Science Academy PU College, DVG.

II PUC – Physics For Board Exam-2025

Aditi Educational Trust (R.)

SCIENCE ACADEMY P.U.COLLEGE
P.J. EXTN, DAVANGERE

FOR 2025 ANNUAL EXAM

Delivering the NEEDFULL

By: Vinay Y.V.

SCIENCE ACADEMY P U COLLEGE

(A UNIQUE CENTRE FOR PU CLASSES)

# 307/ 2.B, 1st Floor, 2nd main , PJ Extn, Near District Stadium, Davanagere – 577002.

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Science Academy PU College, DVG. II PUC – Physics For Board Exam-2025

SCIENCE ACADEMY (R.)

(A Unique Centre for PU classes)

ELECTRIC CHARGE AND FIELD

1. Write the Properties of electric charges.
i) Charges possess additive property. [Q = q1 + q2 + q3 …….. ]
ii) Charges are quantized , (Q = ± 𝑛e)
iii) Charges are conserved [Charges can never be created nor destroyed.
2. State and explain Coulomb’s law of electrostatics or Inverse square law
This law states that “The force of attraction or repulsion between two point
stationary charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of charges
and inversely proportional to square of the distance between them”.
F12 F21
Q1 Q2
d
Q1 Q2
i.e. F∝
d2
Q1 Q2 Coulomb’s law in Vector form :
F=K d2 1 |Q1 Q2 |
In general, 𝐹 = 𝑟̂
∴ 4𝜋ℰ0 d2
1 Q1 Q2
F= x Where, 𝑟̂ is the unit vector in the direction of force.
4𝜋ℰ0 d2

3. Derive an expression for Electric field at a point on the axis of a

dipole (EA).
Let P be a point on the axis of a
→ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸
dipole of Moment and length 2a -q a o a +q p
P
at a distance ‘r’ from the midpoint. r
1 𝑞
Electric – field at ‘P’ due to +ve charge is E1 = x 2
along OP.
4πℰ0 (r−a)
1 𝑞
Electric – field at ‘P’ due to -ve charge is E2 = x along PO.
4πℰ0 (r+a)2
Electric – field at ‘P’ due to the dipole = EA = E1 – E2.
1 1 1
∴ EA = q - (𝑟+𝑎)2
4πℰ0 (𝑟−𝑎)2

1 (𝑟+𝑎)2 − (𝑟−𝑎 )2
EA = 4πℰ 𝑞
0 (𝑟−𝑎)2 (𝑟+𝑎)2

1 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 +2𝑟𝑎)−(𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 −2𝑟𝑎)

EA = xq
4πℰ0 (𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2

1 𝑞 x 4ra 1 𝑞 𝑥 2𝑎 𝑥 2𝑟
EA = x = x (But, q x 2a = P )
4πℰ0 (𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2 4πℰ0 (𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2
1 2pr
EA = 4πℰ x (𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2 along the axis from –ve charge towards +ve charge.
0

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Science Academy PU College, DVG. II PUC – Physics For Board Exam-2025

when a < < r, a2 can be neglected compared with r2

1 2𝑝r 1 2p
EA = x = 4πℰ x 𝑟 3 .
4πℰ0 𝑟4 0

→ 𝟏 𝟐𝐩
𝑬𝑨 = 𝟒𝛑𝓔𝟎
x 𝒓𝟑

Direction:
→
⃗⃗ ).
Electric field on the axis (𝑬 ) of a dipole is along the direction of dipole moment (𝑷
𝑨

4. Obtain an expression for Electric field at a point on the bisector line of dipole

In Δ OPA
PA2 = OP2 + OA2= r2 + a2
PA = (r2 + a2) ½
𝑂𝐴 𝑎
Cos θ = =
𝑃𝐴 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )1/2

1 𝑞
Field at P due to +ve charge, E1 = x along AP
4πℰ0 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )
1 𝑞
Field at P due to -ve charge, E2 = x along PB
4πℰ0 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )

E1 along AP is resolved into two components as E1cosθ along a line ∥el to AB and
E1sinθ along the bisector line in the upward direction.
|||ly E2 along PB is resolved in to two components as E2cosθ along a line ∥el to AB
and E2sinθ along the bisector in the down ward direction.
|E1| = |E2|
∴ two equal and opposite components E1 sin θ and E2 sin θ cancel each other.
Field at ‘P’ due to the dipole is
EB = E cosθ + E cosθ = 2 E cos θ
1 𝑞 𝑎
EB = 2 x 4πℰ x (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 ) x cosθ cos θ =
0 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )1/2
1 2𝑞 𝑎
EB = x (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 ) x (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )1/2 q x 2a = P
4πℰ0

1 𝑃
EB = x along a line ∥el to the axis directed from +ve
4πℰ0 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )3/2
charge towards –ve charge of dipole.
When a << r, a2 can be neglected compared with r2

→
EB =
𝟏 𝐏
x 𝒓𝟑 or → 1
𝐸𝐵 4πℰ0 x 𝑟 3
𝑃
𝟒𝛑𝓔𝟎 =

→
Direction : Electric field on the equatorial plane (𝑬 ) of a dipole is opposite to the direction of
𝑩
⃗⃗ ).
dipole moment (𝑷

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Science Academy PU College, DVG. II PUC – Physics For Board Exam-2025
5. Define linear charge density. Mention its SI unit.
The charge distributed uniformly per unit length of the conductor is called as
linear charge density.
SI Unit : C/m. (coulomb per meter)

6. Define Surface charge density. Mention its SI unit.

Charge distributed uniformly per unit area of the surface of the conductor is called
as surface charge density.
SI Unit : C/m2.

7. Derive an expression for torque acting on a dipole placed in a uniform

Electric – field.
Force acting on the + ve charge F1 = E q
in the direction of field.
Force acting on the -ve charge F2 = E q
in opposite to the direction of field.
|F1| = |F2|
These two equal and unlike parallel forces
constitute a couple which tends to rotate the
dipole in the direction of the field.
The moment of the couple or torque acting on the dipole is given by
τ = F x ⊥r distance between forces.
τ = Eq x BC. ... In the ABN, sin θ = BC
AB
τ = E x q x 2 l sin θ BC = AB sin θ
BC = 2a sin θ
τ = E x p sin 𝛉 (... q x 2l = p )

8. Write any three Properties of electric field lines.

1. Field lines are always starts from +ve charge and ends at –ve charge.
2. Field lines never intersect each other.
3. Field lines will not form a closed path.
4. Field lines do not pass through a conductor.
5. Field lines are equidistant and parallel to one another in uniform EF.
9. What is an electric dipole moment? Mention its direction.
The product of magnitude of either charge of electric dipole and
dipole length is called electric dipole moment.
Direction : negative charge to positive charge along the axis of electric dipole.
10. What are polar and non polar molecules? Give examples.
1) Polar molecules :
Molecules in which centers of +ve and –ve charge concentration are
separated by a small distance are called polar molecules.
They have permanent dipole moment.
Ex: NH3 , H2O, CO etc.
2) Non-polar molecules:
In non-polar molecules the centers of +ve and –ve charge distributions
coincide.
They have no no permanent dipole moment.
Ex: O2, N2, H2 CO2 etc.

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Science Academy PU College, DVG. II PUC – Physics For Board Exam-2025

11. State and explain Gauss law in electrostatics.

This theorem states that “the total electric flux over a closed surface enclosing
𝟏
charges is equal to 𝓔 times the total charge enclosed by the surface”.
𝟎
𝟏
𝚽= [Q]
𝓔𝟎

The total charge enclosed by the surface in Q = q1 + q2 + q3 + - - - - - -

12. Obtain an expression for electric fields at a point due to

infinitely long straight charged wire.

A cylinder of length l with the wire as axis and r as radius is imagined.

