Faculty of Mechanical and

Industrial Engineering
BiT
Signals and Systems in Control System

Targeted for 4th Year

Electromechanical Engineering Student

Thursday, December 12, 2024 | Bahir Dar

Compiled By: Mebratu A
 Chapter outline
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

1. Signals

2. Classification of Signal

3. Properties of Signals

4. Elementary signals

5. Laplace Transform

6. Systems
2
 What is Signals?
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

▪A signal is a function of one or more variables that conveys information

about some (usually physical) phenomenon.
▪ For a function f , in the expression f (t1, t2, . . . ,tn), each of the {t k } is
called an independent variable, while the function value itself is referred
to as a dependent variable.
▪ Some examples of signals include:
✓ a voltage or current in an electronic circuit
✓ the position, velocity, or acceleration of an object a force or
torque in a mechanical system
✓ a flow rate of a liquid or gas in a chemical process a digital
image, digital video, or digital audio
✓ a stock market index 3
 Signal in control systems
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

▪ A signal in control systems refers to a time-varying quantity that represents

information about a system's behavior or environment.
▪ These signals are essential for monitoring, controlling, and influencing the
performance of the system.
▪ They enable communication between system components, such as sensors,
controllers, and actuators, ensuring that the desired system behavior is
achieved.

Graphical representation of continuous time signal. Graphical representation of discrete-time signal. 4

 Classification of Signals
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

▪ Number of independent variables (i.e., dimensionality):

✓ A signal with one independent variable is said to be one dimensional (e.g., audio).
✓ A signal with more than one independent variable is said to be multi-dimensional (e.g.,
image).
▪ Continuous or discrete independent variables:
✓ A signal with continuous independent variables is said to be continuous time (CT)
(e.g., voltage waveform).
✓ A signal with discrete independent variables is said to be discrete time (DT) (e.g.,
stock market index).
▪ Continuous or discrete dependent variable:
✓ A signal with a continuous dependent variable is said to be continuous valued (e.g.,
voltage waveform).
✓ A signal with a discrete dependent variable is said to be discrete valued (e.g., digital image).
▪ A continuous-valued C T signal is said to be analog (e.g., voltage
waveform).
▪ A discrete-valued D T signal is said to be digital (e.g., digital audio). 5
 Signal Processing Systems
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

q(n) Discrete-to- y(t)

x(t) Continuous-to- p(n)
Discrete-Time Continuous-Time
Discrete-Time System (D/C) Converter
(C/D)
Converter
Processing a Continuous-Time Signal With a Discrete-Time System

q(t) Continuous-to-
Discrete-to- p(t)
x(n) Continuous- y(n)
Continuous- Discrete-Time (C/D)
Time (D/C) Time System Converter
Converter

Processing a Discrete-Time Signal With a Continuous-Time System

6
 Why Study Signals and Systems?
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

▪ Engineers build systems that process/manipulate signals.

▪ We need a formal mathematical framework for the study of such

systems.
▪ Such a framework is necessary in order to ensure that a system will
meet the required specifications (e.g., performance and safety).
▪ If a system fails to meet the required specifications or fails to
work altogether, negative consequences usually ensue.
▪ When a system fails to operate as expected, the consequences can
sometimes be catastrophic. 7
 Properties of Signals
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

1. Even Signals

▪ A function (Continuous) x is said to be

even if it satisfies:
x(t) = x(−t) for all t.
▪ A sequence (Discrete) x is said to be
even if it satisfies:
x(n) = x(−n) for all n.
▪ Geometrically, the graph of an even
signal is symmetric about the origin.
8
 ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University
Characteristics of Even Signals

▪ Even signals are symmetric about the time axis 𝑡=0 (continuous-time) or 𝑛=0
(discrete-time).
▪ The energy in the positive half (𝑡>0 or 𝑛>0) is equal to the energy in the negative
half (𝑡<0 or 𝑛<0).
▪ The Fourier Transform of an even signal is purely real (no imaginary component).
Examples of Even Signals
1.Discrete-Time Examples:
1.Continuous-Time Examples:
1. Cosine Sequence: : 𝑥 𝑛 = cos 𝜔𝑛
1. Cosine Wave: 𝑥 𝑡 = cos(𝑡)
1 𝑛 = 0,1, −1
2. Parabolic Signal: : 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑡 2 2. Pulse Signal: 𝑥 𝑛 = ቊ
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
3. Exponential Signal: 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −|𝑡|

9
 Applications of Even Signals
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

1.Signal Analysis
• Used to simplify mathematical computations, especially with Fourier
Transforms.

