TTE 4201

Lecture 2-1: Characteristics of the Driver,

the Pedestrian, the Vehicle, and the Road
Daniel Frolich
Instructor
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Florida International University
Tel: 725-222-8643
Email: [email protected]
 Learning Objective
⚫ Understand the human response process
⚫ Become familiar with the characteristics of the driver, the
vehicle and the highway.
⚫ Understand how the driver and vehicle characteristic
influence the geometric design of the highway.

TTE 4201 Slide 2

Outline

⚫ Characteristics of the Driver

⚫ Characteristics of the Vehicle
⚫Characteristics of the Pedestrians

TTE 4201 Slide 3

Four Main Components
The four main components of the highway
mode of transportation are the driver, the
pedestrian, the vehicle, and the road. To
provide efficient and safe highway
transportation, a knowledge of the
characteristics and the limitations of each of
these components is essential.

TTE 4201 Slide 4

Characteristics of Driver
◼ Drivers’ skills and perceptual abilities vary
with person, physical condition
◼ Perception-Reaction Process
 Four sub-processes:
 Perception (mostly visual)
 Identification (understand the stimulus)
 Emotion (decide what action to take in response)
 Reaction (executing the action)

TTE 4201 Slide 5

How many of you have left these markings
on the pavement?
Characteristics of Driver
◼ Perception-Reaction Process (cont’d)
 Total time for the process is called perception-
reaction (P-R) time
 P-R time varies from 0.5 to 7.0 sec
 AASHTO recommendation:
P-R time = 2.5 sec
** this covers 90% of drivers under most highway
conditions
 Very important when determining stopping sight
distance
 https://www.justpark.com/creative/reaction-time-
test/

TTE 4201 Slide 7

 Characteristics of Driver
◼ Example

65 mi/h perception-reaction time=2.5 sec

Distance?
◼ Solution
Convert mi/h to ft /sec: 65 mi/h=65*1.47=95.55 ft/sec Find the
distance traveled:

D=v * t= 95.55*2.5=238.9 ft

TTE 4201 Slide 8

Characteristics of Vehicle
◼ Physical dimensions
 Length – parking space length
 Width – lane width
 Height – vertical clearance

◼ Weight – structural design of surface,

pavement depth, guideway, and bridge
◼ Acceleration/deceleration characteristics –
maximum grade

TTE 4201 Slide 9

Characteristics of Vehicle
◼ Kinematic Characteristics
𝑑𝑥
𝑥ሶ =
𝑢𝑚 = 𝑥𝑖ሶ Ƹ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑎𝑚 = 𝑥ሷ 𝑖Ƹ 𝑥ሷ = 2
𝑑𝑡

𝑢𝑚 = velocity of the vehicle at point m

𝑎𝑚 = acceleration of the vehicle at point m

TTE 4201 Slide 10

 Characteristics of Vehicle
◼ Acceleration Assumed Constant

The constants C1 and C2 are determined either by the

initial conditions on velocity and position or by using
known positions of the vehicle at two different times.
TTE 4201 Slide 11
 Characteristics of Vehicle
◼ Constant acceleration is not a reasonable
assumption!
◼ Acceleration as a Function of Velocity:
𝑑𝑢𝑡 (3.9)
= 𝛼 − 𝛽𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Alpha and Beta are constants

Integrating the equation:

1
− ln 𝛼 − 𝛽𝑢𝑡 = 𝑡 + 𝐶
𝛽 TTE 4201 Slide 12
Characteristics of Vehicle
If the velocity is 𝑢0 at time zero,

1
− ln 𝛼 − 𝛽𝑢𝑡 = 𝑡 + 𝐶
𝛽
1
− ln 𝛼 − 𝛽𝑢0 = 𝐶
𝛽
𝐶=𝐶
𝛼 − 𝛽𝑢0
ln = −𝛽𝑡
𝛼 − 𝛽𝑢𝑡
TTE 4201 Slide 13
 Characteristics of Vehicle
◼ Acceleration as a Function of Speed

1 𝛼 − 𝛽𝑢0
ln =𝑡 (3.10)
𝛽 𝛼 − 𝛽𝑢𝑡

𝛼 − 𝛽𝑢𝑡 = 𝛼 − 𝛽𝑢0 𝑒 −𝛽𝑡

(3.11)
𝛼 −𝛽𝑡 −𝛽𝑡
𝑢𝑡 = 1−𝑒 + 𝑢0 𝑒
𝛽
TTE 4201 Slide 14
Characteristics of Vehicle
◼ Distance traveled as a function of speed
The distance x travel at any time t may be
determined by integrating Eq. ut

𝑥 (3.12)

TTE 4201 Slide 15

 Example 1
◼ Distance Traveled and Velocity Attained for
Variable Acceleration
𝑑
The acceleration of a vehicle =3.3−0.04𝑢
𝑑

where u is the vehicle speed in ft /sec. If the vehicle

is traveling at 45 mi/h, determine its velocity after 5
sec of acceleration and the distance traveled during
that time.

TTE 4201 Slide 16

 Solution
◼ Convert 45 mi/h to ft /sec:45 *1.47 =66.15 ft /sec
◼ Use Eq. 3.11 to determine velocity ut after time t.
𝛼𝛼
ut = 1 − 𝑒𝑒−𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑 + 𝑢𝑢0 𝑒𝑒−𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑
𝛽𝛽
3.3
𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 = 1 − 𝑒𝑒−0.04∗5 + 66.15 ∗ 𝑒𝑒−0.04∗5
0.04
= 69.09 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡/𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠
Convert ft /sec to mi/h. 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 = 69.09/1.47 = 47𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚/ℎ
𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼 𝑢𝑢0
determine distance 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡 − 1 − 𝑒𝑒−𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑 + 1 − 𝑒𝑒−𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑
traveled. 𝛽𝛽 𝛽𝛽2 𝛽𝛽
3.3 3.3 66.15
= *5- 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −0.04∗5 + 1 − 𝑒𝑒−0.04∗5
0.04 0.04∗0.04 0.04
= 338.93𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡

TTE 4201 Slide 17

 Example 2
◼ The acceleration of a vehicle can be
expressed as:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=3.6−0.06𝑢𝑢
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

If the vehicle speed, u, is 30 ft/sec at time T0,

determine:
(a) Time for vehicle to attain the speed of 45 ft/sec.
(b) Distance traveled when the vehicle has accelerated
to 45 ft/sec.
(c) Acceleration after 4 seconds.
𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼 𝑢𝑢0
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡 − 2 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑
+ 1 − 𝑒𝑒−𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑 𝛽𝛽𝑡
𝑡 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝛼𝛼− 𝛽𝛽𝑢𝑢0
𝛽𝛽 𝛽𝛽 𝛽𝛽
𝛼𝛼− 𝛽𝛽𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑
TTE 4201 Slide 18
 Solution
◼ (a) Distance traveled when the vehicle has
accelerated to 45 ft/sec. (b) Time for vehicle to
attain the speed of 45 ft/sec.
First, determine the time it took for the vehicle to accelerate to 45
ft/sec. 1 𝛼𝛼− 𝛽𝛽𝑢𝑢0
𝑡𝑡 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝛽𝛽 𝛼𝛼− 𝛽𝛽𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑
1
= 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 3.6−0.06×30=11.55 s
0.06 3.6−0.06×45

Next, determine the distance traveled during this time.

3.6 3.6 30
𝑥𝑥 = × 11.55 − 1 − 𝑒𝑒−0.06×11.55 + 1 − 𝑒𝑒−0.06×11.55
0.06 0.062 0.06
= 443.04𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡

TTE 4201 Slide 19

 Solution
◼ (c)Determine the acceleration of the
vehicle after 4 seconds.
First, determine the velocity of the vehicle after 4 seconds.
3.6
𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 = 1 − 𝑒𝑒−0.06∗4 + 30 ∗ 𝑒𝑒−0.06∗4
0.06
= 36.4 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡/𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠
Since acceleration is:
a=3.6−0.06 ×36.4=1.42 ft/sec2

Therefore, the acceleration of the vehicle after 4 seconds is

1.42 ft/sec2

TTE 4201 Slide 20

Example 3
◼ The gap between two consecutive automobiles (distance
between the back of a vehicle and the front of the
following vehicle) is 65 ft. At a certain time the front
vehicle is traveling at 40 mi/h and the following vehicle at
30 mi/h. If both vehicles start accelerating at the same
time, determine the gap between the two vehicles after 10
sec if the acceleration of the vehicles can be assumed to
take the following forms:

du
=3.4−0.07𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑
dt

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=3.3−0.065𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼 −𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑
𝑢𝑢0
1 − 𝑒𝑒−𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡 − 2 1 − 𝑒𝑒 +
𝛽𝛽 𝛽𝛽 𝛽𝛽
where ut is the vehicle speed in ft/sec.

