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Unit-3

Elements of transport service

Services provided by the Transport Layer

The services provided by the transport layer are similar to those of the data link
layer. The data link layer provides the services within a single network while
the transport layer provides the services across an internetwork made up of
many networks. The data link layer controls the physical layer while the
transport layer controls all the lower layers.

The services provided by the transport layer protocols can be divided into
five categories:

o End-to-end delivery

o Addressing

o Reliable delivery

o Flow control

o Multiplexing

End-to-end delivery:
The transport layer transmits the entire message to the destination. Therefore, it
ensures the end-to-end delivery of an entire message from a source to the
destination.

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Reliable delivery:

The transport layer provides reliability services by retransmitting the lost and
damaged packets.

The reliable delivery has four aspects:

o Error control

o Sequence control

o Loss control

o Duplication control

Error Control

o The primary role of reliability is Error Control. In reality, no

transmission will be 100 percent error-free delivery. Therefore, transport
layer protocols are designed to provide error-free transmission.

o The data link layer also provides the error handling mechanism, but it
ensures only node-to-node error-free delivery. However, node-to-node
reliability does not ensure the end-to-end reliability.

o The data link layer checks for the error between each network. If an error
is introduced inside one of the routers, then this error will not be caught
by the data link layer. It only detects those errors that have been

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introduced between the beginning and end of the link. Therefore, the
transport layer performs the checking for the errors end-to-end to ensure
that the packet has arrived correctly.

Sequence Control

o The second aspect of the reliability is sequence control which is

implemented at the transport layer.

o On the sending end, the transport layer is responsible for ensuring that
the packets received from the upper layers can be used by the lower
layers. On the receiving end, it ensures that the various segments of a
transmission can be correctly reassembled.

Loss Control

Loss Control is a third aspect of reliability. The transport layer ensures that all
the segments of a transmission arrive at the destination, not some of them. On
the sending end, all the segments of transmission are given sequence numbers
by a transport layer. transport layer to identify the missing segment.

Duplication Control

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Duplication Control is the fourth aspect of reliability. The transport layer

guarantees that no duplicate data arrive at the destination. Sequence numbers
are used to identify the lost packets; similarly, it allows the receiver to identify
and discard duplicate segments.

Flow Control

Flow control is used to prevent the sender from overwhelming the receiver. If
the receiver is overloaded with too much data, then the receiver discards the
packets and asking for the retransmission of packets. This increases network
congestion and thus, reducing the system performance. The transport layer is
responsible for flow control. It uses the sliding window protocol that makes the
data transmission more efficient as well as it controls the flow of data so that
the receiver does not become overwhelmed. Sliding window protocol is byte
oriented rather than frame oriented.

Multiplexing

The transport layer uses the multiplexing to improve transmission efficiency.

Multiplexing can occur in two ways:

o Upward multiplexing: Upward multiplexing means multiple transport

layer connections use the same network connection. To make more cost-
effective, the transport layer sends several transmissions bound for the
same destination along the same path; this is achieved through upward
multiplexing.

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o Downward multiplexing: Downward multiplexing means one

transport layer connection uses the multiple network connections.
Downward multiplexing allows the transport layer to split a connection
among several paths to improve the throughput. This type of
multiplexing is used when networks have a low or slow capacity.

Addressing

o According to the layered model, the transport layer interacts with the
functions of the session layer. Many protocols combine session,
presentation, and application layer protocols into a single layer known
as the application layer. In these cases, delivery to the session layer
means the delivery to the application layer. Data generated by an
application on one machine must be transmitted to the correct
application on another machine. In this case, addressing is provided by
the transport layer.

o The transport layer provides the user address which is specified as a

station or port. The port variable represents a particular TS user of a

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specified station known as a Transport Service access point (TSAP).

Each station has only one transport entity.

o The transport layer protocols need to know which upper-layer protocols

are communicating.

ELEMENTS OF TRANSPORT PROTOCOLS

The transport service is implemented by a transport protocol used between the two transport
entities. The transport protocols resemble the data link protocols. Both have to deal with error
control, sequencing, and flow control, among other issues. The difference transport protocol and
data link protocol depends upon the environment in which they are operated.
The elements of transport protocols are:
1. ADDRESSING
2. Connection Establishment.
3. Connection Release.
4. Error control and flow control
5. Multiplexing.
1. ADDRESSING
When an application (e.g., a user) process wishes to set up a connection to a remote application
process, it must specify which one to connect to. The method normally used is to define
transport addresses to which processes can listen for connection requests. In the Internet, these
endpoints are called ports.
There are two types of access points.
TSAP (Transport Service Access Point) to mean a specific endpoint in the transport layer.

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NSAPs (Network Service Access Points). IP addresses are examples of NSAPs.

Application processes, both clients and servers, can attach themselves to a local TSAP to
establish a connection to a remote TSAP. These connections run through NSAPs on each host.
2 CONNECTION ESTABLISHMENT:
With packet lifetimes bounded, it is possible to devise a fool proof way to establish connections
safely. Packet lifetime can be bounded to a known maximum using one of the following
techniques:
• Restricted subnet design
• Putting a hop counter in each packet
• Time stamping in each packet
Using a 3-way hand shake, a connection can be established. This establishment protocol doesn’t
require both sides to begin sending with the same sequence number.

