MECH2310: Thermodynamics

Chapter 5
MASS AND ENERGY
ANALYSIS OF CONTROL
VOLUMES

Prof. Baoling Huang

Department of Mechanical Engineering/ HKUST
 Objective
• sDevelop the conservation of mass principle.
• Apply the conservation of mass principle to various systems
including steady- and unsteady-flow control volumes.
• Apply the first law of thermodynamics as the statement of the
conservation of energy principle to control volumes.
• Identify the energy carried by a fluid stream crossing a control
surface as the sum of internal energy, flow work, kinetic energy,
and potential energy of the fluid and to relate the combination of
the internal energy and the flow work to the property enthalpy.
• Solve energy balance problems for common steady-flow devices
such as nozzles, compressors, turbines, throttling valves, mixers,
heaters, and heat exchangers.
• Apply the energy balance to general unsteady-flow processes with
particular emphasis on the uniform-flow process as the model for
commonly encountered charging and discharging processes.
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Conservation of Mass
Conservation of mass: Mass, like energy, is a conserved property,
and it cannot be created or destroyed during a process.

Mass is conserved even during chemical reactions.

Mass m and energy E can be converted to each other according to

where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, which is c = 2.9979 108 m/s.

The mass change due to energy change is absolutely negligible.

Closed systems: The mass of the system remain constant during a

process. No mass can cross the system boundary.
Control volumes: Mass can cross the boundaries, and so we must keep
track of the amount of mass entering and leaving the control volume.

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 Control Volume and Control Mass
● A system can be defined through a quantity of matter or a region
● Control mass: a system that has a fixed quantity of matter (or a group of
well-identified particles)
● Control volume: a system that is defined by a spatial region

Control
Surroundin
mass
g

Control
Boundar volume
y

For a closed system (no For an open system

mass exchange with the (exchanging mass with the
surrounding), the control surrounding), the control mass
volume and control mass and control volume are different
can be identical
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Lagrangian and Eulerian Method
● To describe the property of a system, there are two approaches: Lagrangian
and Eulerian methods, corresponding to the control mass and control volume.

● The properties of a system is related to the movement of contained particles

Lagrangian: Following a particle trajectory to describe the
motion

+ =
Eulerian: Observing and describing the particle motions as the
particles passed fixed locations (or a control volume)

=
t t t
0 1 2

● The two methods should give the same results at a given location and time
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 Reynolds Transport Theorem
● For the convenience of mathematical treatment and comparison
with experimental results, Lagrangian descriptions are normally
translated into Eulerian descriptions.
● Reynolds transport theorem connects the lagrangian description
with the Eulerian description.
For any extensive property B=mb, B can
be energy, momentum and other properties

Not
e

Or
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Mass Flow Rates Across a Surface
smzeindAc
的 =
多 .
8m =
Sac βlndAa
tndAo

If the mass flows to outside, the flow rate

is positive; on the other hand, inlet flow
rate is negative.

For a closed surface, the net mass outflow

rate

m =
Sa δ m
=

SaeinaA SaeondA =

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Mass and Volume Flow Rates
Definition of
average velocity
Volume flow rate

Mass flow
rate

The average velocity Vavg is defined

The volume flow rate is the volume of as the average speed through a cross
fluid flowing through a cross section per section. 0
unit time.
Conservation of Mass Principle
The conservation of mass principle for a control volume: The net mass transfer
to or from a control volume during a time interval t is equal to the net change
(increase or decrease) in the total mass within the control volume during t.

General conservation of mass in rate form

or
Conservation of mass principle
for an ordinary bathtub.
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 Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
During a steady-flow process, the total amount of mass contained within a
control volume does not change with time (mCV = constant).
Then the conservation of mass principle requires that the total amount of mass
entering a control volume equal the total amount of mass leaving it.

For steady-flow processes, we are

interested in the amount of mass flowing per
unit time, that is, the mass flow rate.
Multiple inlets
and exits
Single
stream
Many engineering devices such as nozzles,
diffusers, turbines, compressors, and
pumps involve a single stream (only one
inlet and one outlet).