TTE 4201 Slide 21

 Solution
◼ First, determine the distance each vehicle travels during
the elapsed time (10 seconds). For the leading vehicle:
3.4 3.4 −0.07×10 + 40 × 1.47 1 − 𝑒𝑒−0.07×10
𝑥𝑥 = × 10 − 1 − 𝑒𝑒
0.07 0.072 0.07
= 559.27𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡
Similarly, for the following vehicle:
3.3 3.3 −0.065×10 + 30 × 1.47 1 − 𝑒𝑒−0.065×10
𝑥𝑥 = × 10 − 1 − 𝑒𝑒
0.065 0.0652 0.065
= 458.65𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡
Since the leading vehicle traveled further, the gap between
vehicles increased by the difference in the distances, 559.27 –
458.65 = 100.62 ft. The initial gap was given as 65 ft, so after 10
sec, the gap is 65 + 100.62 = 165.62ft.

TTE 4201 Slide 22

Characteristics of Vehicle

◼ Dynamic Characteristics
Several forces acting on a moving vehicle:
➢ Air resistance
➢ Grade resistance
➢ Rolling resistance
➢ Curve resistance

TTE 4201 Slide 23

Characteristics of Vehicle
◼ Forces Acting on a Moving Vehicle

TTE 4201 Slide 24

Characteristics of Vehicle
◼ Forces Acting on a Vehicle Braking on a
Note that the distance referred to as the
Downgrade braking distance is the horizontal distance
and not the inclined distance x.
𝐷 = 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾

The force acting on the vehicle due to

deceleration is Wa/g, where g is acceleration
due to gravity.

TTE 4201 Slide 25

 Characteristics of Vehicle
◼ Forces Acting on a Vehicle Braking on a
Downgrade Frictional force on the vehicle = 𝑊𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾

𝐷 = 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾

The force acting on vehicle due to deceleration = 𝑊𝑎/𝑔

𝑊𝑊sin 𝛾𝛾− 𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓cos 𝛾𝛾=𝑊𝑊𝑎𝑎/𝑔𝑔

𝑎𝑎= −𝑢𝑢2/2𝑥𝑥

TTE 4201 Slide 26

Characteristics of Vehicle
◼ Braking Distance
A general equation for the braking distance

AASHTO represents the friction coefficient as a/g

The horizontal distance traveled in reducing the speed of a vehicle from u1

to u2 in mi/h during a braking maneuver

TTE 4201 Slide 27

Characteristics of Vehicle
◼ Braking Distance
Stopping Sight Distance

t -- The perception-reaction time (seconds)

u -- The velocity in mi/h
a -- Deceleration rate = 11.2 ft/sec2
g – Acceleration due to gravity = 32.2 ft /sec2

TTE 4201 Slide 28

Example 4

The design speed of a multilane highway is 60

mi/h. Determine (a) the minimum stopping sight
distance that should be provided for a level
roadway, and (b)
the minimum stopping sight distance that should be
provided for a roadway with a maximum grade of 7
percent.

Note: the term a/g in the appropriate equation is

typically rounded to 0.35 for calculation
purposes. Assume perception reaction time =
2.5 sec.
TTE 4201 Slide 29
 Solution

(a) the minimum stopping sight distance that should

be provided for a level roadway.

Since the roadway is level, G = 0.

602
S=1.47× 60 ×2.5+
30(0.35)
=563.36

TTE 4201 Slide 30

 Solution

(b) Determine the minimum sight distance that should

be provided for a roadway with a maximum grade of 7
percent.

Since this roadway has a maximum grade of 7 percent, G = –

0.07. The downgrade (negative) case provides the most
conservative (higher) value for design.
S = 1.47(60)(2.5) + (60)2 / 30(0.35 – 0.07)
S = 220.50 + 428.57
S = 649.07 feet
Therefore, the minimum sight distance for this roadway should
be 650 feet.

TTE 4201 Slide 31

 Characteristics of Vehicle
◼ Minimum Radius of a Circular Curve

Inward radial force

the side friction between the
tires and the roadway

superelevation When the vehicle is in equilibrium with

respect to the incline -- the vehicle moves
forward but neither up nor down the incline

TTE 4201 Slide 32

 Characteristics of Vehicle
◼ Minimum Radius of a Circular Curve

◼ If g=32.2 ft/sec2, and u is mi/h

For highways located in rural areas with

R = Minimum radius, ft no snow or ice, a maximum
e = Superelevation = tan α superelevation rate is 0.1. For
f = Coefficient of side friction expressways in urban areas, a
u = Speed, mi/h maximum superelevation rate is 0.08.
α= Angle of incline

TTE 4201 Slide 33

Characteri
stics of
Coefficient of Side Friction
Vehicle

TTE 4201 Slide 34

 Example 5
A horizontal curve is to be designed for a section of a
highway having a design speed of 50 mi/h.
a. If the physical conditions restrict the radius of the curve
to 400 ft, what value is required for the superelevation at
this curve?
b. Is this a good design?

For highways located in rural areas with no snow or ice, a maximum superelevation
rate is 0.1. For expressways in urban areas, a maximum superelevation rate is 0.08.

TTE 4201 Slide 35

Solution 1

Is this a good design?

The superelevation for this curve would be 0.28. Since e =
0.28 > 0.10 (allowable maximum superelevation, this
would NOT be a good design.

TTE 4201 Slide 36

 Example 6
The radius of a horizontal curve on an existing highway was
field-measured to be 810 ft. The pavement on this two-lane
highway is 22 ft wide, and the elevation difference between
the inside and outside of the curve is 1.43 ft. The posted
speed limit on the road is 60 mi/h. Is this a hazardous
location? If so, why? What action will you recommend to
correct the situation?

Speed limit
60

Assumed design speed of this section

of roadway is 10 mi/h above the posted
speed limit.

TTE 4201 Slide 37

 Solution
Assume that the design speed of this section of roadway is
70 mi/h (10 mi/h above the posted speed limit).
Next, determine the coefficient of side friction f𝑠𝑠 = 0.1
Next, determine the rate of superelevation 1.43
𝑒𝑒 = = 0.065
22
Next, determine the maximum permissible speed on this existing curve
𝑢𝑢= 15𝑅𝑅(𝑒𝑒 + 𝑓𝑠𝑠) =44.77 mi/h
This curve is hazardous since the speed limit is posted at 60 mi/h yet the
maximum safe speed in the curve is approximately 45 mi/h.
• One low cost measure to increase the safety of this curve would be to reduce
the speed limit to 45 mi/h, or to post a curve warning sign with an advisory
(maximum safe) speed of 45 mi/h.
• A long-term solution to improve safety would be to increase the radius of
curvature to permit safe operation at the speed limit. This can be accomplished
by using the above equation 𝑑𝑑2
𝑅𝑅= =1455ft
15 (𝑒𝑒+𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠)
TTE 4201 Slide 38
Example 7

A student trying to test the braking ability of her car

determined that she needed 18.5 ft more to stop
her car when driving downhill on a road segment of
5% grade than when driving downhill at the same
speed along another segment of 3% grade.
Determine the speed at which the student
conducted her test and the braking distance on the
5% grade if the student is traveling at the test
speed in the uphill direction.

TTE 4201 Slide 39

Solution
• Let x = downhill braking distance on 5% grade.
• (x - 18.5) ft = downhill braking distance on 3% grade.

TTE 4201 Slide 40

Characteristics of Vehicle
◼ Solution

TTE 4201 Slide 41

 Example 8
An existing horizontal curve on a highway has a radius of 465 ft,
which restricts the posted speed limit on this section of the road
to only 61.5% of the design speed of the highway. If the curve is
to be improved so that its posted speed will be the design
speed of the highway, determine the minimum radius of the new
curve. Assume that the rate of superelevation is 0.08 for both
the existing curve and the new curve to be designed.
Ideas:
𝑢𝑢2 ▪ Assumed fs value to obtain the speed
𝑅𝑅=
15 (𝑒𝑒 + 𝑓𝑠𝑠) ▪ New design speed
▪ Decide the radius for new speed.