→
The electric flux through two end faces will be zero because & E are ┴er
𝑑𝑠
to each other [θ = 900, cos θ = 0].
The electric-flux is only through the curved surface of the cylinder.
This flux is given by
𝜙 = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 cos θ θ = 0, cos 0 = 1
𝜙 = E x ∮ ds ∮ ds = 2𝜋ɤ x ℓ
𝜙 = E x 2𝜋ɤ x ℓ -------- (1)
By Gauss theorem
1
𝜙 = ℰ (𝑄) But, Q = λ ℓ
0
1
𝜙 = x λℓ ---------------- (2)
ℰ0
From the equations (1) and (2) we get
1
E x 2𝜋ɤℓ = ℰ x λℓ
0

𝛌
E= 𝟐𝝅𝓔𝟎ɤ.
13. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an uniformly charged
plane sheet.
Electric flux will be through the end
faces Δs and Δs1 only.

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Science Academy PU College, DVG. II PUC – Physics For Board Exam-2025

Flux through curved surface is zero. Because θ = 900, cos 900 = 0.

Electric -flux through the cylinder is Φ = ∮ 𝐸 ∙ Δs + ∮ 𝐸 ∙ Δs
Φ = (E x Δs) + (E x Δs) θ = 0 , cos θ = 1
Φ = 2 E Δs …………… (1)
By gauss theorem,
1 𝑞
Φ =ℰ xq 𝜎 = 𝛥𝑠
0

1
Φ= ℰ0
x 𝜎 x Δs …………… (2) ( q = 𝜎 x Δs )
From equations (1) and (2)
𝜎 x Δs
2 E x Δs = ℰ
0

𝝈
E= 𝟐𝓔𝟎

E is independent of the distance of the point from the sheet.

14. Derive an Expression for Electric field due to a uniformly charged thin
spherical shell.
a) At a point outside the shell:

Electric flux through this sphere is given by

Φ = ∮ 𝐸cos θ x ds
Φ = ∮ 𝐸 x ds (... θ = 0, cos 0 = 1)
Φ = 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑠
Note:
𝚽= E x 4𝝅r2 ----- (1) (∫ 𝑑𝑠 = 4 π r2 )
According to gauss theorem,
1
Φ=ℰxq ------ (2)
0
From equations (1) and (2) we get
1
E x 4𝜋𝑟2 = ℰ0
xq
𝟏 𝒒
E= x
𝟒𝝅𝓔𝟎 𝒓𝟐

From this equation it is observed that a charged spherical shell behaves as if it’s
total charge is assumed to be concentrated at the center.
b) At a point on the surface (r = R) :
The electric intensity E for the points on the surface of charged spherical shell is
given by
1 𝑞
E = 4𝜋ℰ x 𝑅2
0
1 𝜎 4𝜋𝑅2 𝑞
= x r=R (By def𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝜎 = , ... q = 𝜎4𝜋𝑅2)
4𝜋ℰ0 𝑅2 4𝜋𝑅2

𝝈
E= 𝓔𝟎

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Science Academy PU College, DVG. II PUC – Physics For Board Exam-2025

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITORS

1. Define electric potential at a point. And hence derive an expression for

electric potential at a point due to a point charge
q0
Q P B dx A
d
x
Let ‘P’ be a point at a distance ‘d’ from a point charge Q at O .
Force acting on unit +ve charge (Q0) at A due to charge ‘Q’ is given by
1 𝑄𝑄0
F= x Q0 = 1 C
4𝜋ℰ0 𝑥2
1 Q
F= x
4𝜋ℰ0 𝑥2

Work done in moving a unit +ve charge from A to B against the field direction is
given by, dw = - F x dx
1 Q
dw = - 4𝜋ℰ0
x 𝑥2
dx
|||ly Work done in bringing a unit +ve charge from ∞ to the point ‘ P ’ against the
field direction is given by
d 1 Q
∫ dw = - ∫∞ 4𝜋ℰ0
x
𝑥2
𝑑𝑥

1 d 1
w = - 4𝜋ℰ x Q ∫∞ 𝑥 2 dx
0

1 1 d
w= - xQ -
4𝜋ℰ0 𝑥
∞
1 1 1
W=- xQ - +∞
4𝜋ℰ0 𝑑

1 𝑄
W= x
4𝜋ℰ0 𝑑

By def W = V,

Potential
𝟏 𝑸
V= x
𝟒𝝅𝓔𝟎 𝒅

This the expression for potential at point due to a point charge

2. Write any three Properties of equipotential surfaces.

1. No work is done in moving a test charge over an equipotential surface.
2. The electric field is always at right angles to the equipotential surface.
3. The equipotential surfaces gives the direction of the electric field.
4. No two equipotential surfaces can intersect each other.

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Science Academy PU College, DVG. II PUC – Physics For Board Exam-2025

3. Obtain the Relation between Electric intensity and Electric potential

Let P be a point on the surface B and dr be the perpendicular
distance of the surface A from P.
the work done is :
𝐝𝐖 = 𝐄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐄 𝐝𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟏𝟖𝟎° = −𝐄 . 𝐝𝐫 …………… (1)
⃗ ∙ 𝐝𝐫

This work done equals the potential difference between the surfaces A and B.
∴ 𝐝𝐖 = 𝐕𝐀 − 𝐕𝐁 = 𝐕 − (𝐕 − 𝐝𝐕) = 𝐝𝐕 ……………….(2)
From equations (1) and (2) ,
−E dr = dV
𝐝𝐕
𝐄 = − 𝐝𝐫
⃗ is in the direction of decreasing
The negative sign shows that the direction of the electric field E
potential.
4. Obtain an expression for electric potential energy of a system of
two point charges in the absence of external electric field.
Q1 d. Q2
A B
Let the charge Q1 is first brought from infinity to the point A.
No work is done because there is no electric field . i.e . W1 = 0
Now the charge Q2 is brought from ∞ to the point B against the field of Q1. Work
is done in this process.
This work done is given by W2 = V x Q2
1 𝑄1
Where ‘V’ is the potential at B Due to charge Q1 & is given by V= x
4𝜋ℰ0 𝑑
1 𝑄1
∴ W2 = x x Q2
4𝜋ℰ0 𝑑1
1 𝑄1
Total work done: W = W1 + W2 = 0 + = x x Q2
4𝜋ℰ0 𝑑1

By def, W = electric potential energy = U.

∴ U= 𝟏 x
𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝓔𝟎 𝒅
5. Derive an expression for electric potential energy of an electric
dipole placed in a uniform electric field.

The torque acting on the dipole is given by

τ = PE sin 𝛉
The work done is given by :
dw = τ x d𝛉 = 𝑷𝑬 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 x d 𝛉
Total work done in rotating the dipole from
the initial position θ1 to the final position θ2 is
given by
𝜃 𝜃2
∫ 𝑑𝑤 = ∫𝜃1 𝑃𝐸 sin θ . dθ= PE - cos θ
2
𝜃1
W = PE [- cos θ2 + cos θ1 ] = PE [cos θ1 - cos θ2 ]
By definition, W=U
U = PE [cos θ1 - cos θ2 ] , When θ1 = 90 and θ2 = θ then
U = - PE cos 𝛉

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Science Academy PU College, DVG. II PUC – Physics For Board Exam-2025

6. Write any three important results of electrostatics of Conductor

1. Inside a conductor, electro static field is zero.
2. At the surface of a charged conductor, electrostatic field must be normal to the
surface at every point.
3. Electrostatic Potential is a constant throughout the volume of a conductor and
has the same value inside and on its surface.
𝜎
4. Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor is given by → = 𝜀 𝑛̂
𝐸 0
7. What are dielectric? What is Electric polarization? Give the relation
between electric polarization and susceptibility.
Dielectrics are insulators, they have no free electrons and hence they do not
conduct electricity.
The dipole moment acquired per unit volume of the dielectric when placed in
uniform electric field is called Electric polarization. .
P = ∈0 𝝌 𝒆 . 𝑬
Where, 𝜒𝑒 is the constant of dielectric called electric susceptibility
8. On what factors Capacitance of a capacitor depends?
1) shape and size of the plates of the capacitor
2) distance between the plates
3) dielectric medium between plates.
9. Derive an expression for capacitance of parallel plate capacitor.