Conservation of mass principle for a two-

inlet–one-outlet steady-flow system.
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Special Case: Incompressible Flow
The conservation of mass relations can be simplified even further when
the fluid is incompressible, which is usually the case for liquids.

Steady,
incompressible

Steady,
incompressible
flow (single
stream)
There is no such thing as a “conservation of
volume” principle.
However, for steady flow of liquids, the volume flow
rates, as well as the mass flow rates, remain
constant since liquids are essentially incompressible
substances.

During a steady-flow process, volume

flow rates are not necessarily conserved
although mass flow rates are.
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 Example
● A garden hose attached with a nozzle is used to fill a 40 L bucket.
The inner diameter of the hose is 2 cm, and it reduces to 0.8 cm at
the nozzle exit. If it takes 50 s to fill the bucket with water,
determine
● (a) the volume and mass flow rates of water through the hose,
and
● (b) the average velocity of water at the nozzle exit.

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 Example
● A 1.2 m, 0.9 m diameter cylindrical water tank whose top is open to
the atmosphere is initially filled with water. Now the discharge plug
near the bottom of the tank is pulled out, and a water jet whose
diameter is 1.3 cm streams out. The average velocity of the jet is
given by, where h is the height of water in the tank
measured from the center of the hole (a variable) and g is the
gravitational acceleration. Determine how long it will take for the
water level in the tank to drop to 0.6 m from the bottom.

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 Example:
Fresh air requirement in smoking room

● A smoking lounge is to accommodate 15

heavy smokers. The minimum fresh air
requirement for smoking lounge is specified
to be 58 L/s per person (ASHRAE, Standard
62 Addendum o, 2001). Determine the
minimum required flow rate of fresh air that
needs to be supplied to the lounge, and the
diameter of the duct if the air velocity is not to
exceed 8 m/s.

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Example:
Fresh air requirement in smoking room

5
8

37.2

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 Flow Work and the Energy of A
Flowing Fluid
Flow work, or flow energy: The work (or energy)
required to push the mass into or out of the control
volume. This work is necessary for maintaining a
continuous flow through a control volume.

In the absence of acceleration, the force

applied on a fluid by a piston is equal to the
Schematic for flow force applied on the piston by the fluid.
work. 0
Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid
The flow energy is
automatically taken
care of by enthalpy.
h = u + Pv In fact, this is the
main reason for
defining the
property enthalpy.

The total energy consists of three parts for a nonflowing fluid and four parts for a
flowing fluid. 0
Energy Transport by Mass

When the kinetic and potential energies

of a fluid stream are negligible

When the properties of the mass at

each inlet or exit change with time
as well as over the cross section

The product is the energy

transported into control volume by
mass per unit time.
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 Example
● Steam is leaving a 4 L pressure cooker whose operating pressure is
150 kPa. It is observed that the amount of liquid in the cooker has
decreased by 0.6 L in 40 min after the steady operating conditions
are established, and the cross-sectional area of the exit opening is 8
mm2. Determine
● (a) the mass flow rate of the steam and the exit velocity,
● (b) the total and flow energies of the steam per unit mass, and
● (c) the rate at which energy leaves the cooker by steam.

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 Energy Analysis of Steady-flow Systems

Under steady-flow conditions, the mass

and energy contents of a control volume
remain constant.

Many engineering systems such

as power plants operate under
steady conditions.

Under steady-flow conditions,

the fluid properties at an inlet
or exit remain constant (do not
change with time).
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Mass and Energy Balances
for A Steady-flow Process

Mass A water
balance heater in
steady
operation.

Energy
balance

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Energy Balance Relations With Sign Conventions
heat input and work output are
positive

Some energy unit equivalents

●The kinetic energy term at low

velocity can be neglected.
when kinetic and potential energy ●The elevation difference between
changes are negligible the inlet and exit of devices is
normally small and the potential
energy term is always neglected

Under steady operation,

shaft work and electrical
work are the only forms of
work a simple compressible
system may involve.
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Some Steady-flow Engineering Devices
●Many engineering devices operate essentially under the same conditions for
long periods of time. The components of a steam power plant (turbines,
compressors, heat exchangers, and pumps), for example, operate nonstop for
months before the system is shut down for maintenance. Therefore, these
devices can be conveniently analyzed as steady-flow devices.