TTE 4201 Slide 42

Characteristics of Vehicle
◼ Solution

TTE 4201 Slide 43

Characteristics of Vehicle
◼ Solution

TTE 4201 Slide 44

Example 9
◼ A driver on a level two-lane highway observes
a truck completely blocking the highway. The
driver was able to stop her vehicle only 30 ft
from the truck. If the driver was driving at 55
mi/h, how far was she from the truck when
she first observed it (assume perception-
reaction time is 1.5 seconds)? How far was
she from the truck at the moment the brakes
were applied (use a/g = 0.35)?
𝑑𝑑12−𝑑𝑑22
SSD=1.47ut+ 𝑎𝑎 Stopping Sight Distance Braking Distance
30×( ±𝐺𝐺)
𝑔𝑔

TTE 4201 Slide 45

 Solution
◼ Determine the stopping sight distance.

552
SSD=1.47× 55 ×1.5+ = 409.37 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡
30×0.35
Therefore, the distance from the point at which the driver
observed the stopped truck to the truck is 409.37+30=439.37 ft
Next, to determine braking distance
552
𝐷𝐷𝑏𝑏 = = 288.09𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡
30 × (0.35)
Therefore, the distance from the point at which the driver
applied the brakes to the truck is 30 + 288.09 = 318.09 ft.

TTE 4201 Slide 46

 Example 10
◼ An elevated expressway goes through an urban area, and crosses a
local street as shown in Figure. The partial cloverleaf exit ramp is on a
6% downgrade and all vehicles leaving the expressway must stop at
the intersection with the local street.
Determine (a) minimum ramp radius and (b) 𝑑𝑑12−𝑑𝑑22
length of the ramp for the following conditions:
SSD=1.47ut+ 𝑎𝑎
30×( ±𝐺𝐺)
𝑔𝑔
• Maximum speed on expressway = 60 mi/h
• Distance between exit sign and exit ramp =
260 ft
• Letter height of road sign = 5”
• Perception-reaction time = 2.5 sec
• Maximum superelevation = 0.08
• Expressway grade = -6%
Assume that a driver can read a road sign
within his or her area of vision at a distance of
50 ft for each inch of letter height, and the driver
sees the stop sign immediately on entering the
ramp.

TTE 4201 Slide 47

 Solution
First, determine the readability of the roadway sign.
Readability = (Letter height in inches) × 50 feet / inch of height
Readability = 3 inches × 50 feet / inch
Readability = 150 feet
Next, determine the speed of the vehicle just prior to it entering the exit
ramp (uexit). a/g is taken as 0.35.
𝑑𝑑12−𝑑𝑑22
SSD=1.47ut+ 𝑎𝑎 −readability distance
30×( ±𝐺𝐺)
𝑔𝑔
602 −𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒2𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
260=1.47∗ 60 ∗ 2.5+ − 150
30×(0.35)

𝑢𝑢𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑑=40.13mi/h

TTE 4201 Slide 48

Solution
Next, determine the minimum radius for this exit ramp. For the exit
speed of 40 mi/h, the new coefficient of side friction should be fs =
0.16. 2 2
𝑑𝑑 40.13
𝑅𝑅= = = 447.37
15 (𝑒𝑒+𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠) 15 (0.08+0.16)

Next, determine the length required for this exit ramp

40.132
S=1.47× 40.13 ×2.5+
30(0.35−0.02)
=310.15 ft

Therefore, the minimum radius for this exit ramp is approximately

450 feet and the minimum length of the exit ramp was found to
be approximately 310 feet.

TTE 4201 Slide 49

Characteristics of Pedestrian
◼ Characteristics similar to driver
◼ Design of pedestrian facilities

TTE 4201 Slide 50

 Characteristics of Pedestrian

◼ Walking Speed varies between 3 to 8 ft/sec

◼ Design value is 4 ft/sec

Used to calculate safe

pedestrians crossing time

TTE 4201 Slide 51

 Pedestrian Age Groups

• Infants and toddlers (ages 0 to 4).

• Young children (ages 5 to 12).
• Preteens (ages 13 to 14).
• High school aged (ages 15 to 18).
• Adults (ages 19 to 40).
• Middle-aged adults (ages 41 to 65).
• Senior adults (age 65+).

2-52
Infants and Toddlers

• Just learning to walk.

• Developing peripheral
vision and depth
perception.
• Acting impulsively and
unpredictably.

Source: PBIC, www.pedbikeimages.org

2-53
Young Children

• Are impulsive and unpredictable.

• Have limited peripheral vision.
• Lack experience/training.
• Are short and hard for drivers to
see.
• Are susceptible to darting or
dashing into intersections.
Source: PBIC, www.pedbikeimages.org

2-54
 Preteens

• Lack experience.
• Walk and bicycle more.
• Ride more frequently
under risky conditions.
• Get involved in more
intersection dash
collisions. Source: PBIC, www.pedbikeimages.org

• Have a sense of
invulnerability.
 High School Aged

• Are very active.

• Feel invincible.
• Are capable of traveling at higher
speeds.
• Attempt to use bicycles, skates,
etc., based on practices carried
over from youth.

Source: PBIC, www.pedbikeimages.org

2-56
Adults

• Are usually active and fully

aware of the traffic
environment.
• Tend to be very vocal and interested
in improving conditions.
• Are interested in serving as
instructors or task force leaders.

Source: PBIC, www.pedbikeimages.org

2-57
Middle-Aged Adults

• Are still active.

• May experience
a slowing of
reflexes, range
of motion, and
observational
skills.

Source: PBIC, www.pedbikeimages.org

2-58
 Senior Adults

• Experience a reduction in
vision, agility, balance, speed,
concentration, and strength.
• Have difficulty hearing vehicles
approaching from behind.
• Have reduced abilities under
low light/night conditions.

Source: PBIC, www.pedbikeimages.org

2-59
Pedestrians with Different
Needs
• Children.
• Seniors.
• Mobility-impaired.

Source: PBIC, www.pedbikeimages.org

2-60
 Walking Speeds
Pedestrian Type Mean Walking Speed, ft/s
Average adult 4.00
Wheelchair user 3.55
Pedestrian with immobilized knee 3.50
Older/senior adult 2.80
Cane or crutch user 2.62
Below-knee amputee 2.46
Pedestrian with knee arthritis 2.46
Pedestrian with hip arthritis 2.24 to 3.66
Pedestrian with walker 2.07
Above-knee amputee 1.97
4.0 feet per second (ft/s) = 1.2 meters per second (m/s)

2-61
Spatial Needs

1 inch = 2.54 centimeter Source: Pedestrian Facilities Guidebook

2-62
Spatial Needs

1.5 m (60 in)

Source: ADAAG, http://www.access-board.gov/adaag/html/adaag.htm

2-63
Accessible Design Issues

• Sidewalks.
• Ramps.
• Street furniture.
• Pushbuttons.
• Curb cuts/wheelchair ramps.

2-64
Sidewalks

Source: PBIC, www.pedbikeimages.org

2-65
Pedestrian Crossings
Ramp
s

Source: PBIC, www.pedbikeimages.org

2-67
Street Furniture

Source: PBIC, www.pedbikeimages.org

2-68
Pushbuttons

Source: PBIC, www.pedbikeimages.org

2-69
Curb Cuts/Wheelchair Ramps

Source: PBIC, www.pedbikeimages.org

2-71
Curb Ramp Slopes

600 mm (24 in)

Detectable
Warning

2-72
Slope and Counter Slope

Buffer
Area

Provide 600 mm (24 in)

level strip if algebraic
difference exceeds 11%
Buffer
Area

Change angle must be flush

without a lip, raised joint, or gap

2-73
NACTO as a Resource
Lesson Summary

• Pedestrians can have many different needs

and abilities.
• Accessible design will allow ALL pedestrians
to more easily and safely navigate the
system.

2-75
Bicyclists’ Wide Range of Capabilities

Bike handling & agility

Familiarity with laws, location, infrastructure,
and behavior of other road users
Decision making ability
Physical attributes
Speed & distance
Confidence & comfort
With bicycling itself
With other auto traffic & other users

76
Who Bikes?

pedbikeimages.org – Dan Burden

77
 Whom Do We Want to Bike?
Children Seniors Women

• Less visible to motorists • Slower reaction time • Personal security

• Slower speed • Slower speed concerns
• Less well-developed • Reduced visual acuity • [assumed] More likely
decision making • Comfort & risk to prioritize comfort &
• Unfamiliarity with risk avoidance
• Greater risk of harm
motorists’ experience from crashes, falls, • Additional travel
• Greater harm from pollution demands
crashes, pollution

78
 Whom Do We Want to Bike?

People of Color Low-Income People with Disabilities

• Personal security • Poorer quality • May have slower speeds

concerns infrastructure & reaction times
• Poorer quality • Disproportionate • Less visible to motorists
infrastructure exposure to auto traffic • Wider footprint
• Disproportionate harm • Disproportionate harm • Greater risk of harm
from auto traffic (crashes, pollution) due
(crashes, pollution) to exposure and inferior
health care access

79
 Whom Do We Want to Bike?

Bikeshare Customers Delivery/Livery Cyclists Confident Cyclists

• More likely tourists • (not messengers) • Can be any of the

and/or casual riders • Slower speeds, bigger above, but small % of
• Likely lower comfort & footprints cyclists
skill levels • Less nimble • More comfortable with
cars than peds
• Fast & agile
• Sensitive to faulty
detection equipment
• Vulnerable to on-street
hazards

80
 81

Graphic by Toole Design Group

Walking Trips

82

League of American Bicyclists using 2017 National Household Travel Survey

data
 What about walking and biking in
small town or rural areas?

