Class 1

Stratigraphy
Natural resources

Minerals
Oil

Earth’s
structure and
Gas dynamics
 Geology
(from Ancient Greek γῆ (gê) 'earth', and λoγία (-logía) 'study’)

Source: 10.1016/j.aanat.2020.151610
Source: https://bgr.com/science/gravity-is-constantly-shaping-the-earths-surface/
➢ Igneous rocks are formed from magma, which has
originated well below the surface, has ascended
towards the surface, and has crystallised as solid
rock either on the surface or deep within the
Earth’s crust as its temperature fell.
➢ Sedimentary rocks are formed by the
accumulation and compaction of (a) fragments
from pre-existing rocks which have been
disintegrated by erosion; (b) organic debris such
as shell fragments or dead plants; or (c) material
dissolved in surface waters (rivers, oceans, etc.) or
ground water, which is precipitated in conditions
of oversaturation.
➢ Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing
rocks of any type, which have been subjected to
increases of temperature (T) or pressure (P) or
both, such that the rocks undergo change. This
change results in the metamorphic rock being
different from the original parental material in
appearance, texture and mineral composition.
• Igneous Rock
• Metamorphic rock
• Sedimentary rock
Metamorphism, which means “to
change form,” is a process that
leads to changes in the mineralogy,
texture (for example, grain size),
and sometimes chemical
composition of rocks.
Oceanic Basin
Continental Basin
 Coal Formation

When? Where?
Where?
Millions of years in a single photograph
➢ Stratigraphy, a scientific discipline concerned with the description of rock successions
and their interpretation in terms of a general time scale. Its principles and methods
have found application in such fields as petroleum geology and archaeology.
➢ Stratigraphic studies deal primarily with sedimentary rocks but may
also encompass layered igneous rocks (e.g., those resulting from successive lava flows)
or metamorphic rocks formed either from such extrusive igneous material or from
sedimentary rocks.
➢ A common goal of stratigraphic studies is the subdivision of a sequence of
rock strata into mappable units, determining the time relationships that are involved,
and correlating units of the sequence—or the entire sequence—with rock strata
elsewhere.
➢ In short, analysis of rock bodies to understand their distribution, composition, and
origin.
Thank you…
GS 416
Stratigraphy
Class 2

NR_IITB
Sedimentary
Basin
Sedimentary
Basin
NR_IITB
 Schematic cross-
section of a typical
convergent plate
boundary showing
formation of back-
arc and forearc
basins

NR_IITB
NR_IITB
NR_IITB
 Principle of uniformitarianism

“The present is the key to the past”

Uniformitarianism, in geology, is the

doctrine suggesting that Earth’s
geologic processes acted in the same
manner and with essentially the
same intensity in the past as they do
in the present and that such
uniformity is sufficient to account for
all geologic change.

-Geologist James Hutton in his

many books including “Theory
of the Earth” in 1785.

NR_IITB
 Stratigraphy is the branch of geology that
places events in history and the preserved
products of those events (rocks, fossils,
structures) in chronological order.
All stratigraphy begins by constructing a local
sequence, putting in order those rocks among
which the temporal relations can be directly
observed by contact in the field.

Relating sequences or ages measured in one

place to events in other places requires
correlation, the basic tool for building up a
global sequence of events and a globally useful
timescale.

◼ Lithostratigraphy
◼ Chronostratigraphy
◼ Biostratigraphy
◼ Seismic stratigraphy
◼ Cyclostratigraphy
◼ Magnetostratigraphy
◼ Chemostratigraphy
NR_IITB
Source: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0016756822000930
 Sedimentary facies
➢ A rock facies is a body of rock with
specified characteristics that reflect the
conditions under which it was formed
(Reading & Levell 1996).
➢ By recognising associations of facies it is
possible to establish the combinations of
processes that were dominant; the
characteristics of a depositional
environment are determined by the
processes that are present, and hence
there is a link between facies associations
and environments of deposition.
➢ Describing the facies of a body of sediment
involves documenting all the
characteristics of its lithology, texture,
sedimentary structures and fossil content
that can aid in determining the processes
of formation.
NR_IITB
Walther's law