A modern land-based gas turbine used for electric power

production. This is a General Electric LM5000 turbine. It
has a length of 6.2 m, it weighs 12.5 tons, and produces
55.2 MW at 3600 rpm with steam injection.
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Nozzles and Diffusers Nozzles and diffusers are commonly
utilized in jet engines, rockets,
spacecraft, and even garden hoses.
A nozzle is a device that increases
the velocity of a fluid at the expense
of pressure.
A diffuser is a device that increases
the pressure of a fluid by slowing it
down.
The cross-sectional area of a nozzle
decreases in the flow direction for
subsonic flows and increases for
supersonic flows. The reverse is true
for diffusers.
Energy
Nozzles and diffusers are balance for
shaped so that they cause large a nozzle or
changes in fluid velocities and diffuser:
thus kinetic energies.

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 Example: Deceleration of air in a diffuser
● Air at 10 oC and 80 kPa enters the diffuser of a jet engine steadily
with a velocity of 200 m/s. The inlet area of the diffuser is 0.4 m2.
The air leaves the diffuser with a velocity that is very small compared
with the inlet velocity. Determine
● (a) the mass flow rate of the air and
● (b) the temperature of the air leaving the diffuser.

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 Example: Acceleration of steam in a nozzle
● Steam at 1.8 MPa and 400 oC steadily enters a nozzle whose inlet
area is 0.02 m2. The mass flow rate of steam through the nozzle is 5
kg/s. Steam leaves the nozzle at 1.4 MPa with a velocity of 275 m/s.
Heat losses from the nozzle per unit mass of the steam are
estimated to be 2.8 kJ/kg. Determine
● (a) the inlet velocity and
● (b) the exit temperature of the steam.

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Turbines and Turbine drives the electric generator In
Compressors steam, gas, or hydroelectric power plants.
As the fluid passes through the turbine,
work is done against the blades, which are
attached to the shaft. As a result, the shaft
rotates, and the turbine produces work.
Compressors, as well as pumps and
fans, are devices used to increase the
pressure of a fluid. Work is supplied to
these devices from an external source
through a rotating shaft.
A fan increases the pressure of a gas
slightly and is mainly used to mobilize a
Energy balance for the gas.
compressor in this figure:
A compressor is capable of compressing
the gas to very high pressures.
Pumps work very much like compressors
except that they handle liquids instead of
gases.
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 Example: Compressing air by a compressor
● Air at 100 kPa and 280 K is compressed steadily to 600 kPa and
400 K. The mass flow rate of the air is 0.02 kg/s, and a heat loss of
16 kJ/kg occurs during the process. Assuming the changes in kinetic
and potential energies are negligible, determine the necessary
power input to the compressor.

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 Example: Power generation by a steam turbine
● The power output of an adiabatic steam turbine is 5 MW, and the
inlet and the exit conditions of the steam are given (in next slide).
● (a) compare the magnitudes of ∆h, ∆ke, and ∆pe
● (b) determine the work done per unit mass of the steam flowing
through the turbine
● (c) calculate the mass flow rate of the steam

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 Example: Steam turbine application
● A portion of the steam passing through a steam turbine is
sometimes removed for the purposes of feed water heating as
shown in the figure. Consider an adiabatic steam turbine with 12.5
MPa and 550°C steam entering at a rate of 20 kg/s. Steam is bled
from this turbine at 1000 kPa and 200 °C with a mass flow rate of 1
kg/s. The remaining steam leaves the turbine at 100 kPa and 100
°C. Determine the power produced by this turbine.

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 Example: Steam turbine application
● Assumptions 1 This is a steady-flow process since there is no
change with time. 2 Kinetic and potential energy changes are
negligible. 3 The turbine is adiabatic and thus heat transfer is
negligible.