2.Symmetry-Based Processing
• Exploits symmetry to optimize algorithms in image and audio processing.

3.Communication Systems
• Even components of signals ensure real-valued results in modulation
techniques. 10
 Odd Signals
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

▪ A function (continuous-time signals) x is said

to be odd if it satisfies

x(t) = −x(−t) for all t.

▪ A sequence (discrete-time signals) x is said to

be odd if it satisfies

x(n) = −x(−n) for all n.

▪ Geometrically, the graph of an odd signal is

antisymmetric about the origin.
▪ An odd signal x must be
such that x(0) = 0.
11
 Characteristics of Odd Signals
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

1. Anti-Symmetry:
1. Odd signals are symmetric with respect to the origin, meaning if you rotate the
signal 180° about the origin, it will remain unchanged.
2. At t=0 (or n=0 for discrete-time), the signal is either zero or undefined because
x(0)=−x(0) which implies x(0) = 0.

2.Energy
The energy in the positive half (t>0 or n>0) is the same as the energy in the negative half (t<0 or
n<0) but with opposite signs.

3.Fourier Transform

The Fourier Transform of an odd signal is purely imaginary (no real component).

12
 Examples and Application of Odd Signals
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

1. Continuous-Time Examples: ▪ Applications of Odd Signals

1. Sine Wave: : 𝑥 𝑡 = sin 𝑡 1.Signal Analysis:
2. Pulse Signal: 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑡 Odd signal properties help in simplifying
computations and determining imaginary
3. Exponential Signals:
components in Fourier analysis.
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑡 sgn 𝑡 ,
2.Symmetry-Based Processing:
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 sgn 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 Anti-symmetric properties are useful in
2.Discrete-Time Examples: specific filters and modulation techniques.

1. Sine Sequence: : 𝑥 𝑛 = sin 𝜔𝑛 3.Alternating Current (AC) Systems:

Odd signals represent alternating
2. Pulse Signal:
waveforms, such as sinusoidal AC currents
or voltages.
1, 𝑛 = 1
𝑥 𝑛 =ቊ
−1, 𝑛 − 1
13
 Periodic Signals
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

▪ A periodic signal is a signal that repeats itself at regular intervals over time.
1. Continuous-Time Signal:
𝒙 𝒕 + 𝑻 = 𝒙 𝒕 , ∀𝒕
Where: T is the fundamental period, the smallest positive value for which the
signal repeats itself.
𝟏 𝟐𝛑
A T-periodic function x is said to have frequency and angular frequency
𝐓 𝐓
2. Discrete-Time Signal:
𝒙 𝒏 + 𝑵 = 𝒙 𝒏 , ∀𝒏
N is the fundamental period, the smallest positive integer for which the signal
repeats itself
𝟏 𝟐𝝅
An N-periodic sequence x is said to have frequency and angular frequency
𝑵 𝑵

A function/sequence that is not periodic is said to be aperiodic. 14

ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ Cont.….
Some examples of periodic signals are shown below.
Bahir Dar University

15
 ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
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ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Cont. …
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▪ The period of a periodic signal is not unique. That is, a signal that is
periodic with period T is also periodic with period kT , for every (strictly)
positive integer k.

▪ The smallest period with which a signal is periodic is called the

fundamental period and its corresponding frequency is called the
fundamental frequency. 16
 Key Properties of Periodic Signals
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

Repetition: A periodic signal maintains a repetitive pattern over time.

Fundamental Period: The smallest time interval, T for continuous-time & N for
discrete-time, over which the signal repeats.