Walking and bicycling is

common, but facilities are
often lacking
Destinations in the
community core are often
83
walkable distances apart
Opportunities for bicycle
tourism in and around
public lands pedbikeimages.org – Reuben E. Moore
 Walking and Biking in Small Towns
or Rural Areas -- Challenges

Auto-oriented
Highway as “main street”
Pedestrian crossings often not defined
Lack of ped/bike facilities
Constrained terrain
Physical constraints for cost-effective ped/bike facilities
84
Other
Public lands access
Agricultural uses
Winter maintenance on active transportation facilities
Bicycle Trips

85

League of American Bicyclists using 2017 National Household Travel Survey

data
 Bicycling Trips

Recreational Utilitarian
Start and end points are Frequent starts and stops
often the same Greater need for secure
Directness of route less bicycle parking
important Desire for flat topography
Wide range of trip and “normal” clothing
distances
Groups or individual

86
Bicycle as Design Vehicle

87

VTRANS
Pedbikeimages.org – Dan Burden

88
 E-bike Users

Why do people choose electric-assist bicycles?

Reduce physical exertion
Conquer challenging topography
Replace car trips
Carry more cargo or kids
In the U.S., limited research has shown that e-bike
users do not differ from conventional bicycle riders in
terms of safety behaviors 89
Summary

Pedestrians and cyclists have a wide range of

capabilities that should be considered in the
planning and design of facilities
Trip purpose affects route choice and behavior
People may experience each trip through the
surrounding environment differently
90
THANK YOU!
Daniel Frolich: [email protected]
 TTE 4201
Lecture 2-2: Geometric Design of Highway
Facilities -- General Concept
Daniel Frolich
Instructor
Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering Florida International University
Tel: 725-222-8643
Email: [email protected]
General Concept

⚫ Highway Classification
⚫ Factors Influencing Highway Design
⚫ Highway Design Standards

TTE 4201
Slide 93
Objectives

◼ Maximize
 Comfort
 Safety
 Economy

◼ Minimize
 Environmental impacts

… Design a safe and efficient system that addresses

community and environmental needs

TTE 4201
Slide 94
 Highway Classification
◼ Location
 Rural ◼ Designation
 Urban  Interstate

◼ Functional class  Federal

 State
 Arterial (Principal
and Minor  County
 Collector (Major  Local
and Minor)
 Local

Freeways are not listed as a separate functional class

TTE 4201
Slide 95
 Functional Class - example
Minor Arterial

Prin. Arterial

Collector
TTE 4201
Slide 96
Functional Class - example

TTE 4201
Slide 97
 Some Characteristics

Accessibility
◼ Major Arterial

Lane-miles
◼ Minor Arterial

Mobility
Veh-miles
◼ Collectors
◼ Local roads
Think of it like this: as you move from
local roads upwards in functional
classification towards major arterials,
what happens to each of these 4
measures?
Answer: vehicle miles and mobility go
up. Lane miles and accessibility go
down.

TTE 4201
Slide 98
Mobility vs. Accessibility

Mobility Arterial

Collectors

Land
Access Locals

TTE 4201
Slide 99
Factors Influencing Highway Design
• Functional classification
• Design hourly traffic volume and vehicle mix
• Design speed
• Design vehicle
• Cross section of the highway, such as lanes, shoulders, and
medians
• Presence of heavy vehicles on steep grades
• Topography of the area that the highway traverses
• Level of service
• Available funds
• Safety
• Social and environmental factors
TTE 4201
Slide 100
Highway Design Standards
◼ Design Hourly Volume (DHV)
 Expected number of vehicles in one hour in both
directions
◼ Directional Design Hourly Volume (DDHV)
 Expected number of vehicles in one hour in one
direction
◼ Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
 Number of vehicles in 24 hours in both directions

◼ Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)

 Number of vehicles in 24 hours in both directions
TTE 4201
Slide 101
Highway Design Standards
◼ Design Speed
 Choice speed to design for while balancing
safety, mobility, community issues, and
environmental concerns

◼ Operating Speed
 Average speed people drive with
comfort
◼ Speed limit
 Maximum legal speed

TTE 4201
Slide 102
Highway Design Standards

TTE 4201
Slide 103
Highway Design Standards
◼ Design Vehicle
 Group of vehicles selected for establishing
design control on highways with typical
physical and operational characteristics
 General classes:
Passenger car

Bus

Truck

Recreational vehicle

TTE 4201
Slide 104
 Design Vehicles

Which one?
Largest with reasonable frequency?
https://nacto.org/publication/urban-street-design- TTE 4201
guide/design-controls/design-vehicle/ Slide 105
Cross-Section Elements
◆ The principal elements :
The travel lanes
Shoulders
Medians (for some multilane highways).
◆ Marginal elements :
Median
Roadside barriers
Curbs
Gutters
Guard rails
Sidewalks
Side slopes.

TTE 4201
Slide 106
Cross-Section Elements

TTE 4201
Slide 107
Roadway Cross Section

Roadway Median Roadway

Shoulder Traveled way Traveled way Shoulder

Clear Zone Clear Zone

Right of Way

TTE 4201
Slide 108
Travel Lanes
◼ Purpose
◼ Width
 10-12 feet
 Arterials and freeway 12 feet

◼ Cross slope

Always?
TTE 4201
Slide 109
Shoulders
◼ Purpose
 Refuge area
 Recovery area
 Pavement support

◼ Width
 2-12 feet

◼ Slope
 2-4%

TTE 4201
Slide 110
 Median
◼ Purpose
 Divide traffic
 Recovery area
 Storage area
 Refuge area
 Aesthetics

◼ Width
 Varied

◼ Types
 Raised
 Flush
 Depressed

TTE 4201
Slide 111
Roadside and median barriers

TTE 4201
Slide 112
Curbs and Gutters

TTE 4201
Slide 113
Guard Rails and Sidewalks

TTE 4201
Slide 114
Cross Slope

TTE 4201
Slide 115
Right-Of-Way

◼ Total land required for the construction of the

highway
◼ Needs to be wide enough to accommodate all the
elements of highway cross section and planned
widening of the highway, and all public utility
facilities to be installed along the highway
◼ Example:
 2-lane urban collector streets: 40-60ft

 2-lane urban arterials: 84ft

TTE 4201
Slide 116
Driver and Vehicle Characteristics lab

Now that we learned the theory behind stopping

sight distance we’re going to do a couple of lab
exercises to validate what we’ve learned:

1. SSD test
2. Walk speed test
3. Vehicle characteristics test
 Stopping Sight Distance
To measure stopping sight distance we will be using real
vehicles.
The vehicle will be accelerated to 5, 10, or 15mph and
then when the copilot says so the driver will be told to
stop. The copilot will drop a beanbag at the same time as
they tell the driver to stop. We will then measure the
distance from beanbag to the spot where it was dropped
from to find the SSD.
 Stopping Sight Distance test
Procedure:
1. ALWAYS WEAR YOUR SEATBELT!!!!!!
2. No seriously wear your seatbelt
3. Double Check to make sure the test area is
clear and there are no vehicles coming
4. Make sure to announce the test is about to
happen so observing students are out of the
way
5. Driver will in a controlled manner get up to the
test speed
6. Copilot will announce to the driver to stop and
will drop the beanbag at the same time
7. Repeat 2 times for each test speed: 5mph,
10mph, 15mph
 Walk speed test
The distance from
one sidewalk to the
other in the EC
parking lot is around
205 ft

Walk speed =
distance / time

Walk back and forth

twice and average
the 4 crossing times
Vehicle characteristics test

We’re going to measure the turning radius and

width of a set of vehicles to see what the controls
for these would be if they were design vehicles

Width is self explanatory

For turning radius:

1. Find space large enough to do a 180 degree turn
of the vehicle
2. Record position of right side of tire
3. Drive 180 degrees and measure the position of
the right side of the tire
4. ½ the distance is the turning radius
 TTE 4201
Lecture 2-3: Geometric Design of Highway
Facilities -- Vertical Alignment
Daniel Frolich
Adjunct Faculty
Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering Florida International University
Tel: 725-222-8643
Email: [email protected]
Highway Geometric Design
A complex task

TTE 4201 Slide 123

 The Challenge of Roadway Alignment
◼ Geometric design: an act of design in which highway designers try to
fit the highway to the terrain while maintaining design standards for
safety and performance.