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Example: Steam turbine application

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 Throttling valves are any kind of flow-restricting devices
Throttling Valves that cause a significant pressure drop in the fluid.
What is the difference between a turbine and a
throttling valve?
The pressure drop in the fluid is often accompanied by a
large drop in temperature, and for that reason throttling
devices are commonly used in refrigeration and air-
conditioning applications.
Energy
balance

During a throttling process, the enthalpy

The temperature of an ideal gas does of a fluid remains constant. But internal
not change during a throttling and flow energies may be converted to
(h = constant) process since h = h(T). each other.
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 Example: Expansion of Refrigerant-134a in a refrigerator

● Refrigerant-134a enters the capillary tube of

a refrigerator as saturated liquid at 0.8 MPa
and is throttled to a pressure of 0.12 MPa.
Determine the quality of the refrigerant at
the final state and the temperature drop
during this process.

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Mixing Chambers 60 C
In engineering applications, the section
where the mixing process takes place is
commonly referred to as a mixing
chamber.

140 kPa

10 C 43
C
Energy balance for the
adiabatic mixing chamber in
the figure is:

The T-elbow of an ordinary shower

serves as the mixing chamber for the
hot- and the cold-water streams.
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 Example

● Water flows through a shower head steadily at a rate of 10 L/min.

An electric resistance heater placed in the water pipe heats the
water from 16 to 43 oC. Taking the density of water to be 1 kg/L,
determine the electric power input to the heater, in kW.
● In an effort to conserve energy, it is proposed to pass the drained
warm water at a temperature of 39 oC through a heat exchanger
to preheat the incoming cold water. If the heat exchanger has an
effectiveness of 0.5 (that is, it recovers only half of the energy
that can possibly be transferred from the drained water to
incoming cold water), determine the electric power input
required in this case. If the price of the electric energy is 8.5
¢/kWh, determine how much money is saved during a 10 min
shower as a result of installing this heat exchanger.

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 Example: Mixing of hot and cold waters in a
shower
● Consider an ordinary shower where hot water at 60 oC is mixed with
cold water at 10 oC. If it is desired that a steady stream of warm
water at 45 oC be supplied, determine the ratio of the mass flow
rates of the hot to cold water. Assume the heat losses from the
mixing chamber to be negligible and the mixing to take place at a
pressure of 150 kPa.

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Approach 1

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Approach 2

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Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers are
devices where two moving
fluid streams exchange heat
without mixing. Heat
exchangers are widely used
in various industries, and
they come in various
The heat transfer associated with a heat
designs.
exchanger may be zero or nonzero depending on
how the control volume is selected.

Mass and energy

balances for the adiabatic
heat exchanger in the
figure is:

A heat exchanger
can be as simple as
two concentric pipes. 0
 Example: Cooling of Refrigerant-134a by water
● Refrigerant-134a is to be cooled by water in a condenser. The
refrigerant enters the condenser with a mass flow rate of 6 kg/min at
1 MPa and 70 oC and leaves at 35 oC. The cooling water enters at
300 kPa and 15 oC and leaves at 25 oC. Neglecting any pressure
drops, determine
● (a) the mass flow rate of the cooling water required and
● (b) the heat transfer rate from the refrigerant to water.

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 Example: chilled water application
● A chilled-water heat-exchange unit is designed to cool 5
m3/s of air at 100 kPa and 30 °C to 100 kPa and 18 °C
by using water at 8 °C. Determine the maximum water
outlet temperature when the mass flow rate of the water
is 2 kg/s. MaivCai~δTai = MaaoTa
_

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Example: chilled water application

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Example: chilled water application

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 Pipe and Duct Flow
●The transport of liquids or gases in pipes and ducts is of great importance in
many engineering applications. Flow through a pipe or a duct usually satisfies
the steady-flow conditions.

Heat losses from a hot fluid flowing through

an uninsulated pipe or duct to the cooler
environment may be very significant.

Energy balance for the pipe

flow shown in the figure is

Pipe or duct flow may involve more than one

form of work at the same time.
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 Example: Electric heating of air in a house
● The electric heating systems used in many house consist of a
simple duct with resistance heaters. Air is heated as it flows over
resistance wires. Consider a 15 kW electric heating system. Air
enters the heating section at 100 kPa and 17 oC with a volume flow
rate of 150 m3/min. If heat is lost from the air in the duct to the
surroundings at a rate of 200 W, determine the exit temperature of
air.

