International Journal of Applied Physics and Mathematics

Frequently-Used Properties of the Floor Function

Xingbo Wang1, 2*
1 Department of Mechatronic Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan, China.
2 State
Key Laboratory of Information Security, Institute of Information Engineering, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing 100093, China.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +86075782988845; email: [email protected], [email protected]

Manuscript submitted March 15, 2020; accepted June 8, 2020.
doi: 10.17706/ijamp.2020.10.4.135-142

Abstract: The paper collects 42 frequently-used properties of the floor function, including 35 ones from other
literatures and 7 newly added-and-proved ones. The collected properties cover basic inequalities, basic
identities, conditional inequalities, conditional equalities and practical formulas. The paper is helpful for
scholars of mathematics and computer science and technology in reading and writing scientific works,
reasoning and designing algorithms.

Key words: Computational science, floor function, formula, mathematical reasoning.

1. Introduction
The floor function, which is also called the greatest integer function (see in [1]), is a function that takes an
integer value. For arbitrary real number x, the floor function of x, denoted by ⌊𝑥⌋, is defined by an inequality
of 𝑥 − 1 < ⌊𝑥⌋ ≤ 𝑥 or equivalently ⌊𝑥⌋ ≤ 𝑥 < ⌊𝑥⌋ + 1. The floor function frequently occurs in many aspects
of mathematics and computer science. However, as I stated in article [2], except the Graham's book [3], it is
hard to find another book or a literature that introduces in general the know-of of the function although
people can find something via the Internet, e.g., the wikipedia [4]. Since Graham's book was first published
30 year’s ago and its following-up editions made few modifications on the part of the floor function, it is
necessary to sort out the properties of the function as a reference for researchers.
In 2017 and 2019, I proved respectively several formulas for the function and made brief summaries on
the frequently-used properties by my work together with certain formulas collected from previous literatures,
as seen in [5] and [6]. In the past two years, I proved several new results and thus I put them together with
the 2019 summary to form this literature.

2. Definition and Notation

The floor function of real number x is denoted by symbol ⌊𝑥⌋ that satisfies ⌊𝑥⌋ ≤ 𝑥 < ⌊𝑥⌋ + 1; the fraction
part of x is denoted by symbol {x} that satisfies𝑥 = ⌊𝑥⌋ + {𝑥}; the ceiling function of x is denoted by symbol
⌈𝑥⌉that fits𝑥 ≤ ⌈𝑥⌉ < 𝑥 + 1. In this whole article, 𝐴 ⇒ 𝐵means conclusion B can be derived from condition A;
𝐴 ⇔ 𝐵means B holds if and only if A holds. Symbol Z means the integer set,𝑥 ∈ 𝑍means x is an integer and
𝑥 ∉ 𝑍indicates x is not an integer.

3. Frequently Used Properties of the Floor Function

The following properties of the floor functions are sorted by basic inequalities, conditional inequalities and

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basic equalities.

3.1. Basic Inequalities

In the following inequalities, x and y are real numbers by default.
(P1) [1]  x  +  y    x + y    x  +  y  + 1
(P2) [7]  x  −  y  − 1   x − y    x  −  y    x  −  y  + 1
(P3) [1], [3] 2x  + 2 y    x  +  y  +  x + y 
(P4) [7] (m + n)x  + (m + n) y   mx  + my  + nx + ny  with m and n being positive integers
(P5) [7] nx  + ny   (n − 1)  x + y  +  x  +  y  with n being a positive integer
(P6) [1], [7]  xy    x   y  with x , y  0 .
y  y
(P7) [8]      with x  1 and y  0 .
 x   x 
(P8) [3] n  x   nx  ; n  x  = nx   n{ x }  1 , where n is a positive integer.
q  q +1
(P9) [9]    − 1 for arbitrary positive integers p and q;
p p

3.2. Conditional Inequalities

In the following inequalities, x and y are real numbers, and n is an integer.
(P10) [3] x  n   x   n , n  x  n   x 
(P11) [3] x  n  y   x   n   y 
(P12) [2]  x    y   x  y
(P13) [2], [7] x  y   x    y 

3.3. Basic Equalities

In the following equalities, x and y are real numbers, m and n are integers.
(P14) [3], [7] n + x  = n +  x  .
 x   x
(P15) [7]     =   with m  1 .
 m  m
−  x  , x  Z
(P16) [7]  − x  =   
−  x  − 1, x  Z

1 𝑛−1 1 𝑥
(P17) [3], [7] ⌊𝑛𝑥⌋ = ⌊𝑥⌋ + ⌊𝑥 + ⌋ +. . . + ⌊𝑥 + ⌋ with n>0, particularly, ⌊𝑥⌋ + ⌊𝑥 + 2⌋ = ⌊2𝑥⌋ and ⌊2⌋ +
𝑛 𝑛
𝑥+1
⌊ 2
⌋ = ⌊𝑥⌋.
𝑥 1+𝑥 𝑛−1+𝑥 𝑥 𝑥+1
(P18) [3] ⌊𝑥⌋ = ⌊ ⌋ + ⌊ ⌋ +. . . + ⌊ ⌋, particularly,⌊2⌋ + ⌊ ⌋ = ⌊𝑥⌋
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 2
    n n −1
(P19) [3]   =   + 1 with m  1 .
m
   m 

(P20) [1], [3]  x  =   x   with x  0

 
(P21) [3] log b x  = log b  x   with x  0
(P22) [3] logb m + 1 = logb(m + 1) with m  1 .
𝑎
⌊ ⌋ 𝑎
(P23) [3] ⌊ ⌋ = ⌊ ⌋ for an arbitrary integer a and positive integers b and c.
𝑏
𝑐 𝑏𝑐

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𝑚
𝑚+1
⌊ ⌋ ,𝑛 ∤ 𝑚 + 1
(P24) [1], [7] ⌊
𝑛
⌋ = { 𝑛𝑚
⌊ 𝑛 ⌋ + 1, 𝑛|𝑚 + 1
(P25) [7]  1 =  x 
1nx

(P26) [9]  n + n + 1  =  4n + 1  =  4n + 2  =  4n + 3 

(P27) [1], [3] It needs log2 N  + 1 binary bits to express decimal integer N in its binary expression. A positive
integer n with base b has logb n + 1 digits.
2
(P28) [11] Let N be an integer; then N −  N   0 .

m
(P29) [7] Let m and p be positive integers; then number of p’s multiples from 1 to m is calculated by   .
p
(P30) [10] Let m, n and p be positive integers such that 1  p  m  n ; then number of p’s multiples from m
to n is calculated by
𝑛 𝑚
⌊ ⌋ − ⌊ ⌋,𝑝 ∤ 𝑚
𝑝 𝑝
𝜈(𝑚, 𝑛, 𝑝) = { 𝑛 𝑚
⌊ ⌋ − ⌊ ⌋ + 1, 𝑝|𝑚
𝑝 𝑝
(P31) [5] Arbitrary positive integer i yields

i 
i −1  2   i
2

Arbitrary positive even integer e yields

e 
2  = e
2

And arbitrary positive old integer o yields

o
2  = o −1
2

(P32) [12] Let  and x be positive real numbers; then it holds

  x  − 1   x   (  x  + 1)

Particularly, if  is a positive integer, say  = n , then it yields

n  x   nx   n(  x  + 1) − 1

(P33) [12] For arbitrary positive real numbers  , x and y with x  y , it holds

 ( x − y ) +   y − x   0

(P34) [12]. For arbitrary odd integer n  7 , it holds

n −1
1 + log2 n 
2

(P35) [13] For positive integer k and real number x  0 , it holds

x 
 1 − 2 ,0  k  log 2 x 
k

0  2k  k  −  x   
2  −  x  , k  log2 x 


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4. Some New Results

Here lists some newly found and proved equalities and inequalities.
(P36)   x    min( x  ,  x  ) for positive numbers  and x . Particularly,

 x  − 1    x     x 

When 0    1 .
Proof. See the following three steps:
1).   x      x  by definition;

2).   x    x    x     x  by (P13);

3).   x   = ( x − { x }) =  x −  { x })   x  −  { x }) − 1 =  x  − 1 .
(P37) For an arbitrary positive integer k and an arbitrary odd integer N  1 , it holds

 N   N −1
 2k  =  2k 
   

Proof. Consider the case k = 1 and N = 2 s + 1 with integer s  0 . It yields

N  1   N −1
(  = s +   = s) = (  = s)
2 2  2 

Now assume k  1 and N = 2k s + r with s  0 being an integer and 0  r  2k − 1 being odd; without loss of
 N −1  t 
generality, let r = 2t + 1 with integer 0  t  2k −1 − 1 ; then N − 1 = 2k s + 2t and  2k  = s +  2k −1  = s .
   
Meanwhile, it knows

N  2t + 1 
 2k  = s +  2k  = s
   

Because 0  r = 2t + 1  2k − 1 .
Remark on (P37). The condition that N is odd is mandatory because this property does not hold for an
4 4 −1 N 
even integer N. A simple counterexample is    
2 2  . Actually, when k = 1 taking N = 2 s yields  2  = s
     
 N −1   1
 = s +  − 2  = s − 1 . When k  1 taking N = 2 s + 2t with s  0 and 0  t  2 − 1 being integers
k −1
while  k

 2   
N  t   N −1  2t − 1   t 1
leads to  k  = s +  k −1  = s and  k  = s +  k  = s +  k −1 − k  , which results in by (P2)
2  2   2   2  2 2 

 N   N − 1  0, t  0
 2k  −  2k  = 1, t = 0
    

(P38) For an arbitrary positive integer k and even integer N  2 , it holds

 N   N + 1
 2k  =  2k 
   

Proof. Consider the case k = 1 and N = 2 s with integer s  0 . Then

N   N +1 1 
(  = s) = (  = s + 2 = s)
2
   2   

Now assume k  1 and N + 1 = 2k s + r = 2k s + 2t + 1 with integers s  0 and 0  t  2k−1 − 1 ; then

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 N +1 r 
 2k  = s +  2k  = s
   

Because 0  r = 2t + 1  2k − 1 .
Meanwhile by N = 2k s + 2t with 0  t  2k−1 − 1 , it holds

N  t 
 2k  = s +  2k −1  = s
   

N N +1
Thus it knows  k  =  k  when N is even.
2
   2 
Remark on (P38). The condition that N is even is mandatory because this property does not hold for an
3 + 1  3
odd integer N. A simple counterexample is      . Readers can confirm the general cases by referring
 2  2
to the Remark on (P37).
(P39) For arbitrary positive real numbers x and y satisfying 𝑥 ≥ 𝑦, it holds

 x − y  = 0   y    x    y  + 1

Proof. First is to prove the necessity as following reasoning:

 x − y  = 0    x  + { x } −  y  − { y } = 0
  x  −  y  + { x } − { y } = 0

Since {𝑥} and {𝑦} are positive real numbers satisfying 0 ≤ {𝑥} < 1 and 0 ≤ {𝑦} < 1 , it knows −1 <
{𝑥} − {𝑦} < 1 ⇒ −1 ≤ ⌊{𝑥} − {𝑦}⌋ ≤ 0 and thus

 x  −  y  + { x } − { y } = 0
  y    x    y  + 1

(P40) For positive integer  and 0  x  1 , it holds

log2(2 − 1 + x ) =  − 1 and log2(2 + x ) = 

Proof. By property of T3 tree, 2 − 1 is on level  −2 of T3 (see in [14]). That is

 − 2 = log2(2 − 1) − 1  log2(2 − 1) =  − 1

Since log2(2 − 1)  log2(2 − 1 + x )  log2(2 ) =  , by (P13) it holds

 − 1 = log2(2 − 1)  log2(2 − 1 + x )  log2(2 − 1 + x )  

Likewise, 2 + 1 is on level  −1 of T3, namely

log2(2 + 1) − 1 =  − 1  log2(2 + 1) = 

Since log2 2  log2(2 + x )  log2(2 + 1) , it knows

  log2(2 + x )  log2(2 + 1) = 

(P41). For integers n  0 and   0 , it holds

 −n − 1  n
 2  = −1 −  2 
   

Proof. By (P16), the proof considers two cases: n + 1 is divisible by 2 and it is not. For the case n + 1 is

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divisible by 2 , let n + 1 = 2 s with s  1 being an integer; then

n+1  −n − 1 
n + 1  0mod2  = s     = −s
2  2 

And this time

n  1
n = 2 s − 1     =  s −   = s − 1
2
   2 

Consequently, it holds

 −n − 1  n
 2  = −1 −  2 
   

For the case n + 1 is not divisible by 2 , let n + 1 = 2 s + r ; then integer s  1 and

0  r  2 − 1  0  r − 1  2 − 2

Accordingly, it holds

n + 1 = 2 s + r ,0  r  2 − 1
 n = 2 s + r − 1
n +1 n
  =s=  
 2  2 

And consequently

 −n − 1  n
 2  = −1 −  2 
   

(P42). Given positive integers k and N; let 𝑚 = ⌊𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑁⌋ − 𝑘 > 0. Then there must be an odd one among
 N   N   N  N 
 2k +1  ,  2k + 2  ,..., and  2k + m  if  2k   0 is even. Similarly, there must be an even one among
       
 N   N   N  N 
 2k +1  ,  2k + 2  ,... ,and  2 k + m  if  2 k   0 is odd.
       
N N
Proof. Consider the case  k  is even. Suppose  k  = 2 s with   1 being a positive integer and s  1
2  2 
being an odd integer; then

N
N = 2 k  k  + r = 2 k + s + r , 0  r  2 k − 1
2 
This follows

 N 
 2 k + =s
 
Which is odd.
Now check the bound of  . Since N  2k + s , it knows

N
2 k +  N
s
   log 2 N − k
   log 2 N  − k

N N
For the case  k  is odd, suppose  k  = 2 s + 1 with   1 being a positive integer and 𝑠 ≥ 1 being an
2  2 

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odd integer;

N
N = 2 k  k  + r = 2 k + s + 2 k + r , 0  r  2 k − 1
2 
and for a positive integer x, it holds

 N   −x  2k + r 
 2k + x  = 2 s +  2k + x 
   

 2k + r 
Since 2k  2k + r  2k +1 − 1  2k +1 , it knows  k + x  = 0 when x  1 . Consequently, if 1  x   −1 then
 2 
 N  N
 2k  + r = 2 s + 2 + r  2 , it follows   log 2 N  − k .
 −x k + k +
 2k + x  = 2 s is even. Considering N = 2
k k

   

5. Motivation of This Paper

In writing a paper related with mathematics, computer science, physics and so on, mathematical reasoning
plays a major role in the whole procedure. During a reasoning procedure, some minor evidences such as one
or more formulas are often required to keep the reasoning correct. Since our primary middle school we have
remembered tens of identities, inequalities, theorems and axioms in our minds. The things we have
remembered do help us to write an excellent paper of science and technology. However, it is not so fortunate
for researchers who research the number theory, the graph theory and the related subjects because they often
have to face the floor function, which frequently occurs in the reasoning but does not have many citable
formulas. As I mentioned in [15], the mathematical reasoning or modeling involved with the floor function
always requires quite a lot of special skills related with inequalities together with discrete mathematics and
it is of quite individuality because the function is defined with an inequality,  x   x   x  + 1 , and applied in
occasions with integers and other discrete traits. For this reason, I have paid attention to the function and
collected its formulas in my teaching and researching work. In 2017, I collected 31 properties and published
them in [5]. Among the 31 properties, I proved 5 ones. They are (P12), (P13), (P28), (P30), and (P31). In 2018,
I collected 35 properties among which I proved 4 new ones and published them in [6]. In this paper, I collected
42 properties among which the newly added 7 ones are proved in previous subsection. I am sure these
collected properties are helpful for certain people to cite. At least I myself frequently look over them when I
was writing a paper related with the issue.
The motivation that I say so many words here is to show something on how to agitate interest in scientific
research. An old thing like the floor function might contain a lot of new work and any new work cannot be
lack of some old things. I hope the background and history of this paper are educationally meaningful.

Conflict of Interest
The author declares that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this article.

Author Contributions
Professor Xingbo Wang contributes the whole research work of the paper.

Acknowledgment
The research is supported by the Open Project Program of the State Key Lab of CAD&CG (Grant No. A2002)
and by Foshan University and Foshan Bureau of Science and Technology under project that constructs
Guangdong Engineering Center of Information Security for Intelligent Manufacturing System.

141 Volume 10, Number 4, October 2020

 International Journal of Applied Physics and Mathematics

References
[1] Rosen, K. H. (2011). Elementary Number Theory and Its Applications (6th ed.). New York: Addison-Wesley.
[2] Wang, X. (2012). A mean-value formula for the floor function on integers. Mathproblems Journal, 2(4),
136-143.
[3] Graham, R. L., Knuth, D. E., & Patashnik, O. (1994). Integer Functions. Ch.3 in Concrete Mathematics: A
Foundation for Computer Science (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
[4] Wikipedia. (2020). Floor and ceiling functions. Retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floor_and_ceiling _functions
[5] Wang, X. (2017). Brief summary of frequently-used properties of the floor function. IOSR Journal of
Mathematics, 13(5), 46-48.
[6] Wang, X. (2019). Brief summary of frequently-used properties of the floor function: Updated 2018. IOSR
Journal of Mathematics, 15(1), 30–33.
[7] Pan, C. D., & Pan, C. B. (2013). Elementary Number Theory (3rd ed.). Press of Peking University.
[8] Kuang, J. (2010). Applied Inequalities. Shandong Science and Technology Press.
[9] Liu, P. J. (2010). The Collection of Difficult Problems of Elementary Number Theory. Press of Harbin
University.
[10] Wang, X. (2017). Some more new properties of consecutive odd numbers. Journal of Mathematical
Research, 9(5), 47-59.
[11] Wang, X. (2017). Strategy for algorithm design in factoring RSA numbers. IOSR Journal of Computer
Engineering (IOSR-JCE), 19(3), 1-7.
[12] Wang, X. (2018). Some new inequalities with proofs and comments on applications. Journal of
Mathematics Research, 11(3), 15-19.
[13] Wang, X. (2018). Some inequalities on T3 tree. Advances in Pure Mathematics, 8(8), 711-719.
[14] Wang, X. (2018). T3 tree and its traits in understanding integers. Advances in Pure Mathematics, 8(5),
494-507.
[15] Wang, X. (2018). Difference property of an integer function. International Journal of Mathematics Trends
and Technology, 55(3), 23-29.

Copyright © 2020 by the authors. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons
Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited (CC BY 4.0).

Xingbo Wang was born in Hubei, China. He got his master and doctor’s degrees at National
University of Defense Technology of China and had been a staff in charge of researching and
developing CAD/CAM/NC technologies in the university. Since 2010, he has been a
professor in Foshan University with research interests in computer application and
information security. He is now the chief of Guangdong engineering center of information
security for intelligent manufacturing system. Prof. Wang was in charge of more than 40
projects including projects from the National Science Foundation Committee, published 8
books and
Author’s over 90 papers related with mathematics, computer science and mechatronics engineering, and
formal
photo
invented 30 more patents in the related fields.

142 Volume 10, Number 4, October 2020