[Alignment design steps: Initially a preliminary idea of the road orientation is

laid out. This is followed by geometric design that will:
Adhere to design standards pertaining to hills and curves
Provide a context in which to analyze and evaluate the construction and
marking of a proposed highway section
Determine the extent to which design standards will permit realignments to
route a proposed roadway around specific locations of special value or to
handle environmental situations such as wetland protection
Produce “blueprints” for construction.
“The Green Book” = A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets
by AASHTO

TTE 4201 Slide 124

 Challenge of geometric design

The horizontal curve is circular.

The vertical curve is parabolic.

The challenge of geometric design is “fitting ‘conventional curves’ onto irregular terrain with
specified benchmarks while maintaining smooth transitions between roadway segments.

TTE 4201 Slide 125

 Different Goals

Horizontal curves want to maximize the Vertical Curves want to minimize the
longest radius of the curve to have the rate of change of the slope, and
minimum centripetal force and maximize sight distance
acceleration
Outline
1. Concepts
2. Vertical Alignment
a. Fundamentals
b. Crest Vertical Curves
c. Sag Vertical Curves
d. Examples

TTE 4201 Slide 127

 Concepts

◼ Alignment is a 3D problem broken down

into two 2D problems
 Horizontal Alignment (plan view)

 Vertical Alignment (profile view)

◼ Stationing
 Along horizontal alignment
 12+00 = 1,200 ft.

Piilani Highway on Maui

TTE 4201 Slide 128

Stationing

Horizontal Alignment

Vertical Alignment

TTE 4201 Slide 129

 TTE 4201
Sl ide 8
From Perteet Engine e ring
 Vertical Alignment
◼ Objective:
 Determine elevation to ensure
 Proper drainage
 Acceptable level of safety

◼ Primary challenge
 Transition between two grades
 Vertical curves
G1 G2 Sag Vertical Curve

Crest Vertical Curve G1 G2

TTE 4201 Slide 131

Vertical Curve Fundamentals
◼ Parabolic function
 Constant rate of change of slope
 Implies tangents of equal length

y = ax2 + bx + c

◼ y is the roadway elevation x stations

(or feet) from the beginning of the curve

TTE 4201 Slide 132

 Vertical Curve Fundamentals
PVC: initial point of the curve
PVI: intersection of initial and final grades
G1 δ
PVC G2 PVT: the final point
of the vertical
L/2 curve

L: length of the curve in stations or ft

x
Choose Either:
• G1, G2 in decimal form, L in feet
y = ax + bx + c
2 • G1, G2 in percent, L in stations

x: distance from the beginning of the vertical curve in stations or ft

Y: roadway elevation at distance x
TTE 4201 Slide 133
Relationships
Choose Either:
• G1, G2 in decimal form, L in feet
• G1, G2 in percent, L in stations
At the PVC : x = 0 and Y = c

dY
At the PVC : x = 0 and = b = G1
dx

d 2Y G2 − G1 G2 − G1
Anywhere: 2
= 2a = a=
dx PVI
L 2L
G1 δ
PVC G2
PVT
L/2

TTE 4201 Slide 134

 Example 1 -Sag vertical curve
A 600 ft. equal tangent sag vertical curve has a PVC
station of 170+00 at 1000 ft. elevation. The initial grade is -
3.5 percent and the final grade is +0.5 percent. Determine
the elevation and stationing of PVI, PVT, and the lowest
point of the curve.

PVC: STA 170+00

EL 1000 ft.
PVT

PVI

TTE 4201 Slide 135

 Example 1 -Sag vertical curve
Solution:
Since the curve is equal tangent, the PVI will be 300 ft or three stations
from the PVC, and PVT will be 600 ft, 6 stations from the PVC.
Therefore, the stationing of PVI is 173+00
PVT=176+00
-3.5% can be writen as -3.5 ft/station (a 3.5 ft drop per 100 ft of horizontal
distance).
The elevation of PVI is 1000-3.5 ft/station*3 stations =989.5 ft
PVT=989.5+0.5 ft/station*3stations=991.0ft
When the first derivative of the parabolic function is zero, the lowest point
on the vertical curve will occur.
dy/dx=2ax+b=0
b=G1=-3.5
a=(0.5-(-3.5))/2*6=0.33333
dy/dx=0 then x=5.25 stations. The lowest point stationing is 175+25.
y=0.3333(5.25)^2+(-3.5)*5.25+1000=990.81 ft this is the elevation of the
lowest point
TTE 4201 Slide 136
 Example 2 - crest vertical curve
A 400 ft. equal tangent crest vertical curve has a PVC station
of 100+00 at 59 ft. elevation. The initial grade is 2.0 percent
and the final grade is -4.5 percent. Determine the elevation and
stationing of PVI, PVT, and the high point of the curve.
PVI

PVT

PVC: STA 100+00

EL 59 ft.

TTE 4201 Slide 137

Elevation of the PVT is 63’ – 0.045(200) = 54 ft.

High point elevation requires figuring out the equation for a vertical curve
• At x = 0, y = c => c=59 ft.
• At x = 0, dY/dx = b = G1 = +2.0%
• a = (G2 – G1)/2L = (-4.5 – 2)/(2(4)) = - 0.8125

• y = -0.8125x2 + 2x + 59 PVI
• High point is where dy/dx = 0
PVT
• dy/dx = -1.625x + 2 = 0
PVC: STA 100+00
• x = 1.23 stations
EL 59 ft.
Find elevation at x = 1.23 stations
• y = -0.8125(1.23)2 + 2(1.23) + 59
• y = 60.23 ft

TTE 4201 Slide 138

 Example 3
An equal-tangent vertical curve is to be constructed
between grades of -2.0% (initial) and +1.0% (final). The
PVI is at station 110+00 and at elevation 420 ft. Due to a
street crossing the roadway, the elevation of the roadway
at station 112+00 must be at 424.5 ft. Design the curve.

Hint: find out the elevation and station of PVC and PVT.

TTE 4201 Slide 139

 Example 3
𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝐿𝐿𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒 y = ax2 + bx + c
𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,
𝑏𝑏 = 𝐺𝐺1 = −2.0
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺2 − 𝐺𝐺1 1.0 − (−2.0) 1.5
𝑎𝑎= = =
2𝐿𝐿 2𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
𝐿𝐿
𝑐𝑐 = 420 + 2 = 420 + 𝐿𝐿
1.5 𝐿𝐿 2 𝐿𝐿
424.5 = 2
( + 2) −2.0 + 2 + 420 + 𝐿𝐿
𝐿𝐿 2 2
0 = −0.375𝐿𝐿2 + 5.5𝐿𝐿 − 6
𝐿𝐿= 1.187 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝐿𝐿= 13.466 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 = 420 + 𝐿𝐿 = 433.47𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠

TTE 4201 Slide 140

 Example 3
𝐿𝐿
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 110 + 00 − = 103 + 26.7
2
𝐿𝐿
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃+ ∗ 𝐺𝐺2
2
=420+13.46/2*1=426.73ft
𝐿𝐿
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 110 + 00 + = 116 + 73.3
2
𝑥𝑥 = 0.5𝐿𝐿 + 2 = 8.733 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠112 + 00
𝑦𝑦= 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥+ 𝑐𝑐
1.5
= 8.7332 − 2 ∗ 8.733 + 433.47
13.466
=424.5 ft

TTE 4201 Slide 141

 Other Properties

• G1, G2 in percent
G1 x • L in feet
• x in feet
PVT
PVC
A = G1 − G2 Y
A is expressed in percent instead of ft/ft Ym G2
The properties of an equal-tangent parabola

A 2 PVI Yf
Y= x
200L
Midcurve offset in ft Offset at the end
of the vertical
curve in ft
AL AL
Ym = Yf =
800 200 TTE 4201
Slide 142
 Other Properties
◼ K-Value (defines vertical curvature)
 The number of horizontal feet needed for a 1%
change in slope
𝐿
𝐾=
𝐴

high / low pt.  x = K G1

K = value that is the horizontal distance, in ft, required to affect a 1%
change in the slope of the vertical curve
L = length of curve in ft
A = absolute value of the difference in grades expressed as percentage

TTE 4201 Slide 143

 Other Properties
◼ K-Value can also be used to compute the
high and low point locations of crest and sag
vertical curves.
𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦 𝐺𝐺2 − 𝐺𝐺1
= 2𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 + 𝑏𝑏 = 0 𝑏𝑏 = 𝐺𝐺1 𝑎𝑎=
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥ℎ𝑙𝑙 = 𝐾𝐾× 𝐺𝐺1

𝑥𝑥ℎ𝑙𝑙: 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑒𝑜𝑜𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑠𝑠𝑙𝑙𝑡 𝑠𝑠𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠

TTE 4201 Slide 144

Example
◼ A curve has initial and final grades of +3%
and -4%, respectively, and is 700 ft long. The
PVC is at elevation 100 ft. Graph the vertical
curve elevations and the slope of the curve
against the length of curve. Compute the K-
value and use it to locate the high point of the
curve (distance from the PVC).