The electric intensity between the plates is given by

𝜎 𝑄
E=ℰ Where 𝜎 is surface charge density σ =
0 𝐴
𝑸
E= ------ (1)
𝑨𝓔𝟎
The relation between electric intensity and potential between the plates is given by
𝒗
E = 𝒅 ---- (2) where ‘v’ is the P.D between plates
From eqn. (1)and (2) we get
𝑄 𝑉
= 𝑑.
𝐴ℰ 0

𝑄 ℰ0 𝐴 𝑄
= By definition, = C capacitance
𝑉 𝑑 𝑉
∴ 𝓔𝟎 𝑨
C=
𝒅
This is the expression for capacitance of parallel plate capacitor with air as
dielectric.
When the space between the plates is filled with dielectric medium. ℰ ℰɤ𝐴
C = 0𝑑

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Science Academy PU College, DVG. II PUC – Physics For Board Exam-2025

10. Expression for equivalent capacitance of two capacitors in series.

As capacitors are in series charge on each of them will be same as Q. The applied
potential difference V divides itself into V1 and V2 across C1 and C2 respectively
such that
V = V1 + V2, ---- (1)
Charge on each capacitor is Q = C1V1 and Q = C2V2
𝑄 𝑄
∴ V1 = 𝐶 , V2 = 𝐶
1 2
Eqn., (1) becomes
𝑄 𝑄
V= +
𝐶1 𝐶2
1 1
V=Q + … … … … … .. (2)
𝐶1 𝐶2
If Cs is the equivalent capacitance of the combination
𝑄
Then V = 𝐶 ----- (3)
𝑠
From eqn., (2) and(3)we get
𝑄 1 1
= Q +
𝐶𝑠 𝐶1 𝐶2

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=𝑪 +𝑪
𝑪𝒔 𝟏 𝟐

Thus reciprocal of equivalent capacitance of two capacitors in series is equal to sum of

reciprocal of each capacitance.
11. Expression for equivalent capacitance of two capacitors connected in
parallel

As capacitors are in parallel potential difference across each of them will be same
as the applied potential difference ‘V’. The total charge Q is given to the system by
the applied voltage divides itself into Q1 & Q2 for the capacitors C1 , C2
respectively.
Such that, Q = Q1 + Q2 ……… (1)
The charge on the first capacitor is given by Q1 = C1V , Q2 = C2 V
Equation (1) becomes
Q = C1 V + C2 V
Q = V [ C1 + C2] -----------(2)

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Science Academy PU College, DVG. II PUC – Physics For Board Exam-2025

If Cp is the effective capacitance of the combination then for the combination, we

have
Q = Cp V ---- (3)
From equation (2) and (3) we get,
Cp V = V [ C1 + C2]

Cp = C1 + C2

12. Write any three uses of Capacitors.

1) Used to store electric charges
2) Used to store electric potential energy
3) Used In A.C. circuits to control current
4) used to avoid sparking in gaps
13. Write the expression for energy stored in a capacitor and explain the terms.
U = ½ C V2
Where, C – capacitance of capacitor
V – Potential
14. Define Dielectric strength. Mention the value of dielectric strength
for air.

The maximum value of electric field (or potential gradient) that a

dielectric material can tolerate without it’s electric breakdown is called
it’s dielectric strength.
For air medium at 1 atmosphere its value is 3 X 106 V/m

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1. State and explain Ohm’s law.
This law states that, the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference between the ends of the conductor. Provided temperature and other
physical conditions of the conductor remaining constant”
𝐼∝𝑉
1
𝐼 = 𝑅𝑉
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
2. Write any three limitations of Ohm’s law.
1) The variation between Current and Potential difference is non linear.
2) The relation between Current and Potential difference is non unique.
3) Ohm’s law is not applicable for semiconductors.
4) Ohm’s law is not applicable for conductors at very low and at very high temperature.

3. Name the two factors on which the resistance of a metallic wire depends?
Resistance of a metallic wire depends on
a) length of the wire (R α L )
1
b) area of the wire (R α 𝐴 )
c) Temperature (R α T)

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Science Academy PU College, DVG. II PUC – Physics For Board Exam-2025

4. Arrive at the expression for current interms of drift velocity.

The average thermal velocity of the electrons at a given time 𝑡 in the conductor will be zero.
this velocity is given by :
𝑣 +𝑣 +𝑣 + ……………….+ 𝑣𝑛
Vi = 1 2 3 𝑛 =0
When electric field is applied across a conductor each electron experience a Force
𝐹 = q⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 in the direction of 𝐸⃗ . (q = e)
− 𝑒𝐸⃗
It acquires an acceleration a = where e is charge on electron and m is its mass.
𝑚

i i


E 
E
3.

Drift velocity is average of these velocities of charged particles. Therefore

𝑡 +𝑡 +𝑡 +⋯𝑡
Vd = a τ , [∵ 𝜏 = 1 2 𝑛 3 𝑛 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑥𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒]
− 𝑒⃗⃗⃗𝐸 τ −𝑒𝐸⃗
or Vd = (a = )
𝑚 𝑚

𝒆𝑬𝝉
|Vd| = 𝒎

This is the expression for drift velocity.

5. Derive the vector form of ohm’s law 𝒋 = 𝜎 𝑬 ⃗
Or Derive an expression for equivalent form of Ohm’s law.

Let I be the current in the conductor due to the potential difference 𝑉 across the conductor, then
according to ohm’s law
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 ………….(i)
The electric field 𝐸 produced in the conductor is given by
𝑉
𝐸=𝐿
∴ 𝑉 = 𝐸𝐿 ………….(ii)
From (i) and (ii) we get
𝐸𝐿 = 𝐼𝑅
𝐿 𝐿
𝐸𝐿 = 𝐼 × 𝜌 (𝑅=𝜌 )
𝐴 𝐴
𝐼
𝐸𝐿 = 𝜌𝐽𝐿 ( =𝐽)
𝐴
𝐸 = 𝜌𝐽
𝐸 1
𝐽=𝜌 ( 𝜌 = 𝜎)
⃗⃗⃗𝑱 = 𝝈𝑬
⃗ → This is the vector form of ohm’s law.

6. Give any two differences between current and current density.

CURRENT CURRENT DENSITY
It is the rate of flow of electric charges flow It is the amount of electric current per unit area .
through it.
It is a scalar quantity It is a Vector quanity
It’s SI unit is ampere (A) It’s SI unit is ampere per meter square (A/m2 )

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𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
7. Obtain an Expression for conductivity (𝝈 = ) of a conductor.
𝒎

The expression for current in the conductor is given by

𝑒𝜏
𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑒𝑣𝑑 but 𝑣𝑑 = 𝐸
𝑚
𝑒𝜏 𝐼
𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑒 𝑚 𝐸 by defn., =𝐽
𝐴
𝐼 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
= 𝐸
𝐴 𝑚
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
|𝐽| = |𝐸 | As 𝐽 is parallel to 𝐸
𝑚
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝐽= 𝐸 but 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
𝑚
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝜎𝐸 = 𝐸
𝑚

𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
𝝈= → This is the expression for conductivity
𝒎

8. Draw the graph for temperature dependence of Resistivity of

(a) metals and (b) semiconductors (c) Nichrome
1) In Metals: Resistivity is directly proportional to temperature
i.e. 𝜌 𝛼 𝑇

2) In semiconductors : Resistivity is inversely proportional to temperature

1
i.e. 𝜌 𝛼 𝑇

3) Nichrome :

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9. Obtain an expression for effective emf and internal resistance

of Cells connected in series:
The terminal potential of cell E1 is V1 = E1 - Iɤ1
The terminal potential of cell E2 is V2 = E2 - Iɤ2
The terminal potential of the combination
Veff = V1 + V2 = E1 - Iɤ1 + E2 - Iɤ2
= E1 + E2 - I (ɤ1 + ɤ2)
Veff = E1 + E2 – I [ɤ1 + ɤ2] ----- (1)
For the combination we have
Veff = Eeff - I ɤeff ------- (2)
Comparing equations (1) and (2), we get.