➢ Walther's law of facies, or simply

Walther's law, named after the
geologist Johannes Walther (1860-
1937), states that the vertical
succession of facies reflects lateral
changes in environment.
➢ Conversely, it states that when a
depositional environment "migrates"
laterally, sediments of one depositional
environment come to lie on top of
another.
➢ In Russia the law is known as
Golovkinsky-Walther's law, honoring
also Nikolai A. Golovkinsky[5] (1834-
1897). A classic example of this law is
the vertical stratigraphic succession
that typifies marine transgressions and
regressions.
NR_IITB
NR_IITB
Nickols, 2009
 Stratigraphy is the branch of geology that
places events in history and the preserved
products of those events (rocks, fossils,
structures) in chronological order.
All stratigraphy begins by constructing a local
sequence, putting in order those rocks among
which the temporal relations can be directly
observed by contact in the field.

Relating sequences or ages measured in one

place to events in other places requires
correlation, the basic tool for building up a
global sequence of events and a globally useful
timescale.

◼ Lithostratigraphy
◼ Chronostratigraphy
◼ Biostratigraphy
◼ Seismic stratigraphy
◼ Cyclostratigraphy
◼ Magnetostratigraphy
◼ Chemostratigraphy
NR_IITB
Source: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0016756822000930
Units of Geological time

Rock units deposited in

a specified geological
time

NR_IITB
NR_IITB
 Rodinia Gondwana Pangea
(Around 1 Ga.-750 Ma) (Around 550 Ma-180 Ma) (Around 335 Ma-180Ma)

Present-day plate tectonics

NR_IITB
 ‘Global Standard Section and Point’ (GSSP) scheme, otherwise known as the process of
establishing ‘golden spikes’
➢ A GSSP is an internationally agreed upon reference point on a stratigraphic section which
defines the lower boundary of a stage on the geologic time scale.
➢ A ‘golden spike’ is metaphorically hammered into the rocks at that point, and all beds above
it are defined as belonging to one epoch/period and all below it to another (Walsh et al.
2004).
➢ All other beds of similar age around the world are then correlated with the strata that
contain the ‘golden spike’, using any of the correlation techniques. The locations chosen are
typically ones with fossiliferous strata, because the fossils can be used for biostratigraphic
correlation.

International Union of
Geological Sciences

NR_IITB
GS 416
Stratigraphy
Class 3

NR_IITB
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
 Principle of uniformitarianism
Uniformitarianism, in geology, the
doctrine suggesting that Earth’s geologic
processes acted in the same manner and
with essentially the same intensity in the
past as they do in the present and that
such uniformity is sufficient to account
for all geologic change. This principle is
fundamental to geologic thinking and
underlies the whole development of the
science of geology.
-Geologist James Hutton in his
many books including “Theory
of the Earth” in 1785.

However, prior to 1830, uniformitarianism

was not the prevailing theory. Until that
time, scientists subscribed to the idea of
catastrophism. Catastrophism suggested the
features seen on the surface of Earth, such
as mountains, were formed by large, abrupt
changes—or catastrophes. NR_IITB
 1. Law of superposition
➢ Law of superposition, a major principle of stratigraphy stating that within a sequence of layers of sedimentary
rock, the oldest layer is at the base and that the layers are progressively younger with ascending order in the
sequence.
➢ It was first proposed by the Danish geological pioneer Nicholas Steno (1638–1686).

NR_IITB
 2. Principle of original horizontality

➢ The principle of original horizontality states that layers of sediment are originally deposited horizontally under the action
of gravity.
➢ It is a relative dating technique.
➢ The principle is important to the analysis of folded and tilted strata.

NR_IITB
 3. Principle of Cross-cutting relationships
➢ Cross-cutting relationships is a principle of geology that states that the geologic feature which cuts another is
the younger of the two features. It is a relative dating technique in geology.
➢ It was first developed by Danish geological pioneer Nicholas Steno in Dissertationis prodromus (1669) and
later formulated by James Hutton in Theory of the Earth (1795) and embellished upon by Charles Lyell in
Principles of Geology (1830).

NR_IITB
NR_IITB
 4. Principle of Lateral continuity

The principle of lateral continuity states

that layers of sediment initially extend
laterally in all directions; in other words,
they are laterally continuous. As a result,
rocks that are otherwise similar, but are
now separated by a valley or other
erosional feature, can be assumed to be
originally continuous.