TTE 4201 Slide 145

Example
−4.0 − (−3.0)
𝑎𝑎= = −0.5
2∗7
𝑏𝑏 = 𝐺𝐺1 = 3
𝐿𝐿 700
𝐾𝐾= = = 100𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝐴𝐴 3 − (−4)

𝑥𝑥ℎ𝑙𝑙 = 𝐾𝐾× 𝐺𝐺1 =300ft

TTE 4201 Slide 146

Design Procedure for Crest and Sag Vertical Curves

◼ Step 1. Determine the minimum length of curve to satisfy sight distance

requirements and other criteria for sag curves (comfort, appearance,
drainage).
◼ Step 2. Determine from the layout plans the station and elevation of the
point where the grades intersect (PVI).
◼ Step 3. Compute the elevations of the beginning of vertical curve,
(PVC) and the end of vertical curve (PVT).
◼ Step 4. Compute the offsets, Y, as the distance between the tangent
and the curve. Usually equal distances of 100 ft (1 station) are used,
beginning with the first whole station after the PVC.
◼ Step 5. Compute elevations on the curve for each station as: elevation
of the tangent offset from the tangent, Y. For crest curves the offset is (-
) and for sag curves the offset is (+).
◼ Step 6. Compute the location and elevation of the highest (crest) or
lowest (sag) point on the curve using Eqs from slide 21-22.

TTE 4201 Slide 147

Stopping Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curves

SSD

PVI
Line of Sight

PVC PVT G2
G1

h2
h1 L

The length of curve is the critical element in providing

sufficient SSD on a vertical curve.
Longer curve length provide more SSD, but costly;
Shorter curve length are less expensive but may not
provide adequate SSD.
TTE 4201 Slide 148
 Crest Vertical Curves
L: the length of the curve
SSD

PVI
Line of Sight

PVC PVT G2
G1

h2
h1 L
𝑐𝑐2
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 1.47𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 +
30(0.35 ± 𝐺𝐺)
G ： G1, underestimate the SSD
G2, overestimate the SSD
TTE 4201 Slide 149
 Crest Vertical Curves
An expression for minimum curve length given a required SSD

SSD 𝑐𝑐2
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 1.47𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 +
PVI
30(0.35 − 𝐺𝐺)
Line of Sight

PVC PVT G2
G1

h2
h1 L
For SSD < L For SSD > L

L =
A(SSD ) 2

L = 2(SSD)−
200 (h+ h2 )
2

( 2h )
1
2
100 1
+ 2h2 A
Slide 150
TTE 4201
 Crest Vertical Curves
◼ Assumptions for design
 h1 = driver’s eye height = 3.5 ft.
 h2 = tail light height = 2.0 ft.
𝑐𝑐2
-G: conservative way 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 1.47𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 +
30(0.35 − 𝐺𝐺)
◼ Simplified Equations
For SSD < L For SSD > L
A(SSD)
L = 2(SSD )−
2
2158
L=
2158 A

TTE 4201 Slide 151

 Crest Vertical Curves
◼ Assuming L > SSD…
SSD2
K=
2158
K= Horizontal distance, ft, required to effect a 1% change
in the slope
If L < SSD, the relationship between A and L is not linear,
so K values cannot be used in the L=KA

TTE 4201 Slide 152

Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves

from AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2001

TTE 4201 Slide 153

Example
◼ Minimum Length of a Crest Vertical Curve
◼ A crest vertical curve is to be designed to join
a 3% grade with a -2% grade at a section of a
two-lane highway. Determine the minimum
length of the curve if the design speed of the
highway is 60 mi/h, S < L, and a perception-
reaction time of 2.5 sec. The deceleration rate
for braking (a) is 11.2 ft /sec2.

TTE 4201 Slide 154

Solution
◼ Determine the SSD required for the design
conditions. (Since the grade changes
constantly on a vertical curve, the worst-case
value for G of -2% is used to determine the
braking distance.) 2 𝑐𝑐
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 1.47𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 +
30(0.35 − 𝐺𝐺)
602
=1.47*60*2.5+ =598.1ft
30(0.35−0.02)

Obtain the minimum length of vertical curve:

2
𝐴𝐴𝑆𝑆2 5∗598.1
𝐿𝐿𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚= 2158
= 2158
=828.8 ft

TTE 4201 Slide 155

Example
◼ Maximum Safe Speed on a Crest Vertical
Curve
◼ An existing vertical curve on a highway joins
a 4.4% grade with a -4.4% grade. If the length
of the curve is 275 ft, what is the maximum
safe speed on this curve? What speed should
be posted if 5 mph increments are used?
◼ Assume a 11.2 ft /sec2, perception-reaction
time 2.5 sec, and that S<L.

TTE 4201 Slide 156

 Solution
◼ Determine the SSD using the length of the
curve
2
𝐴𝐴𝑆𝑆2 8.8∗𝑆𝑆
𝐿𝐿𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚= 2158
= 2158
=275 ft
𝑆𝑆 = 259.69 𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠
Determine the maximum safe speed for this sight distance using the
equation for SSD
𝑢𝑢2 𝑢𝑢2
259.69 = 1.47𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 + =1.47*u*2.5+
30(0.35−𝐺𝐺) 30(0.35−0.044)
which yields the quadratic equation 𝑐𝑐2+33.5u-2367.02=0
the maximum safe speed. u=34.7 mi/h
If a speed limit is to be posted to satisfy this condition, a conservative value of 30
mi/h will be used.

TTE 4201 Slide 157

 Sag Vertical Curves
𝛽𝛽: inclined angle of headlight beam in degrees.
Light Beam Distance (SSD)

G1
headlight beam (diverging from LOS by β degrees) G2

PVC PVT

PVI
h1 h2=0

L
For SSD < L For SSD > L

L= A ( SSD ) 2
200(h1 + (SSD)tan  )
L = 2(SSD)−
200(h1 + S tan  ) A
TTE 4201 Slide 158
 Sag Vertical Curves
◼ Assumptions for design
 h1 = headlight height = 2.0 ft.
 β = 1 degree

◼ Simplified Equations
For SSD < L For SSD > L
A(SSD)2  400 + 3.5(SSD) 
L= L = 2(SSD)−  
400 + 3.5(SSD)  A 

TTE 4201 Slide 159

Sag Vertical Curves
◼ Assuming L > SSD…

SSD2
K=
400 + 3.5SSD

TTE 4201 Slide 160

Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves

TTE 4201
from AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and StreetsSlid2e0309 1
 Example 1
A car is traveling at 30 mph in the country at night on a wet
road through a 150 ft. long sag vertical curve. The entering
grade is -2.4 percent and the exiting grade is 4.0 percent. A
tree has fallen across the road at approximately the PVT.
Assuming the driver cannot see the tree until it is lit by her
headlights, is it reasonable to expect the driver to be able to
stop before hitting the tree?
For SSD < L For SSD > L Required SSD
A(SSD)2  400 + 3.5(SSD) 𝑐𝑐2
L=
L = 2(SSD)−   𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 1.47𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 +
400 + 3.5(SSD)  A  30(0.35 − 𝐺𝐺)

TTE 4201
Slide 40
 Solution
Assume that S>L (it usually is not but for example we’ll do it
this way), therefore S = 146.23 ft. which is less than L
Must use S<L equation, it’s a quadratic with roots of 146.17 ft
and -64.14 ft.
The driver will see the tree when it is 146.17 feet in front of
her.
Available SSD is 146.17 ft.
Required SSD = (1.47 x 30)2/2(32.2)(0.35-0.024) + 2.5(1.47 x
30) = 196.53 ft.
Therefore, she’s not going to stop in time.
OR
L/A = K = 150/6.4 = 23.43, which is less than the required K of
37 for a 30 mph design speed
Stopping sight distance on level ground at 30 mph is
approximately 200 ft. TTE 4201
Slide 41
 Example 2
Similar to Example 1 but for a crest curve.