Eeff = E1 + E2 and ɤeff = ɤ1 +ɤ2

10. Obtain an expression for effective emf and internal resistance Cell in parallel. (5 M)

Potential difference across cell E1 is V1 = E1 – I1r1

Potential difference across cell E2 is V2 = E2 – I2r2
𝐸1 −𝑉1 𝐸1 −𝑉
I1 = = (... V1 = V2 = V)
𝑟1 𝑟1
𝐸2 −𝑉
|||ly I2 =
𝑟2

Main current in the circuit is given by

I = I1 + I2
𝐸1 𝑉 𝐸2 𝑉
I= -𝑟 + -𝑟
𝑟1 1 𝑟2 2
𝐸 𝐸2 1 1
I = 𝑟1 + -v +𝑟
1 𝑟2 𝑟1 2

𝐸1 𝑟2 +𝐸2𝑟1 𝑟1 +𝑟2
I= - V
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑟1 +𝑟2 𝐸1 𝑟2+𝐸2𝑟1
V
𝑟1 𝑟2
=
𝑟1 𝑟2
-I
𝐸1 𝑟2+𝐸2𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑟2
V= -I ----- (1)
𝑟1 +𝑟2 𝑟1 +𝑟2
For the combination we have
V = Eeff – I reff. ------ (2)
Comparing equations (1) and (2) we get

Eeff = and reff =

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11. Obtain a condition for Wheat stone’s Bridge network using Kirchhoff’s
rules.(5 M)

Currents flowing through different branches

of the bridge will be as shown in the figure.
Applying K.C.L to the junction A, I = I1 + I2 --------------(1)
Applying K.V.L to the mesh ABDA , I1P + IgG – I2R = 0 -------(2)
Applying K.V.L to the mesh BCDB , (I1 – Ig)Q – (I2 + Ig)S – IgG = 0
I1Q – IgQ – I2S - IgS – IgG = 0 -------(3)
Condition for balance: the current through galvanometer is zero (Ig = 0).
equations (2) and (3) becomes, I1P – I2R = 0
I1P = I2R -----------(4)
And I1Q – I2S = 0
I1Q = I2S -----------(5)
Divide (4) by (5) , we get
I1P / I1Q = I2R / I2S
 P/Q=R/S
This equation represents the balanced condition for wheat stone network.

MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

1. What is Lorentz force? Give an expression for it.
The total force experienced by a charge ( q ) moving in both electric and
magnetic field is called Lorentz force.
→ → → →
𝐹 = q 𝐸 + (𝑉 x𝐵)
Where, E – strength of Electric field , B - Strength of magnetic field
V – Velocity of charged particle
2. Mention an expression for Force on a current carrying conductor in a
uniform Magnetic field.
F = B I L sin θ
when the conductor is ┴ r to field
F=BIL
Where, B – Strength of magnetic field,
L – length of the conductor
I – Current in the conductor

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3. Mention an expression for Force due to motion of a charged particle

in a uniform magnetic field
F = q V B sin θ
When θ = 900, sin𝛉 = 1, F = Fmax.
Fmax. = QVB.
Where, B - Strength of magnetic field
V – Velocity of charged particle
4. Obtain an expression for radius of circular path of charged particle in a magnetic field.
Magnetic force is given by : F = Q V B sin θ
→ →
The particle experiences Maximum force ┴ r to both and .
𝑉 B
This force acts as centripetal force and particle describe circular path.
Centripetal force = force due to magnetic field
Fc = FB
𝑚𝑉 2
∴ 𝑟
= QVB where m is the mass of the particle and ‘r’ is
radius of the circular path and V is velocity.
𝒎𝑽
ɤ=
𝑸𝑩
This is the expression for radius of the circular path.
5) What is a solenoid ? Mention an Expression for Magnetic field inside due to a long
straight solenoid and explain the terms used.
Solenoid: Solenoid is a long coil of wire consisting of closely packed loops.

𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛 𝐼

𝑁
Where n = 𝑙 = number of turns per unit length
I = current passing through the solenoid
𝜇0 = Absolute permeability of air

6) State and explain Biot savart’s law (or Laplace law).

Magnetic field produced at P due to current I in the element AB is
1) directly proportional to strength of the current (dB  I)
2) directly proportional to length of the element (dB  dl )
3) directly proportional to sin  (dB  sin ) and
4) inversely proportional to square of the distance of point P from
the mid point ( dB  1 / r2 )
Mathematically, dB α (I d l sin θ) / r2
dB = k. (I d l sin θ) / r2
𝝁𝟎 𝑰 𝒅𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
dB =
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐

It will be along the perpendicular to the plane containing the point and the4
element.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑋⃗⃗𝑟
𝜇 𝑖 .𝑑𝑙
Biot Savarts law in Vector form : ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐵 = 0 3
4𝜋 𝑟

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7. Derive an expression for magnetic field at a point along the axis of circular coil carrying
current. (5 M)

Magnetic field produced at P due to current in the element is given by Biot Savart’
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
dB = 4𝜋0 𝑟 2 θ = 900 , sin θ = 1
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙
dB = 4𝜋0 𝑟2

dB is resolved into two components as dB cosθ along the axis and dB sinθ ⊥ to the axis.
Magnetic field produced at P due to current in the full loop is given by
∑ 𝒅𝑩 = ∑ 𝒅𝑩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝜇0 𝐼
B=∑ 4𝜋 𝑟2
cos 𝜃 = 4𝜋 𝑟 2
cos 𝜃 ∑ 𝑑𝑙 (∑ 𝑑𝑙 = 2πR )

𝜇0 𝐼
B= cos 𝜃 x 2πR In ∆ OAP, cos θ = R/r
4𝜋 𝑟 2
r2 = R 2 + x 2 => r = (R2 + x2) ½
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑅
B= x 𝑟 x 2πR ... r3 = (R2 + x2) 3/2
4𝜋 𝑟 2
𝜇0 𝐼
B= 2πR2
4𝜋 𝑟 3
𝝁𝟎 𝑰
B= 𝟑 2 π R2 along the axis towards the observer
𝟒𝝅
(𝑹𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝟐

For n turns of the coil,

𝝁 𝟐 𝝅 𝑹𝟐 𝒏 𝑰
i.e. B = 𝟒𝝅𝟎 . 𝟑
(𝑹𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝟐

𝝁𝟎 𝐧 𝐈
At the centre of the coil x = 0 , B=
𝟐 𝑹

8. State and explain Ampere’s circuital law.

→ →
This law states that ‘The line integral of magnetic field [∮ ∙ ] around any
𝐵 𝑑𝑙
closed path (or circuit) is equal to ‘ μ0 ’ times the total current (It ) threading
→ →
the closed circuit. ∮ 𝑩 ∙ 𝒅𝒍 = μ0 It

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9. Derive an expression for force between two parallel current carrying conductor. And hence
define ampere.
Magnetic field produced by current I1 on the conductor Q is given by
𝝁𝟎 𝟐 𝑰𝟏
B1 = ( towards the observer)
𝟒𝝅𝒅

The conductor Q carrying current I2 in the magnetic field B1 experiences a

mechanical force F1 is given by

F1 = B1 I2 L sin θ If θ = 900 , sin 900 = 1

F1 = B1 I2 L
𝝁𝟎 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐿
F1 = ------------------(1) ( towards the conductor P )
𝟒𝝅 𝑑

Similarly, conductor P experiences mechanical force F2 given by

𝝁𝟎 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐿
F2 = -----------------(2) ( towards the conductor Q)
𝟒𝝅 𝑑
From equations (1) and (2)
| F1 | = | F2 | = F
𝝁𝟎 𝟐 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝑳
∴ F = 𝟒𝝅
𝒅
This is the expression for force between two parallel conductors carrying current.
One ampere is defined as that constant current which when maintained in each of the two infinitely
long straight and parallel conductors of negligible cross section placed 1m apart in air or vacuum
will cause each conductor to experience a force of 2 x 10-7 N/m length.

10. Explain how a Galvanometer can be converted into an Ammeter

A galvanometer can be converted into ammeter by connecting suitable low
resistance in parallel with the galvanometer.
Let ‘S’ be the low (shunt) resistance to be connected in parallel with galvanometer
to convert it into Ammeter of range I ampere.

Applying Ohm’s law to each resistance, we get

V = Ig G
V = (I – Ig) S
(I – Ig) S = IgG
𝑰𝒈 𝑮
∴𝑺= 𝑰 − 𝑰𝒈

11. Explain how a Galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter

A galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter by connecting suitable high
resistance in series with the galvanometer.
Let ‘R’ be the high resistance to be connected in series with galvanometer to
convert it into voltmeter of range V volts.
Applying Ohm’s law, we get
V = Ig ( G + R)
V / Ig = (G + R)

𝑽
∴𝑹= −𝑮
𝑰𝒈

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12. What is current sensitivity? Mention an expression for it.

On what factors it depends?
It is defined as the deflection per unit current.
𝜃 𝑁𝐴𝐵
= ( )
𝐼 𝐶
Current sensitivity is
1) Directly proportional to number of turns in the coil.
2) Directly proportional to strength of the magnetic field.
3) Directly proportional to area of coil.
4) Inversely proportional to couple per unit twist of the suspension.
13. What is Voltage sensitivity? Mention an expression for it.
On what factors it depends?
It is defined as the deflection per unit voltage.
𝜃 𝑁𝐴𝐵
=( )
𝑉 𝐶𝑅
Where R is galvanometer resistance.

Voltage sensitivity is
1) Directly proportional to number of turns in the coil.
2) Directly proportional to strength of the magnetic field.
3) Directly proportional to area of coil.
4) Inversely proportional to couple per unit twist of the suspension.
5) Inversely proportional to resistance of the galvanometer coil.

14. What is moving coil galvanometer? On What principle it works?

With the help of a neat-labelled diagram, obtain the expression
for the angular deflection produced in moving coil galvanometer.
Moving coil galvanometer is an instrument used to detect and measure current in
a circuit.
Principle: It works on the principle that a current carrying coil experiences a
torque when placed in a magnetic field.

This Torque due to current is given by

τi = n A I B sin θ ,

θ = 900, sin 900 = 1

τi = n A I B --------- (1)

Also, τi α θ
τi = C θ ------- (2)
From (1) and (2), n A I B = C θ ,

where C = spring constant called couple per unit twist

(Torsional constant of the spring)
𝐶
∴ I=( ). θ
𝑛𝐴𝐵
𝐶
I=Kθ where K = ( 𝑛 𝐴 𝐵 ) called galvanometer constant
Iαθ

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MAGNETISM AND MATTER

1. Write any three Properties of Magnetic field lines:
1. No two magnetic field lines can intersect each other.
2. The magnetic field lines will be parallel and equidistant in a uniform magnetic field.
3. The magnetic field lines will be more crowded where the strength of the field is more.
4. Outside the body of the Magnet, the Magnetic field lines move from north pole to
South pole of the magnet.
2. State and explain Gauss’s law in magnetism.
This law states that, the net magnetic flux (𝜱B) through any closed surface is
always zero.
→ →
Δ𝜙B = ∙ = 0
𝐵 𝑑𝑠
Magnetic poles are always exist in pair, outgoing magnetic flux due to the north
pole is always equal to incoming magnetic flux due to the south pole. Therefore
net magnetic flux through any closed surface is always equal to zero.
→ →
Δ𝜙B = ∙ = 0
𝐵 𝑑𝑠

3. Expression for Magnetic potential energy of an dipole placed in an

uniform magnetic field

The torque acting on the dipole is given by

τ = M B sin 𝛉
If the dipole is rotated through a small angle d ϑ against the Torque. The
wonedone is given by
dw = τ x dθ = 𝑀 𝐵 sinθ x d θ
Total work done in rotating the dipole from the initial position θ1 to the final
position θ2 is given by
𝜃 𝜃2
∫ 𝑑𝑤 = ∫𝜃1 𝑀𝐵 sin θ dθ = MB - cos θ
2
𝜃1
W = MB [- cos θ2 + cos θ1 ] = MB [cos θ1 - cos θ2 ]
By definition,
W=U
U = MB [cos θ1- cos θ2 ]
When θ1 = 90 and θ2 = θ then
U = - MB cos 𝛉

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4. Write the differences between dia, para and

Ferromagnetic materials.

Diamagnetic Materials Paramagnetic Materials Ferromagnetic materials

1. These are feebly repelled by 1. These are feebly attracted 1. These are strongly
a magnet. by a magnet. attracted by a magnet

2. Magnetic susceptibility 2. Magnetic susceptibility 2. Magnetic susceptibility

has a small – ve value has a small + ve value. has a large + ve value.
3. Intensity of 3 Intensity of 3. Intensity of Magnetisation
Magnetisation (I) has a Magnetisation (I) has a large + ve value.
small – ve value. (I) has a small + ve value.
4. Relative magnetic 4. Relative magnetic 4. Relative magnetic
permeability is less than 1 permeability is > 1 permeability is >>> 1

5. When placed in 5. The lines of force prefer to 5. The lines of force tend to
magnetic field, the lines of force pass through the crowd into the specimen.
tend to avoid the substance. substance rather than air.

5. Define magnetization of a sample. Mention its SI unit.

It is defined as net magnetic dipole moment (m) acquired per unit volume of the substance.
Its SI unit is given by : A/m.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
1. State and explain Faraday’s law of EMI:
This law states that the magnitude of the induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux.
If e is the induced emf when the magnetic flux changed by 𝑑Φ in a time interval dt then
from Faraday’s law :
𝒅𝚽
i.e. e=-
𝒅𝒕
Significance of Lenz’s law: Law of conservation of energy

2. Explain Coil and magnet experiment.

When one pole of magnet is Suddenly brought near one face of coil connected to sensitive
galvanometer. It shows momentary deflection indicating the flow of momentary current in it, when
the magnet is suddenly withdrawn then also there is deflection but in opposite direction. Similar
effect is also observed when the coil is moved with respect to stationary magnet. No emf is produced
when both coil and magnet are at rest. This illustrates the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.

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3. Explain Coil and Coil experiment.

This experiment consists of two coils, primary and
Secondary. Whenever primary circuit is closed or open,
galvanometer shows momentary deflection. First in one
direction and next in opposite direction. Similar effect is
also observed when current in primary is suddenly
increased or decreased. Similar effect is also observed
when secondary coil is moved with respect to current carrying primary. No deflection is observed
when both the coils are at rest, This illustrates the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.
4. State and explain Lenz’s law.
Lenz’s law:
This law states that the direction of induced emf and hence current is such that it tends to oppose
the change that produces it.
Lenz’s law is just an illustration of the law of conservation of energy.
(i) When north pole of magnet is moved towards the coil, the end face of the coil acts as a N-
pole due to the induced current, which flows in the anticlockwise direction. Thus opposes
the motion of the magnet, which is the cause of the emf.
(ii) When north pole of the magnet moved away from the coil, the end face acts as S-pole by
changing the current in the clockwise direction. This opposes the motion of the magnet
5. Obtain an expression for motional e.m.f induced in a conductor (rod) moving in a
magnetic field.
MN – straight metallic conductor,
dx – distance travelled travelled by the conductor
l – Length of the conductor
Flux linked with the conductor is
𝜙 = 𝐵 𝐴 cos 𝜃
As, 𝜃 = 00 , cos 00 = 1
𝜙 = 𝐵 𝐴 ----------- (1)
If A is the area covered by the conductor in dt second ,
then A = l . dx
(1) => 𝜙 = B l . 𝑑𝑥
From Faraday’s law, magnitude of emf induced in the rod is given by
𝑑𝜙 𝑑 𝐵 .𝑙.𝑑𝑥
e= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
Then e=Bl ( )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑x
e=Blv [. . .
= v (velocity) ]
𝑑𝑡
6. What is Self inductance? On what factors self inductance of a coil depends?
The Phenomenon of generating an emf and hence current in a coil due to change of current
in the coil itself is called ‘self inductance’.
Self-inductance of a coil depends on
1) Number of turns in the coil.
2) Area of cross section of the coil.
3) Permeability of material (medium)on which coil is wound.