Fundamental Frequency: The reciprocal of the fundamental period:

𝟏
𝒇= (continuous-time)
𝐓

𝟏
𝒇 = (discrete-time, normalized frequency)
𝑵

Harmonics: A periodic signal contains frequencies that are integer multiples of the
fundamental frequency (𝑓,2𝑓,3𝑓,…f,2f,3f,…).
17
 Examples of Periodic Signals
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

Continuous-Time Periodic Signals: Discrete Signals

18
 Applications of Periodic Signals
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

1.Communications:
✓Sinusoids serve as carriers in modulation systems.
✓Periodic signals are used in coding and transmission.
2.Control Systems:
✓Periodic inputs (e.g., sine or square waves) are applied to test
system behavior.
3.Power Systems:
✓AC waveforms are periodic, with fundamental frequencies like 50
Hz or 60 Hz.
4.Audio Processing:
✓Musical notes are examples of periodic signals.
19
 ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Causal and Non-causal Signals

ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
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▪ A causal signal is zero for t<0 and a

no-causal signal is zero for t>0

Right and left sided signals

▪ A right sided signal is zero for t<T
and a left sided signal is zero for t>T
where T period.

20
 ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Deterministic & Random Signals

ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
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Deterministic signals Random signals

▪ Behavior of these signals are predictable ▪ Behavior of these signals are random i.e.
w.r.t. time not predictable w.r.t. time
▪ There is no uncertainty with respects to ▪ There is an uncertainty with respects to
value at any time value at any time
▪ These signal can be express in ▪ These signal can’t be express in
mathematically mathematically
Example: Thermal Noise

21
 Basic operations on Signals
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

▪ There are two variable parameters in general:

1. Amplitude
2. Time

▪ Amplitude Scaling, addition, multiplication and other mathematical operation

can be performed with amplitude.

▪ Time Shifting, time scaling, and time reversal are operations that can be
performed with time.

22
 ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Continuous-Time (CT) Signals and Systems
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Independent- and Dependent-Variable Transformations

Time Shifting (Translation)
▪Time shifting (also called translation) maps the input signal x to the
output signal y as given by
y(t) = x(t − b),
▪ where b is a real number.
▪ Such a transformation shifts the signal (to the left or right) along the time
axis.
✓ If b > 0, y is shifted to the right by |b|, relative to x (i.e., delayed in time).
✓ If b < 0, y is shifted to the left by |b|, relative to x (i.e., advanced in time).
23
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Cont. …
Bahir Dar University

24
 Time Reversal (Reflection)
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

▪Time reversal (also known as reflection) maps the input signal x to the
output signal y as given by
y(t) = x(−t).
▪ Geometrically, the output signal y is a reflection of the input signal x
about the (vertical) line t = 0.

25
 ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
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Time Compression/Expansion (Dilation)
▪ Time compression/expansion (also called dilation) maps the
input signal x to the output signal y as given by
y(t) = x(at),
▪ where a is a strictly positive real number.
▪ Such a transformation is associated with a compression/expansion
along the time axis.
▪If a > 1, y is compressed along the horizontal axis by a factor of a,
relative to x.
▪ If a < 1, y is expanded (i.e., stretched) along the horizontal axis by a
1
factor of , relative to x.
𝑎
26
 Cont.….
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

27
 Time Scaling
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

▪ Time scaling maps the input signal x to the output signal y as given by

y(t) = x(at), where a is a nonzero real number.

▪ Such a transformation is associated with a dilation (i.e. compression/expansion
along the time axis) and/or time reversal.
▪ If |a| > 1, the signal is compressed along the time axis by a factor of |a|.
1
▪ If |a| < 1, the signal is expanded (i.e., stretched) along the time axis by a ,
𝑎
▪ If |a| = 1, the signal is neither expanded nor compressed. If a < 0, the signal
is also time reversed.
▪ Dilation (i.e., expansion/compression) and time reversal commute.
▪ Time reversal is a special case of time scaling with a = −1; and time
compression/expansion is a special case of time scaling with a > 0.
28
 Cont. …
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

29
 ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Combined Time Scaling and Time Shifting

ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
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▪ Consider a transformation that maps the input signal x to the output signal
y as given by
y(t) = x(at —b), where a and b are real numbers and a /= 0.
▪ The above transformation can be shown to be the combination of a
time-scaling operation and time-shifting operation.
▪ Since time scaling and time shifting do not commute, we must be
particularly careful about the order in which these transformations are
applied.
▪ The above transformation has two distinct but equivalent interpretations:
✓ first, time shifting x by b, and then time scaling the result by a;
✓ first, time scaling x by a, and then time shifting the result by b/a. 30
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
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ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Combined Time Scaling and Time Shifting: Example
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time shift by 1 and then time scale by 2

p(t) = x(t —1) p(2t) = x(2t —1)

1 1
1
—21 2
t 3 t
—1 1 2 3 —2 —1 1 2
Given x(t) as shown 2

—1 —1
below, find x(2t —1).

x(t)

1
time scale by 2 and then time shift by 1
t 2
—2 —1 1 2
q(t) = x(2t)
q(t —1/2) = x(2(t —1/2)
—1 = x(2t —1)

31
 Elementary Signals
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

▪ Elementary signals are the basic building blocks for more

complex signals in signal and systems analysis.

▪ They are also used to model many physical signals that occur in
nature.

▪ Some examples of elementary signals include:

unit step, ramp, parabolic, impulse, sinusoidal, and real

exponential sequences.
32
 Sinusoidal & Exponential Signals
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

▪ Sinusoidal and exponentials are important in signal and system analysis.

▪ They arise naturally in the solutions of the differential equations.
▪ Sinusoidal signals can be expressed in ether of the two ways:
▪ Cyclic frequency for
2Π
𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛2Π𝑓𝑜 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡
𝑇𝑜

▪ Radian frequency form

𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛2Π𝜔𝑜 𝑡

2Π 𝑇𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒

𝜔𝑜 = 2Π𝑓𝑜 =
𝑇𝑜
33
 Sinusoidal & Exponential Signals
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 2Π𝑓𝑜 𝑡 + 𝜃
Sinusoidal signals
= 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + 𝜃)

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜆𝑡 Real Exponential signals

= 𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 Complex exponential signals

𝜃 is phase of sinusoidal wave
A is amplitude of sinusoidal or exponential signals
𝜃𝜔𝑜 is radian frequency
𝑓𝑜 is fundamental cyclic frequency of sinusoidal signals 34
 Real Sinusoids
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

A (CT) real sinusoid is a function of the form: x(t) = A cos(ωt + θ),

Where A, ω, and θ are real constants.
2𝜋
▪ Such a function is periodic with fundamental period 𝑇 = and fundamental
|𝜔|
frequency |ω|.
▪ A real sinusoid has a plot resembling that shown below

35
 Real Exponential signals
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
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Bahir Dar University

▪ A real exponential is a special case of a complex exponential

x(t) = Aeλt, where A and 𝜆 are restricted to be real numbers.
▪ A real exponential can exhibit one of three distinct modes of behavior, depending
on the value of λ, as illustrated below.
▪ If λ > 0, x(t) increases exponentially as t increases (i.e., a growing exponential).
▪ If λ < 0, x(t) decreases exponentially as t increases (i.e., a decaying exponential).
▪ If λ = 0, x(t) simply equals the constant A.

36
 ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University
General Complex Exponentials
▪ In the most general case of a complex exponential x(t) = Aeλt , A and λ are both
complex.
▪ Letting A = |A| e jθ and λ = σ + jω (where θ, σ, and ω are real), and using Euler’s
relation, we can rewrite x(t) as
Re{x} Im{x}
𝒙 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝒆 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒐 𝒕 + 𝜽 + 𝒋|𝑨|𝒆𝝈𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧( 𝝎𝒐 𝒕 + 𝜽
𝝈𝒕

▪ Thus, Re{x} and Im{x} are each the product of a real exponential and real sinusoid.
▪ x(t) exhibit three distinct modes of behaviors depending on the value of σ.
▪ If σ = 0, Re{x} and Im{x} are real sinusoids.
▪ If σ > 0, Re{x} and Im{x} are each the product of a real sinusoid and a growing
real exponential.
▪ If σ < 0, Re{x} and Im{x} are each the product of a real sinusoid and a decaying
real exponential. 37
 ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Cont. …
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

▪ The three modes of behavior for Re{x} and Im{x} are illustrated below.