A car is traveling at 30 mph in the country at night on a wet

road through a 150 ft. long crest vertical curve. The
entering grade is 3.0 percent and the exiting grade is -3.4
percent. A tree has fallen across the road at approximately
the PVT. Is it reasonable to expect the driver to be able to
stop before hitting the tree?

For SSD < L For SSD > L

A(SSD)2
L = 2(SSD )−
2158
L=
2158 A
TTE 4201 Slide 164
 Example 2
Assume that S>L (it usually is), therefore SSD = 243.59 ft.
which is greater than L
The driver will see the tree when it is 243.59 feet in front of
her.
Available SSD = 243.59 ft.
Required SSD = (1.47 x 30)2/2(32.2)(0.35 -0.034) +
2.5(1.47 x 30) = 196.53 ft.
Therefore, she will be able to stop in time.
OR
L/A = K = 150/6.4 = 23.43, which is greater than the
required K of 19 for a 30 mph design speed on a crest
vertical curve
Stopping sight distance on level ground at 30 mph is
approximately 200 ft.
TTE 4201 Slide 165
 Example 3
A roadway is being designed using a 45 mph design speed.
One section of the roadway must go up and over a small
hill with an entering grade of 3.2 percent and an exiting
grade of -2.0 percent. How long must the vertical curve be?

Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves

K=L/A

TTE 4201 Slide 166

 Example 3
For 45 mph we get K=61, therefore L = KA = (61)(5.2) =
317.2 ft.

Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves

TTE 4201 Slide 167

 Example 4
A highway is being designed to AASHTO guidelines with a
70 mi/h design speed, and at one section, an equal-
tangent curve must be designed to connect grades of
+1.0% and -2.0%. Determine the minimum length of curve
necessary to meet SSD requirements.
What if we use the K-values to solve this example?
Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves
Crest curve
For SSD < L
A(SSD)2
L=
2158
For SSD > L

L = 2(SSD)−
2158
A
TTE 4201 Slide 168
 Example 4

Ignore the effect of grade G=0, SSD from Table and

70mi/h is 730 ft. If assume L>SSD, then
Lm=A*SSD^2/2158=740.82 ft > 730. Therefore
assumption L>SSD was correct.

70mi/h, the table K=247.Lm=KA=247*3=741 ft. This

difference is due to rounding. K=247 was used as
opposed to the calculated K of 246.9. The rounded
values are typically used in design for computational
convenience.
TTE 4201 Slide 169
 Example 5
An existing tunnel needs to be connected to a newly
constructed bridge with sag and crest vertical curves. The
profile view of the tunnel and bridge is shown in Fig. Develop a
vertical alignment to connect the tunnel and bridge by
determining the highest possible common design speed for the
sag and crest (equal-tangent) vertical curves needed.
Compute the stationing and elevations of PVC, PVI, and
PVT curve points.
The properties of an equal-tangent parabola
A crest vertical curves
Y = x2
200L
Station 12+00, PVTc
`𝐺𝐺2𝑐𝑐 = 0%
Bridge deck
Elevation
Tunnel floow 𝐺𝐺2𝑠𝑠 = 𝐺𝐺1𝑐𝑐
140 ft
Elevation 100 ft
𝐺𝐺1𝑠𝑠 = 0% ?
𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 = 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐
Station 0+00, PVCs
sag vertical curves TTE 4201
The common algebraic difference in the grades Slide 48
 Solution 5
𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠 + 𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 = 1200
𝐴𝐴𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐴𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐
+ = 40
200 200
𝐴𝐴
(1200) = 40 𝐴=6.667%
200

The properties of an equal-tangent parabola

A 2 crest vertical curves
Y= x
200L
Station 12+00, PVTc
`𝐺𝐺2𝑐𝑐 = 0%
Bridge deck
Elevation
Tunnel floow 𝐺2𝑠𝑠 = 𝐺1𝑐𝑐
140 ft
Elevation 100 ft
𝐺𝐺1𝑠𝑠 = 0% ?
𝐴𝑠𝑠 = 𝐴𝑐𝑐
Station 0+00, PVCs
sag vertical curves TTE 4201
The common algebraic difference in the grades Slide 49
Solution 5
𝐴𝐴𝐾𝐾𝑠+ 𝐴𝐴𝐾𝐾𝑐 = 1200
𝐾𝐾𝑠+ 𝐾𝐾𝑐 = 180 For elevation
Design speed is 50m/h 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑠 = 0
𝐾𝐾𝑠 = 96; 𝐾𝐾𝑐 = 84 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑐 = 0
𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠 = 96 ∗ 6.667 = 640; 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑐
𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 = 84 ∗ 6.667 = 560
=100+ 𝐴𝐴𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠=121.33 ft
200

Station 12+00, PVTc 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑐= 12 + 00 `𝐺𝐺2𝑐𝑐 = 0%

Bridge deck
Elevation
Tunnel floow 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑐= 9 + 20
140 ft
Elevation 100 ft 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑠= 3 + 20
𝐺𝐺1𝑠𝑠 = 0%
?𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 = 6 + 40
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃

Station 0+00, PVCs TTE 4201

Slide 172
The common algebraic difference in the grades
 Example 6
A vertical curve crosses a 4 ft diameter pipe at right angles.
The pipe is located at the station 110+85 and its centerline is
at elevation 1091.6 ft. The PVI of the vertical curve is at station
110+00 and elevation 1098.4ft. The vertical curve is equal
tangent, 600 ft long, and connects an initial grade of +1.2%
and a final grade of -1.08%. Using offsets, determine the depth,
below the surface of the curve, of the top of the pipe and
determine the station of the highest point on the curve.

A
Y = x2
200L

TTE 4201 Slide 173

Solution 6

1099.42ft

A 2
+1.2% Y= x
200L
-1.08%.

1093.6ft

1091.6ft

TTE 4201 Slide 174

Next class

Horizontal Alignment

TTE 4201 Slide 175

 TTE 4201
Lecture 3-2: Geometric Design of Highway
Facilities -- Vertical Alignment Extra
Examples
Daniel Frolich
Adjunct Faculty
Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering Florida International University
Tel: 725-222-8643
Email: [email protected]
 Example 1
A +2% grade intersects with a –1% grade at station (535+24.25) at an
elevation of 300 ft. If the design speed is 65 mi/h, determine:
(a) the minimum length of vertical curve using the rate of vertical
curvature
Then, using the length found in part (a),
(b) the stations and elevations of the PVC and PVT
(c) the elevation of each 100-ft station
(d) the station and elevation of the highpoint
L
K=
A
high / low pt.  x = K G1
A 2
Y= x
200L

TTE 4201
Slide
177
Solution

TTE 4201
Slide
178
 Example 2
◼ Determine the minimum length of a crest
vertical curve, using the minimum length
based on SSD criteria if the grades are +4%
and –2%. Design speed is 70 mi/h. State
assumptions used. Assumptions used
include: perception-reaction time is 2.5
seconds, deceleration rate is 11.2 ft/sec2,
and the case is sight distance is less than the
length of the curve.
For SSD < L For SSD > L 𝑢𝑢2
A(SSD)2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 1.47𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 +
L = 2(SSD )−
2158
L= 30(0.35 ± 𝐺𝐺)
2158 A

Chapter 7 TTE 4201

Slide 4
Solution

TTE 4201
Slide
180
 Example 3

◼ Determine the minimum length of a sag vertical

curve if the grades are –4% and +2%. Design
speed is 70 mi/h. State assumptions used.
Consider the following criteria: stopping sight
distance, comfort, and general appearance.

Piilani Highway on Maui

TTE 4201
Slide
181
Solution

TTE 4201
Slide
182
 Example 4

◼ Given a sag vertical curve connecting a –1.5%

grade with a +2.5% grade on a rural arterial
highway, use the rate of vertical curvature and
a design speed of 70 mi/h to compute the
elevation of the curve at 100 ft stations if the
grades intersect at station (475+00) at an
elevation of 300.00 ft. Identify the station and
elevation of the low point.