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7. On what factors Mutual induction depends on?

1) Number of turns on either coil
2) Shape and size of coils
3) Separation between the coils.
4) The permeability of the material on which coils are wound.
8. Mention an expression for mutual inductance of two coaxial solenoids.
M=

Where 𝜇 = μ0 μr , is permeability of the core.

9. What is AC generator? Draw a neat labelled diagram of AC generator.
Ans: It is a device used for converting mechanical energy in to electric energy.
Principle : AC generator works on the principle of Electromagnetic Induction (EMI)
Diagram:

ALTERNATING CURRENT
1. What is a Transformer? Explain the working of a Transformer.
TRANSFORMER: Transformer is a device used to step up or step down alternating voltages.
Principle: It works on the principle of mutual induction.
Construction: It consists of two coils, primary P and secondary S of
fine insulated wire wound on soft iron core of thin laminations
insulated from each other. Input is fed to the primary, output is taken
across the secondary.

Working:
As input is alternating, at every alteration magnetic flux linking round
the secondary changes. Therefore an emf of the same nature is induced in the secondary. The
magnitude of output voltage depends on number of turns in primary and secondary coils.
Let Vp and Vs are the input and output voltages. np and ns be the number of turns in primary and
secondary.
Then it can be shown that
Vs / Vp = ns / np = T
Where, T is a constant of the transformer called as turns ratio.
2. Mention any three Sources of Energy losses in Transformer:
Energy losses in transformer are
1) Magnetic flux leakage loss
2) Eddy current loss
3) Resistance of winding loss
4) Hysteresis loss

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3. Define : a) Power factor b) wattles current

Power factor: It is defined as ratio of resistance to the impedance of the circuit.
𝑹
i.e. Cos 𝛟 =
𝒁
Watt less current: The power factor is zero for inductance or capacitance circuit even though a
current flows through the circuit, this current is called ‘watt less current’.

4. Distinguish between inductive reactance and capacitive reactance

Inductive reactance Capacitive reactance

The Resistance offered by inductance coil The resistance offered by the capacitor for
for the flow of alternating current through it the flow of alternating current through it
is called inductive reactance is called capacitive reactance
It is directly proportional to frequency of It is inversely proportional to frequency
AC of AC
XL = 𝜔 L XC = 1 / ω C
XL = 0 for dc XC = ∞ for dc

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC WAVES
1. What is displacement current? Write the mathematical form for displacement
current?
“The current which comes into play in the region in which the electric field and the electric
flux is changing with time”.
𝑑𝜑𝐸
Mathematical form: ID = ∈0
𝑑𝑡
2. Write any two Properties of electromagnetic waves.
1. All these radiations travels in straight line with velocity 3x10 8 m/s in air
or vacuum.
2. The ratio of magnitudes of electric and magnetic field vectors in free
space is constant equal to c

3. The velocity of electromagnetic waves in free space, c = 1 / √μ0ε0

4. Electromagnetic waves obey the principle of superposition.
5. Electromagnetic waves can transfer energy as well as momentum to objects
placed on their paths.

3. Write any two applications of gamma rays.

i) They are used in the treatment of cancer.
ii) They are used to produce nuclear reaction.
iii) They are used in food preservation like fruits and vegetables.
4. Write any two applications of UV rays.
i) They are used for purification of air and water.
ii) They are used in the synthesis of vitamin D.
iii) They are used in LASIK eye surgery.
5. Write any two applications of IR-rays.
i) They are used for long distance photography.
ii) They are used in the treatment of muscular sprain.
iii) They are used in TV remotes to operate TV.

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6. Write any two applications of X-rays.

i) They are used to detect foreign bodies inside human body.
ii) They are used to detect fracture in bones.
iii) They are used in the treatment of skin cancer.

7. Write any two applications of Microwaves

i) They are used in microwave ovens for heating
ii) They are used in RADAR system for aircraft navigation

8. Write any two uses of Radio waves.

i) Used in RADAR system
ii) Used in TV and Radio broadcasting

RAY OPTICS
1. Relation between focal length and Radius of curvature for concave mirror (f = R / 2) :
Consider a ray of light, AB || PC,
and CP ≈ CB = R, is the radius of curvature.
The ray AB, after reflection from mirror will pass through
F and obeys law of reflection,
i.e., i = r. ------- (1) where i is the angle of
incidence and r is the angle of reflection.

From the figure,

--------- (2) (alternate

angles)
From (1) and (2)

As the aperture of the mirror is small, B lies close to P, BF ≈ PF

... FC = FB = PF

PC = PF + FC = PF + PF
R = 2 PF = 2f (... PC = R and PF = f , focal length)

f=R/2

2. Write the Conditions of TIR

1) The ray should go from denser medium to rarer medium.
2) The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than critical angle.
Write Illustrations of TIR
1) Sparkling of diamond is due to total internal reflection.
2) Appearance of mirages is due to TIR.
3) Appearance of rainbow is due to dispersion and TIR.

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Write any two Applications of TIR;

1) Artificial diamonds are made to sparkle using TIR.
2) Using TIR messages are sent from one place to the other through the optical fibre.

3. Write the Cartesian sign conventions used in analyzing reflection of light by spherical
mirrors.
1) All distances are measured from the pole of the spherical mirror along the principal axis.
2) The distances measured along the direction of incident light are taken as positive and
those measured in the direction opposite to the direction of incident light are taken as negative.
3) The heights measured upwards perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as positive and the
heights measured downwards perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as negative.

4. Write the ray diagram for formation of image in the simple microscope.

5. Draw the ray diagram of image formation in case of a compound microscope

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𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 −𝒏𝟏
6. Derive the relation connecting n, u, v and R. (Derive 𝒗
− 𝒖
= 𝑹
)
Let ‘P’ be the pole , ‘C’ be the centre of curvature and
‘R’ be the radius of curvature of a small aperture
spherical refracting surface.
CMN is the normal at M. 𝑖 is the angle of incidence and
𝑟 is the angle of refraction.
PM
In triangle PMO: tan MOP = tan α = PO

PM
In triangle PMI: tan MIP = tan β = PI

PM
In triangle MCP: tan MCP = tan γ = PC
PM PM
In triangle OMC, 𝑖 = 𝛼 + 𝛾 = + ,
PO PC
In triangle MCI, 𝛾 = 𝑟 + 𝛽
PM PM
r=γ–β= −
PC PI
By snell’s law,
𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟 (as angles are small, sin i ≈ i & sin r ≈ r )
𝑛1 𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑟
PM PM PM PM
𝑛1 [ PO + ] = 𝑛2 [ − ]
PC PC PI
𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2
+ = −
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐼
From figure: PO = -u, PC = R & PI = v

𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2
− + = −
𝑢 𝑅 𝑅 𝑣

𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 −𝒏𝟏
∴ − =
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹

𝑨+𝑫
𝑺𝒊𝒏 ( 𝟐
)
7. Derive the expression : n = 𝑨 for refraction through a prism. (With usual
(𝟐)
notations)
A ray of light PO incident ray, OO1 is the refracted ray
O1Q is the emergent at the face AC.
MN and MN1 are the normal.

In quadrilateral AOMO1
∟A + ∟M = 1800 ------------ (1)
In ∆ OMO
le 1

∟r1 + ∟r2 + ∟M = 1800 ---------- (2)

From (1) and (2)
∟A + ∟M = ∟r1 + ∟r2 + ∟M

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∟A = ∟r1 + ∟r2 ------------ (3)

In ∆ SOO1 ,
∟d = (i1 – r1) + ( i2 – r2)
= (i1 + i2) - ( r1 + r2)
= (i1 + i2) - ( A)
A + d = i1 + i2 -------------- (4)

At minimum, deviation position, d = D and i1 = i2 = i and r1 = r2 = r

Equations (3) and (4) becomes
A = ∟r1 + ∟r2 = r + r = 2r
r=A/2
A + D = i1 + i2 = i + i = 2i
i=A+D
2
Substituting the values of i and r in the Snell’s law equation. We get
n = sin i
sinr
n = sin (A + D) / 2
sinA / 2

n = sin (A + D) / 2
sin A / 2

8. Draw the ray diagram for image formation in refracting telescope.

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WAVE OPTICS
1. Define Wavefront. Mention the different types of wavefronts and their source.
A wavefront is defined as the continuous locus of all the particles which are
vibrating in the same phase.
Wavefronts due to point source => Spherical wavefront
Wavefronts due to line source => Cylindrical wavefront
Wavefronts from large distances => Plane wavefronts
2. Huygens’ Principle of (Secondary waves) Wave Propagation
(i) Every point on a given wave-front may be regarded as a source of new disturbance.
(ii) The new disturbances from each point spread out in all directions with
the velocity of light and are called the secondary wavelets.
(iii) The surface of tangency to the secondary wavelets in forward direction at
any instant gives the new position of the wave-front at that time.
3. Prove Snell’s law of refraction at a plane surface using Huygens’s principle.

Let XY be a plane refracting surface separating two media 1 and 2 of refractive indices n 1
and n2
If the secondary wavelets from B strike the surface X Y at C in time 𝑡 then
BC = v1t and similarly AD = v2t
𝐵𝐶
From fig in Δ , sin 𝑖 = 𝐴𝐶
𝐴𝐷
Again, from fig in Δ 𝐴𝐷C : sin 𝑟 =
𝐴𝐶
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝐵𝐶
=
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝐴𝐷

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑣1 𝑐 𝑐 1 𝑛2
= x = x 𝑐 =
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝑣2 𝑐 𝑣2 𝑛1
𝑣1

𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟
This is Snell’s law of refraction.
4. Using Huygens principle show that angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection during a plane wave front reflected by a plane surface.

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Let XY be a plane reflecting surface and AB be a plane wavefront incident on the surface
at A. PA and QBC are perpendiculars drawn to AB at A and B respectively.
Here, CD is the reflected plane wavefront and AD is the reflected ray.
∆𝑥 𝐵𝐶
w.k.t , v = =
∆𝑡 𝑡

 BC = v t
Similarly, AD = v t
𝐵𝐶 𝑣𝑡
From the figure, In Δ ABC , Sin i = = ……………. (1)
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶

𝐴𝐷 𝑣𝑡
In ADC , Sin r = = ……………. (2)
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶

Fom (1) and (2) , Sin i = Sin r

 i=r Hence law of reflection

5. What is an Interference ? Write any two conditions for sustained interference.

Modification (redistribution) in the intensity of light (energy) when two or more similar light
waves travelling in the same direction super impose on each other is called ‘Interference’.
The two sources must be coherent
1) Two sources must be very narrow
6. Write Conditions for constructive interference:
(i) Phase difference δ = 2nπ where n = 0,1, 2,3,…………
(ii) Path difference between the waves is
x=nλ n = 0, 1 , 2 , ………..
Write the Conditions for destructive Interference:
(i) Phase difference δ = (2n + 1) π
where n = 0,1,2,3,…………
δ = π, 3π, 5π, 7π,…………….odd multiples of π
(ii) Path difference between the waves is
x = (2n + 1) . (λ/2) where n = 0,1,2,3,…………………..

7. Distinguish between Interference and diffraction

INTERFERENCE DIFFRACTION
1. The modification in the intensity when 1. The phenomenon of light waves bending
two similar light waves traveling in round the corners or obstacles, is called
same direction super impose on each diffraction.
other is called interference. 2. It is produced due to the superposition of
2. It is produced due to superposition of no. of secondary waves of same sources.
two waves from two coherent sources. 3. Diffraction pattern consists of central
3. Interference pattern consists of alternate bright band bordered by alternate dark
bright and dark band. and bright band of decreasing intensity.
4. Interference bright bands are of equal 4. Diffraction bright bands are of unequal
thickness and intensity. thickness and intensity.

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4. State and explain Malus Law.
According to Malus : When a completely plane polarised light beam is incident
on a polarising sheet the intensity of the emergent light varies as the square of
the cosine of the angle between the direction of electric field vector of the
incident light and the polarising direction of the sheet.

5. What are Polaroids? Write any two uses of Polaroids.

Polaroid is an optical device which can be used as Polariser and analyser.
USES
1) They are used as sun glasses.
2) They are used as polarizers.
3) They are used as analyser.
4) They are used to view 3d pictures.
5) They are used to avoid head light glare of incoming vehicles.

Dual Nature of matter & Radiation

1. Mention any two types of electron emission.
1. Photoelectric emission 2. Thermionic emission
3. Field emission
2. Explain experimental observations of photoelectric effect.
1) Photoelectric effect is an instantaneous effect. (as time lag is 10-9 second)
2) For a photometal there is a minimum frequency of incident radiation below which there is no
photoelectric effect, this minimum frequency is called ‘threshold frequency (υ 0 )’.
3) Above threshold frequency, kinetic energy of photoelectrons is directly proportional to the
frequency of incident radiation. (K.E α υ )
4) Above threshold frequency, number of photoelectrons (and hence photoelectric current) is
directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.
5) Above threshold frequency, there is a minimum negative potential of the anode for which
photoelectric current becomes zero. This minimum negative potential of anode is called as
“stopping potential” or “retarding potential”.

3. Define: a) Work function b) Photoelectric effect c) Threshold wavelength

Work function: The minimum energy required to take out electron from the surface of
metals is called as work-function.
Photoelectric effect : Certain metals emit electrons when suitable frequency of radiation is
incident on them. This phenomenon is called ‘Photoelectric effect.
Threshold wavelength : For a photometal there is a maximum wavelength of the incident radiation
above which there is no photoelectric effect, that wavelength is called threshold wavelength.
4. Describe Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric effect by considering his
mathematical equations.
Einstein explained photoelectric effect on the basis of ‘Quantum theory of radiation’.
When radiation incident on the metal surface, elastic collision takes place
between photon and electron.
K.Emax = E - 𝝓𝟎
K.E max = h (υ – υ0) (since. E = h𝝊 & 𝝓𝟎 = 𝒉 υ0 )
½ mv2 = h (υ – υ0)
Where , m = mass of an electron, v = velocity of an electron
h = Planck’s constant, υ = Frequency of incident radiation
υ0 = Threshold frequency

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Conclusions:
1) Photoelectric effect is instantaneous effect and takes place due to elastic collision between
photon and electron inside the metal.
2) If ν < ν0, then ½ mv2 max is negative, which is not possible. Therefore, for
photoelectric emission to take place ν > ν0.
3) It is clear that ½ mv2 max α ν as h and ν0 are constant.
This shows that K.E. of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of
the incident light.

5. Write any three Characteristic Properties of photon

1. Photons travel at the speed of light in vacuum. i.e. 3 x 10 8 m/s.
2. Photons travel in straight lines. (Only in a homogeneous).
3. A photon has zero rest mass. i.e. m 0 = 0. It means photon can not exist at rest.
4. Photons do not have any charge. They are electrically neutral.
6. a) Mention an expression for de-Broglie’s wavelength interms of accelerating potential.
ℎ
Ans: 𝜆 = 2𝑚𝑞𝑉
√
Where m = mass of particle , q = charge of the particle
h = Planck’s constant, V = accelerating potential
b) Mention an expression for de-Broglie’s wavelength interms of Temperature.

λ = √𝟑 𝒎𝒉 𝒌 𝑻 where k = Boltzmann constant

c) Mention an expression for de-Broglie’s wavelength interms of Kinetic energy.
λ= 𝒉 √𝟐 𝒎 𝑬
where, E = kinetic energy

ATOMS & NUCLEI

1. With a neat labelled diagram Explain Geiger-Marsden scattering experiment.

Observations :
(i) Most of α-particles pass through the gold foil unreflected.
(ii) A very small number of α-particles (1 in 8000) suffered large angle deflection.
(iii) Some of them retraced their original path or suffered 180° deflection.

2. What is impact parameter? When will it is maximum and minimum?

The impact parameter is the perpendicular distance of the initial velocity vector of the
α-particle from the centre of the nucleus.
For θ = 00 . Impact parameter is maximum
θ = 1800 , Impact parameter is minmum

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3. Write any two limitations (Drawbacks) of Rutherford Model of atom.

i) It could not explain the stability of atoms.
ii) It could not explain the line spectrum
4. Explain the postulates of Bohr’s Atom Model.
(i) Stationary Circular Orbits: An electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits
without the emission of radiant energy called Stationary orbits.
ii) Quantum Condition: Eelectron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for which
ℎ
the angular momentum is some integral multiple of 2𝜋
𝑛ℎ
(That is L = 2 𝜋 (L = mvr)
iii) Frequency condition: Electron emits energy only when they jumps from stationary orbit
of higher energy level to lower energy level.
i.e. h 𝝂 = E2 – E1 .
5. Write any two limitations of Bohr’s atom model.
1) Bohr’ theory is not applicable to atoms having more than one electron.
2) Bohr’s theory fails to explain fine structure of spectral line.
3) This theory does not account for the wave nature of electrons.

6. Explain de-Broglie’s comment on Bohr’s Second Postulate.

Total distance covered = circumference of the orbit = 2𝜋rn

... for the permissible orbit, 2𝜋rn = n λ

ℎ
According to de-Broglie, λ = 𝑚𝑣
𝑛
𝑛ℎ
. . 2𝜋rn =
.
𝑚𝑣𝑛
𝒏𝒉 𝒉
m vn r n = = n ( 𝟐𝝅 )
𝟐𝝅

Hence, angular momentum of electron revolving in the n th orbit must be an

ℎ
integral multiple of 2𝜋 , which is the quantum condition proposed by Bohr in
second postulate.
7. Write any two Properties (Characteristics) of nuclear force.
1. The nuclear force is much stronger than the Coulomb force
2. Nuclear force is a short range force.
3. Nuclear force is charge independent force and spin dependent force.
4. Nuclear force is non-central and non-gravitational force.
8. Distinguish between nuclear fission and fusion.
Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion
1) It is a process in which heavier 1) Nuclear fusion is a process in which
nucleus breaks up into two or two lighter nuclei are fussed
more lighter nuclei of comparable together to form a heavier nucleus.
masses. 2) Reaction is uncontrollable.
2) Reaction is controllable. 3) Energy released cannot be
3) Energy released can be controlled. controlled.

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9. What are Isotopes, Isobars and Isotones? Give example.

1. Isotopes:
The atoms of an element having same atomic number (Z) but different mass-
numbers are called isotopes.
Ex: 6C12 , 6C13 , 6C14
2. Isobars:
The nuclei having same mass number but different atomic number are
called isobars.
Ex: 1H3 , 2He3
3. Isotones:
The nuclei containing the same number of neutrons are called isotones.
Ex: 1H3 , 2He4

10. Draw Observations of Binding Energy curve

SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
1. Explain the Classification of Solids on the basis of energy bands into conductors, semiconductors
and insulators :
Sl.
No Conductors Semiconductors Insulators
1 Conductivity is very high Conductivity is between less Conductivity is negligible
than that of conductors
2 Resistivity is very low Resistivity is more than Resistivity is very large
conductors
3 Temperature co-efficient Temperature co-efficient of Temperature coefficient of
of resistance is positive resistance of a Sc is negative resistance is slightly
for conductor. and large. negative.
4 Type of bonding present is Type of bonding present is Type of bonding present is
metallic bonding Covalent ionic. (or covalent)
5. Ex: Cu, Ag, Au etc Ex: Ge, Si etc Ex: Wood, Plastic, mica
etc.

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2. Write the differences between Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors:

Intrinsic semiconductors Extrinsic semiconductors

1. It is a pure semiconductor 1. It is a semiconductor doped with impurities.
2. Number of holes and electrons are equal 2. Number of holes and electrons are unequal
3. Conductivity depends only on 3. Conductivity depends on impurities added.
temperature 4. Conductivity is mainly due to majority charge
4. Conductivity is due to both electrons carriers.
and holes 5. Here, ne. nh = ni2
5. Here, ne = nh = ni Ex: Ge doped with As
Ex: Ge in its purest state

3. Write the differences between n-type and p-type semiconductors.

n-type p-type

1) Majority charge carriers are electrons. 1) Majority charge carriers are holes.
2) Minority charge carriers are holes. 2) Minority charge carriers are electrons.
3) Produced by adding pentavalent impurities 3) They are produced by adding trivalent impurities
4) Electrical conductivity is mainly due to free 4) Electrical conductivity is mainly due to holes. .
electrons. Ex: Ge doped with Indium
Ex: Ge doped with Arsenic

4. Explain the Action of diode when forward biased. Draw IV curve for it.

Diode is said to be forward biased when p-side of the diode is connected to positive of the battery and n-side
of diode is connected to negative of the battery.
Positive of the battery attracts electron from n-side to p-side through the junction, negative of the battery
attracts holes from p-side to n-side through the junction therefore thickness of depletion layer decreases, its
resistance decreases and conductivity increases, it conducts current. A diode conducts current when it is
forward biased.

5. Explain the Action of diode when reverse biased. Draw IV curve for it.

Diode is said to be reverse biased when p-side is connected to negative of the battery and n-side is connected
to positive of the battery. The positive of the battery attracts electrons directly from n-side. Negative of the
battery attracts holes directly from p-side, thickness of depletion layer increases. Its resistance increases and
conductivity decreases therefore it does not conduct current.

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Rectifier : It is a device used to convert AC into DC.

Rectification : The process of converting AC into DC.
6. Explain the working of half-wave Rectifier with its waveform.

A half wave rectifier is one in which rectification is done for only one half cycle of input AC.
Working :
(i) During the positive half cycle of input AC, A is +ve and B is –ve hence diode is forward
biased, it conducts current therefore a current flows through the load resistance, there
will be voltage across the load resistance.
(ii) During negative half cycle, A is –ve and B is +ve hence diode becomes reverse biased, it
will not conduct current, no current flows through the load resistance and there is no
voltage across the load resistance. Thus half cycle of input AC is blocked by the diode.
This process is called as half wave rectification. Output is DC but not steady.

7. Explain the construction and working of Full-wave Rectifier with

waveform.

A full wave rectifier is one in which rectification is done for the complete (both) cycle of input Ac.
Working:
(i) During positive half cycle of input AC , A is +ve and B is –ve hence diode D1 is forward
biased and D2 is reverse biased, D1 only conducts current. Current flows through the
load resistance in the direction D1 RL T there will be output voltage across the load
résistance.
(ii) During negative half cycle of input AC, A is –ve and B is +ve hence diode D2 is forward
biased and D1 is reverse biased. Diode D2 only conducts current. A current flows
through the load resistance in the direction D2 RL T. There will be voltage across the load
resistance.
In both the cases current flows in the same direction through the load resistance.
Therefore output is DC and steady. This process is called as “full wave rectification”.

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