38
 Unit Step Function
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Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
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Bahir Dar University

▪ The unit-step function (also known as the Heaviside function),

denoted u, is defined as:
It is used as best test signal.
1, 𝑡 > 0 Area under unit step function is unity
1
𝑢 𝑡 = ,𝑡 = 0
2
0, 𝑡 < 0

Sometimes values of 0 and ½ are also used for u(0). 39

 Signum Function
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

▪ The signum function, also known as the sign function, is a mathematical function
that returns the sign of a real number:

▪ Returns the value +1 for positive numbers, -1 for negative numbers, and 0 for zero

▪ The signum function, denoted sgn, is defined as:

1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 > 0
𝑢 𝑡 = ൞0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 = 0
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 < 0

The signum function simply

computes the sign of a number. A plot of this function.
40
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Cont. …
Bahir Dar University

Applications

▪ The signum function is a fundamental concept in control

theory and communication systems.

▪ In control systems, it's used to switch control inputs based on

the sign of an error.

41
 Unit-Impulse Function
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Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

▪ The unit-impulse function (also known as the Dirac delta function or delta
function), denoted δ, is defined by the following two properties:
𝛿 𝑡 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑
∞

න 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1.
−∞

Graphical representation of delta function 42

 ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Ramp Function/ Ramp Signal

ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

▪ Ramp signal is denoted by r(t), and it is defined as

𝑡, 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 > 0
𝑟 𝑡 =ቊ
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 < 0

𝑑𝑟 𝑡
𝑢 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡

Area under unit ramp is unity

It used for steady state error

43
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Parabolic Signals
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▪ Parabolic signal, used to determine the steady state error of

the system, can be defined as:
𝑡2
𝑥 𝑡 = ൞ 2 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 ≥ 0
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 < 0

44
 Laplace Transformation: Part 2
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

▪ A system represented by a differential equation is difficult to model as a block

diagram.

▪ The best way to convert differential equations into algebraic equations

is the use of Laplace transformation. Easier to solve.

▪ Laplace transformation is a mathematical tools that converts a function of

time domain into a function of complex variable (frequency domain).

45
 ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University
Why Laplace Transformation?
1. Simplifies Differential Equations

• It Converts derivatives and integrals into algebraic expressions involving the

Laplace variable s.

• Incorporates initial conditions naturally into the transformed equations,

making it convenient for solving initial value problems.

2. Analyzes System Behavior

• Shifts the analysis from the time domain to the frequency domain.

• The poles of the transfer function can determine the stability of the system.

• Used extensively in control systems engineering to design controllers that

stabilize systems and achieve desired performance. 46
 Cont. …
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

3. Solves Complex Systems

• It can handle non-homogeneous differential equations with ease, allowing for the
analysis of systems with external inputs.

• It can handle functions with discontinuities, such as step functions and impulse
functions, which are common in engineering applications.

4. Other Applications

• It is used in signal processing for filtering, modulation, and demodulation.

• It is used in probability theory to analyze random processes and probability distributions.

• It simplifies the analysis of electrical circuits by transforming differential equations into

algebraic equations
47
 Cont. …
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

▪ For a general continuous- time signal f(t), the Laplace transform F(s) is
defined as:
∞ 𝜏

𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠 = න 𝑓 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = lim න 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝜏→∞
0 0

The variable 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 is generally complex-valued.

Laplace inverse transform

▪ Both Laplace and inverse Laplace transformation are used to analyzed

dynamic control system.
48
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

TYPE f(t) F(s)

Impulse δ(t) 1
Step u(t) 1
s
Ramp t 1
s2
1
Exponential e − at (s + a )

Sine sin t (s 2
+2 )
Cosine cost s
(s 2
+2 ) 49
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University
Cont. …

TYPE f(t) F(s)

Damped ramp 1
− at
te (s + a )2
Damped sine

e − at
sin t (s + a )2 +  2
Damped cosine
s+a
e − at
cost (s + a )2 +  2
50
 Example
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

Find the Laplace transformation of sin(at) and cos(at)

51
 ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Operational Transforms
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Bahir Dar University

 Indicate how mathematical operations performed on either f(t) or F(s)

are converted into the opposite domain.
 The operations of primary interest are:
1. Multiplying by a constant
2. Addition/subtraction
3. Differentiation
4. Integration
5. Translation in the time domain
6. Translation in the frequency domain
7. Scale changing 52
 Cont. …
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

OPERATION f(t) F(s)

Multiplication by Kf (t ) KF (s)
a constant
Addition/Subtract f1 (t ) + f 2 (t ) − f 3 (t ) +  F1 ( s) + F2 ( s) − F3 ( s) + 
ion
First derivative
(time) df (t ) sF (s) − f (0− )
dt

Second derivative 2
df ( 0 −
)
d (t ) −
s F ( s) − sf (0 ) −
2
(time) dt 2 dt
53
 Cont. …
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
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Bahir Dar University

OPERATION f(t) F(s)

nth derivative s F ( s) − s
n n −1 −
f (0 ) − s n−2 df (0 − )
n
d (t ) dt
(time)
dt n
−s n −3 df 2 (0 − ) −− df n −1 −
(0 )
dt dt n −1
t
Time integral
 f ( x)dx
0
F (s)
s
Translation in f (t − a)u (t − a), e − as F (s )
time a0
Translation in F ( s + a)
e − at f (t )
frequency
54
 ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Example
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Bahir Dar University

Determine the Laplace transform of each of the following functions

shown below:

55
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Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Solution
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

a. The Laplace Transform of unit step, u(t) is given by

Lu (t ) = F ( s ) = 
 1
− st
1e dt =
0 s
b. The Laplace Transform of exponential function, e-tu(t),>0 is given by

Lu (t ) = F ( s ) = 
 1
−t − st
e e dt =
0 s +

c. The Laplace Transform of impulse function, δ(t) is given by

Lu (t ) = F ( s ) =   (t )e − st dt = 1


0 56
 The Inverse Laplace Transform
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

▪ Suppose F(s) has the general form of

𝐍 𝐬 𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐏𝐨𝐥𝐲𝐧𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐚𝐥
𝐅 𝐬 = =
𝐃 𝐬 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐏𝐨𝐥𝐲𝐧𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐚𝐥

▪ The finding the inverse Laplace transform of F(s) involves two steps:

1. Decompose F(s) into simple terms using partial fraction expansion.

2. Find the inverse of each term by matching entries in Laplace Transform Table.

57
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Example
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

▪ Find the inverse Laplace transform of

3 5 6
F ( s) = − + 2
s s +1 s + 4
Solution:

−1 3  −1  5  −1  6 
f (t ) = L   − L  + L  2 
s  s +1  s +4
−t
= (3 − 5e + 3 sin( 2t )u (t ), t  0
58
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Example
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

Partial Fraction Expansion

1) Distinct Real Roots of D(s)

96( s + 5)( s + 12)

F (s) =
s ( s + 8)( s + 6)

s1= 0, s2= -8
s3= -6 59
 ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University
1) Distinct Real Roots

96( s + 5)( s + 12) K1 K 2 K3

F (s) =  + +
s( s + 8)( s + 6) s s +8 s +6

 To find K1: multiply both sides by s and evaluates both sides at s=0

 To find K2: multiply both sides by s+8 and evaluates both sides at s=-8

 To find K3: multiply both sides by s+6 and evaluates both sides at s=-6

60
ባሕር ዳር ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት

Inverse Laplace of F(s)

Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
ባሕር ዳር ዩኒቨርሲቲ
Bahir Dar University

120 72 48
F ( s) = − +
s s +8 s +6

120
−1 72 48 
L  − + 
 s s + 8 s + 6 
(
f (t ) = 120 − 72 e −8 t
+ 48e −6t
)u (t )

61
 BiT
Thank you!