NR_IITB
 Principle of inclusions

The principle of inclusions states that any rock fragments that are included in a rock must be older than the
rock in which they are included. For example, a xenolith in an igneous rock, or a clast in sedimentary rock
must be older than the rock that includes it

NR_IITB
 Principle of chilled margins/ baked contact
The principle of baked contacts states that the heat of an intrusion will bake (metamorphose) the rocks in close
proximity to the intrusion. Hence the presence of a baked contact indicates the intrusion is younger than the rocks
around it.
The principle of chilled margins states that the portion of an intrusion that has cooled and crystallized next to cold
surrounding rock will form smaller crystals than the portion of the intrusion that cooled more slowly deeper in the
instrusion, which will form larger crystals. Smaller crystals generally appear darker in colour than larger crystals, so a
chilled margin appears as a darkening of the intrusive rock towards the surrounding rock. This principle can be used
to distinguish between an igneous sill, which will have a chilled margin at top and bottom, and a subaerial lava flow,
which will have a chilled margin only at the bottom.

NR_IITB
Nonconformity Angular unconformity

Disconformity NR_IITB
Paraconformity
Source: https://opentextbc.ca/geology/wp-content/uploads/sites/110/2015/07/unconformities.png
Principle of faunal succession
The principle of faunal succession, also known as the law of faunal
succession, is based on the observation that sedimentary rock strata
contain fossilized flora and fauna, and that these fossils succeed each
other vertically in a specific, reliable order that can be identified over
wide horizontal distances.
-William Smith (1769-1839)

NR_IITB
 Elements of Lithostratigraphy

➢ The element of stratigraphy that deals with the description and nomenclature of the rocks of the Earth based on their
lithology and their stratigraphic relations.
➢ Lithostratigraphic classification: The organization of rock bodies into units on the basis of their lithologic properties and
their stratigraphic relations.
➢ Bodies of sedimentary, extrusive igneous, metasedimentary, or metavolcanic rocks.
➢ Distinguished strictly based on Lithology.
➢ They carry no connotation of age. They are independent time concepts.
➢ Lithostratigraphic unit generally conforms to the law of superposition.
➢ A body of rocks that is defined and recognized on the basis of its lithologic properties
or combination of lithologic properties and stratigraphic relations.

NR_IITB
 Unconformities that can be identified as major divisions in the stratigraphy over the
area of a continent are sometimes considered to be the bounding surfaces of
associations of two or more groups known as a supergroup.
Where two or more formations are found associated with each other and share certain
characteristics they are considered to form a group. Groups are commonly bound by
unconformities which can be traced basin-wide.
Formation is a body of material that can be identified by its lithological characteristics and by
its stratigraphic position. It must be traceable laterally, that is, it must be mappable at the
surface or in the subsurface.
Member is the formal lithostratigraphic unit next in rank below a formation. It possesses lithologic
properties distinguishing it from adjacent parts of the formation and have limited lateral extent.
Bed is the smallest formal unit in the hierarchy of sedimentary lithostratigraphic units, e.g. a single
stratum lithologically distinguishableNR_IITB
from other layers above and below.

Flows: Smallest distinctive layer in a volcanic sequence

 Lithodemic units: non-stratiform rock units
➢ The concepts of division into stratigraphic units were developed for rock bodies that are stratiform, layered units, but many
metamorphic, igneous plutonic and structurally deformed rocks are not stratiform and they do not follow the rules of
superposition.
➢ Nonstratiform bodies of rock are called lithodemic units.
➢ The basic unit is the lithodeme and this is equivalent in rank to a formation and is also defined on lithological criteria.
Suite:
An association of lithodemes that share lithological properties, such as a similar metamorphic grade, is referred to as a suite
Complex:
A lithostratigraphic unit composed of diverse types of any class or classes or rocks (sedimentary, igneous, metamorphic) and
characterized by irregularly mixed lithology or by highly complicated structural relations.

Volcanic Complex

Structural Complex
 Biostratigraphy
➢ Origin (evolution) and extinction of organisms forms the initial
basis for biostratigraphic subdivision
➢ Earth history shows the process of evolution is punctuated by
(mass) extinctions
➢ Depositional environments play an important role in
determining the nature of fossil assemblages
➢ The biozone is the fundamental biostratigraphic unit.
Principle of faunal succession
The principle of faunal succession, also known as the law of faunal
succession, is based on the observation that sedimentary rock strata
contain fossilized flora and fauna, and that these fossils succeed each
other vertically in a specific, reliable order that can be identified over
wide horizontal distances.
-William Smith (1769-1839)

NR_IITB
Biostratigraphic units: Biozones
➢ Biozones are strictly diachronous in most cases; however,
over geological time scales their boundaries can commonly
be considered to be isochronous, but their resolving power
has limitations!
➢ Diachronous unit is a deposit with the same lithological
properties that was formed at different times

NR_IITB
 ‘Global Standard Section and Point’ (GSSP) scheme, otherwise known as the process of
establishing ‘golden spikes’
➢ A GSSP is an internationally agreed upon reference point on a stratigraphic section which
defines the lower boundary of a stage on the geologic time scale.
➢ A ‘golden spike’ is metaphorically hammered into the rocks at that point, and all beds above
it are defined as belonging to one epoch/period and all below it to another (Walsh et al.
2004).
➢ All other beds of similar age around the world are then correlated with the strata that
contain the ‘golden spike’, using any of the correlation techniques. The locations chosen are
typically ones with fossiliferous strata, because the fossils can be used for biostratigraphic
correlation.

International Union of
Geological Sciences

NR_IITB
Units of Geological time

Rock units deposited in

a specified geological
time

NR_IITB
 Stratotypes and
Type Localities ➢ The designated exposure of a named layered stratigraphic unit or of a stratigraphic boundary that
serves as the standard of reference. A stratotype is the specific stratal sequence used for the
definition and/or characterization of the stratigraphic unit or boundary being defined.
➢ Unit-stratotype: The type section of a layered stratigraphic unit that serves as the standard of
reference for the definition and characterization of the unit.
➢ Boundary-Stratotype: The specified sequence of strata that contains the specific point that
defines a boundary between two stratigraphic units.
➢ Composite-Stratotype: A unit-stratotype formed by the combination of several specified intervals
of strata combined to make a composite standard of reference.
➢ Type Locality: The specific geographic locality was the stratotype of a layered stratigraphic unit is
situated. The name also refers to the locality where the unit was originally described and/or
named. In the case of units composed of nonlayered igneous or metamorphic rocks, the type
locality is the specific geographic locality where the unit was originally defined.
Olenekian Stage, 251.2 Ma, ➢ Type Area or Type Region: The geographic area or region that encompasses the stratotype or
GSSP Mud (Muth) village, Spiti
valley, (Albertiana 36, 2007) type locality of a stratigraphic unit or boundary.
Latitude,
SubSeries Stage Age (Ma) GSSP Location Boundary Level Correlation Events Status Reference
Longitude
Phanerozoic Eonothem
Cenozoic Erathem
Quaternary Period
Holocene Series

Meghalayan 4,250 yr b2k Mawmluh Cave, 25°15'44''N; depth 7.45 mm in the Ratified Episodes 2018;
Upper NR_IITB Climatic - 4.2 ka event
Stage (before 2000 CE) Meghalaya, India 91°42'54''E speleothem KM-A 2018 41: 213-223.
NR_IITB
NR_IITB Source: 10.1016/j.gsf.2011.06.004
GS 416
Stratigraphy
Class 4

NR_IITB
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
 Principle of uniformitarianism
Uniformitarianism, in geology, the
doctrine suggesting that Earth’s geologic
processes acted in the same manner and
with essentially the same intensity in the
past as they do in the present and that
such uniformity is sufficient to account
for all geologic change. This principle is
fundamental to geologic thinking and
underlies the whole development of the
science of geology.
-Geologist James Hutton in his
many books including “Theory
of the Earth” in 1785.

However, prior to 1830, uniformitarianism

was not the prevailing theory. Until that
time, scientists subscribed to the idea of
catastrophism. Catastrophism suggested the
features seen on the surface of Earth, such
as mountains, were formed by large, abrupt
changes—or catastrophes. NR_IITB
 1. Law of superposition
➢ Law of superposition, a major principle of stratigraphy stating that within a sequence of layers of sedimentary
rock, the oldest layer is at the base and that the layers are progressively younger with ascending order in the
sequence.
➢ It was first proposed by the Danish geological pioneer Nicholas Steno (1638–1686).

NR_IITB
 2. Principle of original horizontality

➢ The principle of original horizontality states that layers of sediment are originally deposited horizontally under the action
of gravity.
➢ It is a relative dating technique.
➢ The principle is important to the analysis of folded and tilted strata.

NR_IITB
 3. Principle of Cross-cutting relationships
➢ Cross-cutting relationships is a principle of geology that states that the geologic feature which cuts another is
the younger of the two features. It is a relative dating technique in geology.
➢ It was first developed by Danish geological pioneer Nicholas Steno in Dissertationis prodromus (1669) and
later formulated by James Hutton in Theory of the Earth (1795) and embellished upon by Charles Lyell in
Principles of Geology (1830).

NR_IITB
NR_IITB
 4. Principle of Lateral continuity

The principle of lateral continuity states

that layers of sediment initially extend
laterally in all directions; in other words,
they are laterally continuous. As a result,
rocks that are otherwise similar, but are
now separated by a valley or other
erosional feature, can be assumed to be
originally continuous.

NR_IITB
 Principle of inclusions

The principle of inclusions states that any rock fragments that are included in a rock must be older than the
rock in which they are included. For example, a xenolith in an igneous rock, or a clast in sedimentary rock
must be older than the rock that includes it

NR_IITB
 Principle of chilled margins/ baked contact
The principle of baked contacts states that the heat of an intrusion will bake (metamorphose) the rocks in close
proximity to the intrusion. Hence the presence of a baked contact indicates the intrusion is younger than the rocks
around it.
The principle of chilled margins states that the portion of an intrusion that has cooled and crystallized next to cold
surrounding rock will form smaller crystals than the portion of the intrusion that cooled more slowly deeper in the
instrusion, which will form larger crystals. Smaller crystals generally appear darker in colour than larger crystals, so a
chilled margin appears as a darkening of the intrusive rock towards the surrounding rock. This principle can be used
to distinguish between an igneous sill, which will have a chilled margin at top and bottom, and a subaerial lava flow,
which will have a chilled margin only at the bottom.

NR_IITB
Nonconformity Angular unconformity

Disconformity NR_IITB
Paraconformity
Source: https://opentextbc.ca/geology/wp-content/uploads/sites/110/2015/07/unconformities.png
Principle of faunal succession
The principle of faunal succession, also known as the law of faunal
succession, is based on the observation that sedimentary rock strata
contain fossilized flora and fauna, and that these fossils succeed each
other vertically in a specific, reliable order that can be identified over
wide horizontal distances.
-William Smith (1769-1839)

NR_IITB
 ‘Global Standard Section and Point’ (GSSP) scheme, otherwise known as the process of
establishing ‘golden spikes’
➢ A GSSP is an internationally agreed upon reference point on a stratigraphic section which
defines the lower boundary of a stage on the geologic time scale.
➢ A ‘golden spike’ is metaphorically hammered into the rocks at that point, and all beds above
it are defined as belonging to one epoch/period and all below it to another (Walsh et al.
2004).
➢ All other beds of similar age around the world are then correlated with the strata that
contain the ‘golden spike’, using any of the correlation techniques. The locations chosen are
typically ones with fossiliferous strata, because the fossils can be used for biostratigraphic
correlation.

International Union of
Geological Sciences

NR_IITB
Units of Geological time

Rock units deposited in

a specified geological
time

NR_IITB
 Stratotypes and
Type Localities ➢ The designated exposure of a named layered stratigraphic unit or of a stratigraphic boundary that
serves as the standard of reference. A stratotype is the specific stratal sequence used for the
definition and/or characterization of the stratigraphic unit or boundary being defined.
➢ Unit-stratotype: The type section of a layered stratigraphic unit that serves as the standard of
reference for the definition and characterization of the unit.
➢ Boundary-Stratotype: The specified sequence of strata that contains the specific point that
defines a boundary between two stratigraphic units.
➢ Composite-Stratotype: A unit-stratotype formed by the combination of several specified intervals
of strata combined to make a composite standard of reference.
➢ Type Locality: The specific geographic locality was the stratotype of a layered stratigraphic unit is
situated. The name also refers to the locality where the unit was originally described and/or
named. In the case of units composed of nonlayered igneous or metamorphic rocks, the type
locality is the specific geographic locality where the unit was originally defined.
Olenekian Stage, 251.2 Ma, ➢ Type Area or Type Region: The geographic area or region that encompasses the stratotype or
GSSP Mud (Muth) village, Spiti
valley, (Albertiana 36, 2007) type locality of a stratigraphic unit or boundary.
Latitude,
SubSeries Stage Age (Ma) GSSP Location Boundary Level Correlation Events Status Reference
Longitude
Phanerozoic Eonothem
Cenozoic Erathem
Quaternary Period
Holocene Series

Meghalayan 4,250 yr b2k Mawmluh Cave, 25°15'44''N; depth 7.45 mm in the Ratified Episodes 2018;
Upper NR_IITB Climatic - 4.2 ka event
Stage (before 2000 CE) Meghalaya, India 91°42'54''E speleothem KM-A 2018 41: 213-223.
 Elements of Lithostratigraphy

➢ The element of stratigraphy that deals with the description and nomenclature of the rocks of the Earth based on their
lithology and their stratigraphic relations.
➢ Lithostratigraphic classification: The organization of rock bodies into units on the basis of their lithologic properties and
their stratigraphic relations.
➢ Bodies of sedimentary, extrusive igneous, metasedimentary, or metavolcanic rocks.
➢ Distinguished strictly based on Lithology.
➢ They carry no connotation of age. They are independent time concepts.
➢ Lithostratigraphic unit generally conforms to the law of superposition.
➢ A body of rocks that is defined and recognized on the basis of its lithologic properties
or combination of lithologic properties and stratigraphic relations.

NR_IITB
 Unconformities that can be identified as major divisions in the stratigraphy over the
area of a continent are sometimes considered to be the bounding surfaces of
associations of two or more groups known as a supergroup.
Where two or more formations are found associated with each other and share certain
characteristics they are considered to form a group. Groups are commonly bound by
unconformities which can be traced basin-wide.
Formation is a body of material that can be identified by its lithological characteristics and by
its stratigraphic position. It must be traceable laterally, that is, it must be mappable at the
surface or in the subsurface.
Member is the formal lithostratigraphic unit next in rank below a formation. It possesses lithologic
properties distinguishing it from adjacent parts of the formation and have limited lateral extent.
Bed is the smallest formal unit in the hierarchy of sedimentary lithostratigraphic units, e.g. a single
stratum lithologically distinguishableNR_IITB
from other layers above and below.

Flows: Smallest distinctive layer in a volcanic sequence

 Lithodemic units: non-stratiform rock units
➢ The concepts of division into stratigraphic units were developed for rock bodies that are stratiform, layered units, but many
metamorphic, igneous plutonic and structurally deformed rocks are not stratiform and they do not follow the rules of
superposition.
➢ Nonstratiform bodies of rock are called lithodemic units.
➢ The basic unit is the lithodeme and this is equivalent in rank to a formation and is also defined on lithological criteria.
Suite:
An association of lithodemes that share lithological properties, such as a similar metamorphic grade, is referred to as a suite
Complex:
A lithostratigraphic unit composed of diverse types of any class or classes or rocks (sedimentary, igneous, metamorphic) and
characterized by irregularly mixed lithology or by highly complicated structural relations.

Volcanic Complex

Structural Complex
 Biostratigraphy
➢ Origin (evolution) and extinction of organisms forms the initial
basis for biostratigraphic subdivision
➢ Earth history shows the process of evolution is punctuated by
(mass) extinctions
➢ Depositional environments play an important role in
determining the nature of fossil assemblages
➢ The biozone is the fundamental biostratigraphic unit.
2.

a) What kind of lateral stratigraphic relationship exists between the

sequences of columns A-B-C at time 3?
b) If all the rocks were deposited in a marine environment, which column is
the one most likely to have been deposited farthest from land?
c) Which one was deposited closest to land and in the direction of the
sourceland.
d) Indicate on the columns where transgressions and regressions may
have occured.
NR_IITB
NR_IITB Source: 10.1016/j.gsf.2011.06.004