TTE 4201
Slide
183
Solution

TTE 4201
Slide
184
Solution

TTE 4201
Slide
185
 Example 5
A crest vertical curve connects a +4.44% grade and a –6.87% grade. The
PVI is at station 43+50.00 at an elevation of 1240.00 ft. The design
speed is 30 mi/h.
Determine:
(a) The length of the vertical curve using the AASHTO method (“K”
factors)
(b) The station of the PVC
(c) The elevation of the PVC
(d) The station of the PVT
(e) The elevation of the PVT
(f) The station of the high point
(g) The elevation of the high point
(h) The elevation of station 44+23.23 A 2
Y= x
L high / low pt.  x = K G1 200L
K= TTE 4201
A Slide 11
Solution

TTE 4201
Slide 12
THANK YOU!
[email protected]
 TTE 4201
Lecture 2-4: Geometric Design of Highway
Facilities -- Horizontal Alignment
Daniel Frolich
Adjunct Faculty
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Florida International University
Tel: 725-222-8643
Email: [email protected]
Horizontal Alignment

Objective:
Geometry of directional transition to ensure:
Safety
Comfort
Primary challenge
Transition between two directions
Horizontal curves
Fundamentals
Circular curves
Superelevation

Δ
Horizontal Alignment
 Horizontal Curve Fundamentals
Layout of a simple horizontal curve PI
T Δ
E

𝑢2 M
𝑅=
𝑔(𝑒 + 𝑓𝑠 ) L
PC Δ/2 PT

𝑅: Minimum radius (ft)

𝑢: design speed (mi/h)
𝑒: superelevation (ft/ft) R R
𝑓𝑠 : coefficient of side friction
Δ/2 Δ/2
 Horizontal Curve Fundamentals
PI
 T Δ
T = R tan E
2
 100
M
L= R = PC
L
Δ/2 PT
180 D
D = degree of curve (angle subtended by a 100 ft
arc along the horizontal curve)

R R
 180 
100 
   18,000 5729.6 Δ/2 Δ/2
D= = 𝑅=
𝐷
R  R
 Horizontal Curve Fundamentals
The external distance E: the point of intersection to
the curve on a radial line PI
T Δ
 1  E
E = R − 1
 cos  2  M B
A L
PC Δ/2 PT

The middle ordinate M:

Midpoint of the long chord and
the midpoint of the curve
R R
 
M = R1 − cos 
 2 Δ/2 Δ/2
 Example 1
PI A horizontal curve is
T Δ designed with a 1500 ft.
E radius. The tangent length is
400 ft. and the PT station is
M 20+00. What are the PI and
PC stations?
L
PC Δ/2 PT


R R T = R tan
2
Δ/2 Δ/2  100
L= R =
180 D
 Superelevation

Rv W p + Ff = Fcp

≈
Fc

e
W 1 ft

α
 WV 2  WV 2
W sin  + f s W cos  + sin   = cos 
 gRv  gRv
 Superelevation
 WV 2  WV 2
W sin  + f s W cos  + sin   = cos 
 gRv  gRv
V2
tan  + f s = (1 − f s tan  )
gRv
2
e + fs =
V
(1 − f s e)
gRv
2
V
Rv =
g ( f s + e)
Selection of e and fs

Practical limits on superelevation (e)

Climate
Constructability
Adjacent land use
Side friction factor (fs) variations
Vehicle speed
Pavement texture
Tire condition
Selection of e and fs

AASHTO provides general guidelines for the selection of e and fs for

horizontal curve design, as shown in Table 3.5. The values presented in
this table are grouped by five values of maximum e. The selection of any
one of these five maximum e values is dependent on the type of road
(for example, higher maximum e's are permitted on freeways compared
with arterials and local roads) and local design practice. Limiting values
of fs are simply a function of design speed. Table 3.5 also presents
calculated radii (given V, e, and fs) by applying Eq. 3.34.
Minimum Radius Tables
Selection of e and fs
Example 2

A roadway is being designed for a speed of 70 mi/h.

At one horizontal curve, it is known that the
superelevation is 8.0% and the coefficient of side
friction is 0.10. Determine the minimum radius of
curve (measured to the traveled path) that will
provide for safe vehicle operation.

𝑉2 (70∗1.46667)2
𝑅𝑣 = 𝑔(𝑓 +𝑒)=32.2(0.1+0.08)=1819.4 ft
𝑠
 Example 3
A section of SR 522 is being designed as a high-speed divided highway. The
design speed is 70 mph. Using WSDOT standards (maximum e=0.1), what is
the minimum curve radius (as measured to the traveled vehicle path) for safe
vehicle operation?

𝑉2 (70∗1.47)2
𝑅𝑣 = = =1644.16 ft
𝑔(𝑓𝑠 +𝑒) 32.2(0.1+0.1)
 Stopping Sight Distance
Assumes that L>SSD Sight distance restrictions on horizontal curves
occur when obstructions are present.
 100 s
SSD = Rv  s = L
180 D SSD

180(SSD )
s =
Rv Ms

Highway centerline
Critical
For a specified stopping distance, some distance inside lane
Ms must be visually cleared so that the line of R Obstruction
sight is such that sufficient stopping sight distance
is available.
Rv
The middle ordinate M:   90SSD 
M s = Rv 1 − cos 
  Rv 
Δs
Rv  −1  Rv − M s 

SSD =  cos 
 R 

90   v 
 Example
A horizontal curve on a two-lane highway is
designed with a 2000 ft radius, 12 ft lanes, SSD
and a 60mi/h design speed. Determine the
distance that must be cleared from the
inside edge of the inside lane to provide a
sufficient stopping sight distance.
Ms
Note: SSD=570 ft when design speed is 60 mph

Obstruction

Rv

  90SSD  Δs
M s = Rv 1 − cos 
  Rv 
 Example
R =Rv-12/2= 1994 ft
SSD = 570ft SSD

  90SSD 
M s = Rv 1 − cos 
  Rv  Ms

Ms=20.33 ft
Obstruction

Rv

Δs
 Example 4
A two-lane highway (12-ft lanes) has a posted speed limit of 50-mi/h and, on
one section, has both horizontal and vertical curves, as shown in Fig. A recent
daytime crash (driver traveling eastbound and striking a stationary roadway
object) resulted in a fatality and a lawsuit alleging that the 50 mi/h posted
speed limit is an unsafe speed for the curves in question and was a major
cause of the crash. Evaluate and comment on the roadway design.
e=8.0%
180
𝑅= 𝐿
∆𝜋 PT
Station 32+75
PC
Station 16+00
18 ft
Sight obstruction
Horizontal：
Rv   Rv − M s 
SSD =  cos −1
 80 。 Post speed is not safe?
90   Rv  𝑉2 Radius?
𝑅𝑣 = SSD?
PVC
𝑔(𝑓𝑠 + 𝑒) Vertical：
PVT K value? K=L/A
Station 14+00 G2=+4.0%
Station 18+80

G1=-2.0%
PVI
Station 16+40
Solution

1199.63 ft
Solution
1193.63 ft

1193.63
1193.63
1193.63
 Example 6
A horizontal curve is to be designed for a two-lane road in mountainous terrain.
The following data are known: Intersection angle: 40 degrees, tangent length = 436.76 ft,
station of PI: 2700+10.65, fs = 0.12, e = 0.08.
Determine:
(a) design speed
(b) station of the PC
(c) station of the PT

 𝑉2
T = R tan 𝑅𝑣 =
𝑔(𝑓𝑠 + 𝑒)
2

 100
𝑅=
5729.6
𝐷
L= R =
180 D
 Horizontal Curve Fundamentals
PI
 T Δ
T = R tan E
2
 100
M
L= R = PC
L
Δ/2 PT
180 D
D = degree of curvature (angle subtended by a 100’
arc)

R R
 180 
100 
   18,000
D= = 5729.6 Δ/2 Δ/2
R  R 𝑅=
𝐷
Solution
 Reverse Curves
Consist of two simple curves with equal radii for change in
alignment of highway Reverse curves generally consist of two consecutive
curves that turn in opposite directions. They are
used to laterally shift the alignment of a highway.
The curves used are usually circular and have equal
radii. Reverse curves, however, are not
recommended because drivers may find it difficult
to stay within their lane as a result of sudden
changes to the alignment.

213
 Compound Curves
Compound curves consist of two or more curves, usually
circular, in succession. Compound curves are used to fit
horizontal curves to very specific alignment needs, such as
interchange ramps, intersection curves, or difficult topography.

In designing compound curves, care must be

taken to not have successive curves with widely
different radii, as this will make it difficult for
drivers to maintain their lane position as they
transition from one curve to the next.

AASHTO recommends that the ratio of the flatter radius to

the sharper radius at intersections should not be greater
than 2:1 so drivers can adjust to sudden changes in
curvature and speed.

214
THANK YOU!
Email: [email protected]