K Z K Cnew K
 R1  2.5  5  103  12.5 k R2  0.4  5  103  2 k
To select R A , RB use gain value
For gain  10, R A  1 k, RB  9 k
3/8/2023 83

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
(b) Alternative 2 R1 = R2 = 1
Design high-pass Butterworth filter
for c = 1, gain = 2
2
Vo 2s
H (s)  
Vs s 2  2ks  1
From alternative 2 of low - pass filter design C1  C2  1
1
where R1R2  1, 2k   2
R1
1
Gives R1  , R2  2
3/8/2023
2 84

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Design
(b) Alternative 2
Using CG : GC transformation, for high - pass filter
1 1
R1   1, R2   1,
C1 C2
1 1 1
C1   2 , C2  
R1 R2 2

3/8/2023 85

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
(b) continued
for c = 200 rad/s, R1 = R2 = 1 kOhm
3
K  200 K Z  10
New values of the components R1  R2  1 k
2
C1   7.07 μF
200  103
1
C2   3.54 μF
2 (200  103 )
To select R A , RB use gain value
For gain  2, R A  RB  1 k
3/8/2023 86

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
(c) Alternative 3
R1  R2  R, C1  C2  C , For c  1
Vo Ks 2
H ( s)  
Vs s 2  2ks  1
where 2k  3  K
For known R find C , or for known C find R
at the given c where c  1 /( RC )
For Butterworth filter 2k  2
Gain K  3  2k  3  1.414  1.586
If R A  1 k, RB  0.586 k
3/8/2023 87

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Second-order VCVS band-pass filter
To get band - pass filter wit h ωL and  H
In H ( s ) for low - pass filter
s 2   H ωL
Replace  c  1, s 
s ( H  ωL )
2
Define 0   H ωL , BW   H  ωL
For 0  1, the transforma tion is
1  1
s  
BW  s
3/8/2023 88

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Pass-band characteristics of low-pass filter
 upper pass-band half of band-pass filter
Upper pass-band is mirrored at mid-frequency f0
into lower pass-band half
Low - pass c  H , High - pass c  ωL
Normalized BW  H  ωL
Normalized mid  freq, where Q  1,
2
0  1  H ωL
0 f0 1
Q   for 0  1
BW (rad/s) BW (Hz) BW
3/8/2023 89

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters

Simplest design
- Connect high-pass and low-pass filter in series
First-order high-pass + first-order low-pass
= second-order band-pass
Second-order high-pass + Second-order low-pass
= ?-order band-pass

Narrow-band filters (order > 2)

- Cascaded second-order band-pass filters
with Sallen-Key or Multiple feedback topology

3/8/2023 90

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Transfer function
H0
For low - pass filter H(s) 
s 1
1  1
Replace s  s  
BW  s
H 0 BWs
H(s) 
s 2  BWs  1
(H 0 / Q)s
H(s) 
2
s  (1 / Q ) s  1
3/8/2023 91

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Normalized gain response of
Second-order
band-pass filter
For different values of Q

For higher Q
Sharper freq. response
Filter more selective

3/8/2023 92

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Second-order VCVS band-pass filter

3/8/2023 93

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Design
KRC 0 s
H(s) 
2 2 2 2
R C 0 s  RC0 (3  K ) s  1
K  gain of the amplifier
( H 0 / Q)s
Thro' coefficient comparison with H(s) 
2
s  (1 / Q ) s  1
Center frequency f 0  1 /( 2RC )
Gain at f 0 : H 0  K /(3  K )
Q factor : Q  1 /(3  K )
Amplifier gain : K  1  ( RB / R A )
3/8/2023 94

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Design Q changed by changing K , without changing f 0
As K  3 H 0  , Circuit oscillates
Design filter for given f 0 , Q or H 0 
Assume values for R and R A
1
C 
2 Rf 0
2H 0 1
RB  R A if H 0 given
1 H0
2Q  1
RB  R A if Q given
Q
3/8/2023 95

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
VCVS second-order band-reject filter

3/8/2023 96

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters

To get band - reject filter wit h ωL and  H

In H(s) for low - pass filter
s ( H  ωL )
replace c  1, s 
s 2   H ωL
Define 02   H ωL , BW   H  ωL
For 0  1, the transforma tion
BW
 1
s  
 s
3/8/2023 97

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Pass-band characteristics of low-pass filter
 lower pass-band half of band-reject filter
Lower pass-band is mirrored at mid-frequency f0
into higher pass-band half

Low - pass c  L
High - pass c  ωH

3/8/2023 98

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Transfer function
H0
For low - pass filter H(s) 
s 1
BW
Replace s 
 1
s  
 s
2
H 0 ( s  1)
H(s) 
s 2  BWs  1
H 0 ( s 2  1)
H(s) 
2
s  (1 / Q ) s  1
3/8/2023 99

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
VCVS band - reject filter using twin - T network
K ( s 2  1)
H(s) 
s 2  2( 2  K ) s  1
K  gain of the amplifier
H 0 ( s 2  1)
Thro' Coefficien t comparison with H(s) 
s 2  (1 / Q ) s  1
Center frequency f 0  1 /( 2RC )
Pass - band Gain : H0  K
Q factor : Q  1 /[ 2( 2  K )]
Amplifier gain : K  1  ( RB / R A )
3/8/2023 100

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters
Design Q changed by changing K , without changing f 0
But Q and H 0 cannot be adjusted independently

Design filter for f 0 , Q or H 0 

Assume values for R and R A
1
C 
2 Rf 0
R B  ( H 0  1) R A if H 0 given
 1 
R B   1   R A if Q given
 2Q 
3/8/2023 101

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION