Cell Structure

and
Organisation
1
Textbook Chapter 2, page 14
An Overview… Cell
Made up
of

Cellulose cell wall

Protoplasm
(only in plants)

Consists
of

Cell surface
Nucleus Cytoplasm
membrane

Contains
2

Organelles
Learning Objectives:
Reference - 5158 Biology (with SPA) O’ Level 2016

1. Identify cell structures (including organelles) of typical

plant and animal cells from diagrams: Chloroplasts,
Cell membrane, Cell wall, Cytoplasm, Cell vacuoles
(large, sap-filled in plant cells, small, temporary in
animal cells), Nucleus.

2. Identify the following membrane systems and

organelles from diagrams and electron micrographs:
Endoplasmic reticulum, Mitochondria, Golgi body,
Ribosomes.

3. State the functions of the membrane systems and

3
organelles identified above.
Learning Objectives: cont’d
Reference - 5158 Biology (with SPA) O’ Level 2016

4. Compare the structure of typical animal and plant cells.

5. State, in simple terms, the relationship between cell
function and cell structure for the following:
• absorption – root hair cells
• conduction and support – xylem vessels
• transport of oxygen – red blood cells
6. Differentiate cell, tissue, organ and organ system.

Use the knowledge gained in this section in new

situations or to solve related problems.
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 Trigger Activity…
An analogy:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URUJD5NEX
C8

5
In general, there are 2 types of cells:

1. Prokaryotic cell
 No (membrane-bound) nucleus

 Bacteria

2. Eukaryotic cell
 Has a membrane-bound nucleus

 Plant cells and animal cells

*NOT in syllabus! 6
 Learning Objectives 1 to 3:
1. Identify cell structures (including organelles) of typical
plant and animal cells from diagrams:
Chloroplasts, Cell membrane, Cell wall,
Cytoplasm, Cell vacuoles (large, sap-filled in
plant cells, small, temporary in animal cells),
Nucleus.
2. Identify the following membrane systems and
organelles from diagrams and electron micrographs:
Endoplasmic reticulum, Mitochondria, Golgi
body, Ribosomes.
3. State the functions of the membrane systems 7

and organelles identified above.

 What does a cell consists of?
Protoplasm
 Living material in each living cell

 A jelly-like substance

 About 70% of a cell’s protoplasm is water

 Contains many other substances, most of which

are proteins, carbohydrates and fats.

The protoplasm of a cell is made up of 3 parts:

1. Cell surface membrane
2. Nucleus 8
3. Cytoplasm (and its organelles)
ANIMAL CELL

9
(Recap!)
1. Cell surface membrane

 Also known as plasma membrane

 Surrounds the cytoplasm of the cell

 A partially permeable membrane: it allows

only some substances to cross it

Function:
 The cell surface membrane controls
substances entering or leaving the cell.

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 2. Nucleus
(Refer to TB page 19, Figure 2.7)

 The nucleus consists of the nuclear envelope

(a membrane) surrounding the nucleoplasm (a
small round mass of denser protoplasm), which
contains chromatin and one or more nucleoli
(singular: nucleolus).

Functions of the nucleus:

 It controls cell activities such as cell growth and
the repair of worn-out parts.
 It is essential for cell division / it controls cell 11

reproduction.
 Chromatin
 A network of long thread-like structures found within
the nucleus.
 Chromatin controls the activities of the cell, such as
cell division.
 Chromatin = Proteins + Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

 Hereditary information is stored in DNA. DNA also

contains instructions that a cell needs for carrying out
all the chemical reactions within itself.
 During cell division, the chromatin threads condense
and become highly coiled structures called
chromosomes.
* Chromosomes are visible under the microscope, but 12
chromatin is not.
 3. Cytoplasm

 Site where most cell activities occur.

 Contains enzymes and specialised structures
called organelles. Organelles carry out various
functions in the cell.
 Some organelles are visible under the light
microscope, while others can only be studied
under the electron microscope.

Question:
Name the organelles that are found in the
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cytoplasm.
 Animal cell
(as seen under
an electron
microscope)

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 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

 The membrane network in the cytoplasm.

 There are 2 types of ER:

1. Rough endoplasmic reticulum

2. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

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 Rough endoplasmic reticulum

 Small particles called ribosomes are attached to

the outer surface of the rough ER (RER).
 The outer surface of the RER is continuous with
the nuclear envelope.

Function:
 The RER transports proteins made by ribosomes
to the Golgi apparatus for secretion out of the
cell.
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 Ribosomes
 Small round structures, either attached to the
membrane of the RER or lie freely in the cytoplasm
(free ribosome).

Function:
 Ribosomes are needed to synthesise proteins in the
cell.

 The ribosomes attached to the RER make proteins

that are usually transported out of the cell.
 The ribosomes lying freely in the cytoplasm make
proteins that are used within the cytoplasm of that 17
cell.
 RIBOSOMES
 Ribosomesare RNA-protein complexes
composed of two subunits that join and attach
to messenger RNA.
 site of protein synthesis
 assembled in nucleoli
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

 Smooth ER (SER) does not have ribosomes

attached to its membrane.
 SER is more tubular than RER.

 SER is connected to the RER.

Functions:
 The SER synthesises substances such as fats
and steroids. (Sex hormones in mammals are
steroids.)
 The SER converts harmful substances into
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harmless materials – Detoxification.
 Golgi apparatus
 Golgi apparatus (Golgi body) is shaped like a disc.
 Consists of a stack of flattened spaces surrounded
by membranes.
 Vesicles can be seen fusing with one side of the
Golgi apparatus and pinching off from the opposite
side.
(Vesicle: A tiny spherical space enclosed by a
membrane)

Functions:
 The Golgi apparatus stores and modifies
substances made by the ER; and
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 packages these substances in vesicles for secretion
out of the cell (for export).
 How substances made by the ER enter
the Golgi apparatus and are finally
secreted out of the cell
Golgi Apparatus.mp4

Exocytosis
21

Refer to TB page 22, Figure 2.14

(Recap!)
Mitochondria
 Singular:Mitochondrion
 Small sausage-shaped organelles

Function:
 Mitochondria is the site of aerobic respiration.

 During aerobic respiration, food substances

(glucose) are oxidised to release energy. This
energy may be used by the cell to perform cell
activities such as growth and reproduction.
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PLANT CELL

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 Chloroplast
 Oval structures present in plant cells
 Chloroplasts contain membranes containing chlorophyll
for the light-dependent stage of photosynthesis; and
fluid stroma for the light-independent stage.

Function:
 Chloroplast contains chlorophyll which traps light
energy required to carry out photosynthesis.

Photomicrograph of
chloroplasts in the cells
of a leaf 24
(Recap!)
Vacuole
 A fluid-filled space enclosed by a membrane.
 Store substances within the cell.

In animal cells, vacuoles:

 Are numerous (many), small, temporary

 Contain water and food substances

Plant cells:
 Usually have a large central vacuole which contains a
liquid (cell sap).
 Cell sap contains dissolved substances such as sugars,
mineral salts and amino acids.
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 This large vacuole is enclosed by a membrane called
the tonoplast.
Centriole

 Centrioles are small, hollow

cylinders.
 A pair of centrioles is usually
found close to the nucleus.
 Play an important role in cell
division.
 Only found in animal cells.

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(Checkpoint)
Cell
Made up
of

Cellulose cell wall

Protoplasm
(only in plants)

Consists
of

Cell surface
Nucleus Cytoplasm
membrane

Contains
27

Organelles
(Recap!)
Cell wall

 Non-living

 Encloses the entire plant cell, surrounding the cell

surface membrane.
 Made of cellulose

 Fully permeable
 Absent in animal cells

Function:
 Cell wall protects the cell from injury and gives the
plant cell a fixed (regular) shape. 28
Learning Objective 4
Compare the structure of typical animal and
plant cells.

Discuss:
What are some
points of
comparison?
Refer to TB page 24,
29
Table 2.1
 Plant Cell Animal Cell
• It is rigid
• Made of cellulose
• Determines the shape and Cell Wall • Absent
size of the cell
• Supports and strengthens the
plant
• Absent
• Stores food as starch
Starch • Excess carbohydrates
• Present in organelles called stored as glycogen
plastids grains
granules

• Present in green leaves

• Contains chlorophyll
Chloroplast • Absent
• Gives leaves their green
colour

• A large and centrally located

• Numerous small food
vacuole
• Filled with a watery fluid
Vacuole vacuoles are present in
animal cells
called cell sap
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• Surrounds vacuole as a • Absent
membrane
Tonoplast
Comparison between a typical animal cell
and a typical plant cell
Cell Structure Animal Cell Plant Cell
Chloroplasts Absent Present
Cell surface Present Present
membrane
Cell wall Absent Present
Cytoplasm Present Present
Vacuoles Small, temporary Large, sap-filled
Nucleus Present Present
Starch grain Absent Present
Mitochondria Present Present
Centrioles Present Absent
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What about ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus?
Learning Objective 5
State, in simple terms, the relationship
between cell function and cell structure for
the following:
• absorption – root hair cells
• conduction and support – xylem vessels
• transport of oxygen – red blood cells

Structure-Function
Relationship 32
 Differentiation
 Differentiation
is the process by which a cell
becomes specialised for a specific function.

 Living organisms grow through cell division,

which produces new cells.
 The new cells produced may develop special
structures or lose certain structures to enable
them to carry out specific functions.
 This process of development is called
differentiation.
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 Structure-Function Relationship
 Refer to TB page 25, Table 2.2

Cell Structure Function

Red blood • Haemoglobin
cell • No nucleus
• Circular biconcave shape
Xylem • Long hollow tubes; do not
vessel have cross-walls or
protoplasm
• Lignin deposits
Root hair • Long and narrow
cell • Numerous mitochondria
• Highly concentrated cell sap 34
CELL SPECIALISATION/ DIFFERENTIATION
 Differentiation – process where cells change to become
specialised for a specific function
 Root hair cell

- Long

- Narrow protrusion

- High concentration in

cell sap
 Red blood cell
- Absence of nucleus

- Biconcave in shape

→ Increase surface area to

volume ratio for diffusion

- Contains Haemoglobin

→ combines with oxygen,

to be transported
 Xylem vessel
- Dead, absence of
protoplasm
- long, narrow tube
- Absence of cross
walls
- Allows continuous flow
in the lumen
- Lignin deposition
strengthen walls – prevents collapse
Learning Objective 6

Differentiate cell, tissue, organ and organ system.

Question:
Is blood a tissue?

Yes, blood is a liquid tissue.

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 Organisation of cells to form an organism

Cell
A group of similar cells which work together to perform a specific function

Tissue
Different tissues working together to perform a specific function form

Organ
Several organs working together for a common purpose form

System
All the systems work together to form

Multicellular Organism
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 Simple tissue
 Cells of the same type form a simple tissue.
 Examples:

- Epithelial tissue or epithelium (in animals)

- Muscle tissue (in animals)

- Epidermis (in plants)

Complex tissue
 Complex tissue contain several types of cells.
 Examples:

- Connective tissue, nervous tissue, glandular tissue and

bone tissue (in animals)
- Vascular tissue, made up of xylem tissue and phloem
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tissue (in plants)
Question:
Is blood a simple tissue or a complex tissue?

Blood is a complex tissue. Blood contains red

blood cells, white blood cells etc.

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