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 Problem
● The ventilating fan of the bathroom of a building has a volume flow
rate of 30 L/s and runs continuously. The building is located in San
Francisco, California, where the average winter temperature is 12.2
oC, and is maintained at 22 oC at all times. The building is heated
by electricity whose unit cost is $ 0.09/kWh. Determine the amount
and cost of the heat ‘vented out’ per month in winter

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 Example
● A building with an internal volume of
400 m3 is to be heated by a 30 kW
electric resistance heater placed in
the duct inside the building. Initially,
the air in the building is at 14 oC,
and the local atmospheric pressure
is 95 kPa. The building is losing heat
to the surroundings at a steady rate
of 450 kJ/min. Air is forced to flow
through the duct and the heater
steadily by a 250 W fan, and it
experiences a temperature rise of 5
oC each time it passes through the
duct, which may be assumed to be
adiabatic.
● (a) how long will it take for the air
inside the building to reach an
average temperature of 24 oC
● (b) determine the average mass
flow rate of air through the duct

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Energy Analysis Of Unsteady-Flow
Processes
Many processes of interest, Charging of a rigid
however, involve changes within tank from a supply
the control volume with time. line is an unsteady-
Such processes are called
flow process since it
unsteady-flow, or transient-flow,
involves changes
processes.
within the control
Most unsteady-flow processes volume.
can be represented reasonably
well by the uniform-flow process.
Uniform-flow process: The fluid
flow at any inlet or exit is uniform
and steady, and thus the fluid The shape
properties do not change with and size of a
time or position over the cross control
section of an inlet or exit. If they volume may
do, they are averaged and change
treated as constants for the during an
entire process. unsteady-flow
process.
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Mass balance

Energy
balance

A uniform-
flow system
may involve
electrical,
shaft, and
boundary
work all at
once.

The energy equation of a uniform-flow system

reduces to that of a closed system when all the
inlets and exits are closed. 0
 Example:
Charging of a rigid tank by steam

● A rigid, insulated tank that is initially

evacuated is connected through a valve to a
supply line that carries steam at 1 MPa and
300 oC. Now the valve is opened, and steam
is allowed to flow slowly into the tank until the
pressure reaches 1 MPa, at which point the
valve is closed. Determine the final
temperature of the steam in the tank.

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Approach (a)

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 Example: Cooking with a pressure cooker
● A certain pressure cooker has a volume of 6 L and an operating
pressure of 75 kPa gage. Initially, it contains 1 kg of water. Heat is
supplied to the pressure cooker at a rate of 500 W for 30 min after
the operating pressure is reached. Assuming the atmospheric
pressure of 100 kPa, determine
● (a) the temperature at which cooking takes place and
● (b) the amount of water left in the pressure cooker at the end of
the process.

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 Example
● A vertical piston-cylinder device initially contains 0.01 m3 of steam
at 200 oC. The mass of the frictionless piston is such that it
maintains a constant pressure of 500 kPa inside. Now steam at 1
MPa and 350 oC is allowed to enter the cylinder from a supply line
until the volume inside doubles. Neglecting any heat transfer that
may have taken place during the process, determine
● (a) the final temperature of the steam in the cylinder and
● (b) the amount of mass that has entered.

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 Example
● An insulated 1.7 m3 rigid tank contains air at 500 kPa and 50 oC. A
valve connected to the tank is now opened, and air is allowed to
escape until the pressure inside drops to 200 kPa. The air
temperature during this process is maintained constant by an
electric resistance heater placed in the tank. Determine the
electrical work done during this process.

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 Summary
● Conservation of mass
● Mass and volume flow rates
● Mass balance for a steady-flow process
● Mass balance for incompressible flow
● Flow work and the energy of a flowing fluid
● Energy transport by mass
● Energy analysis of steady-flow systems
● Some steady-flow engineering devices
● Nozzles and Diffusers
● Turbines and Compressors
● Throttling valves
● Mixing chambers and Heat exchangers
● Pipe and Duct flow
● Energy analysis of unsteady-flow processes