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• The first technique includes any method that prevents packets from looping, combined
with some way of bounding delay including congestion over the longest possible path. It
is difficult, given that internets may range from a single city to international in scope.
• The second method consists of having the hop count initialized to some appropriate value
and decremented each time the packet is forwarded. The network protocol simply
discards any packet whose hop counter becomes zero.
• The third method requires each packet to bear the time it was created, with the routers
agreeing to discard any packet older than some agreed-upon time.

CONNECTION RELEASE:
A connection is released using either asymmetric or symmetric variant. But, the improved
protocol for
releasing a connection is a 3-way handshake protocol.
There are two styles of terminating a connection:
1) Asymmetric release and
2) Symmetric release.

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Asymmetric release is the way the telephone system works: when one party hangs up, the
connection is broken. Symmetric release treats the connection as two separate unidirectional
connections and requires each one to be released separately.

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FLOW CONTROL AND BUFFERING:

Flow control is done by having a sliding window on each connection to keep a fast transmitter
from over running a slow receiver. Buffering must be done by the sender, if the network service
is unreliable. The sender buffers all the TPDUs sent to the receiver. The buffer size varies for
different TPDUs.
They are:
a) Chained Fixed-size Buffers
b) Chained Variable-size Buffers
c) One large Circular Buffer per Connection

a)Chained Fixed-size Buffers

If most TPDUs are nearly the same size, the buffers are organized as a pool of identical size
buffers, with one TPDU per buffer.
Chained Variable-size Buffers:
This is an approach to the buffer-size problem. i.e., if there is wide variation in TPDU size, from
a few characters typed at a terminal to thousands of characters from file transfers, some
problems may occur:

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• If the buffer size is chosen equal to the largest possible TPDU, space will be wasted
whenever a short TPDU arrives.
• If the buffer size is chosen less than the maximum TPDU size, multiple buffers will be
needed for long TPDUs.
To overcome these problems, we employ variable-size buffers.
(c). One large Circular Buffer per Connection:
A single large circular buffer per connection is dedicated when all connections are heavily
loaded.
1. Source Buffering is used for low band width bursty traffic
2. Destination Buffering is used for high band width smooth traffic.
3. Dynamic Buffering is used if the traffic pattern changes randomly.

MULTIPLEXING:
In networks that use virtual circuits within the subnet, each open connection consumes some
table space in the routers for the entire duration of the connection. If buffers are dedicated to the
virtual circuit in each router as well, a user who left a terminal logged into a remote machine,
there is need for multiplexing. There are 2 kinds of multiplexing

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Internet Transport Layer protocols

o The transport layer is represented by two protocols: TCP and UDP.

o The IP protocol in the network layer delivers a datagram from a source host to the
destination host.

o Nowadays, the operating system supports multiuser and multiprocessing environments, an

executing program is called a process. When a host sends a message to other host means
that source process is sending a process to a destination process. The transport layer
protocols define some connections to individual ports known as protocol ports.

o An IP protocol is a host-to-host protocol used to deliver a packet from source host to the
destination host while transport layer protocols are port-to-port protocols that work on the
top of the IP protocols to deliver the packet from the originating port to the IP services, and
from IP services to the destination port.

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o Each port is defined by a positive integer address, and it is of 16 bits.

UDP
o UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol.

o UDP is a simple protocol and it provides nonsequenced transport functionality.

o UDP is a connectionless protocol.

o This type of protocol is used when reliability and security are less important than speed
and size.

o UDP is an end-to-end transport level protocol that adds transport-level addresses,

checksum error control, and length information to the data from the upper layer.

o The packet produced by the UDP protocol is known as a user datagram.

User Datagram Format

The user datagram has a 16-byte header which is shown below:

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o Source port address: It defines the address of the application process that has delivered a
message. The source port address is of 16 bits address.

o Destination port address: It defines the address of the application process that will receive
the message. The destination port address is of a 16-bit address.

o Total length: It defines the total length of the user datagram in bytes. It is a 16-bit field.

o Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field which is used in error detection.

Disadvantages of UDP protocol

o UDP provides basic functions needed for the end-to-end delivery of a transmission.

o It does not provide any sequencing or reordering functions and does not specify the
damaged packet when reporting an error.

o UDP can discover that an error has occurred, but it does not specify which packet has been
lost as it does not contain an ID or sequencing number of a particular data segment.

TCP
o TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol.

o It provides full transport layer services to applications.

o It is a connection-oriented protocol means the connection established between both the

ends of the transmission. For creating the connection, TCP generates a virtual circuit
between sender and receiver for the duration of a transmission.

Features Of TCP protocol

o Stream data transfer: TCP protocol transfers the data in the form of contiguous stream of
bytes. TCP group the bytes in the form of TCP segments and then passed it to the IP layer
for transmission to the destination. TCP itself segments the data and forward to the IP.

o Reliability: TCP assigns a sequence number to each byte transmitted and expects a positive
acknowledgement from the receiving TCP. If ACK is not received within a timeout
interval, then the data is retransmitted to the destination.

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The receiving TCP uses the sequence number to reassemble the segments if they arrive out
of order or to eliminate the duplicate segments.

o Flow Control: When receiving TCP sends an acknowledgement back to the sender
indicating the number the bytes it can receive without overflowing its internal buffer. The
number of bytes is sent in ACK in the form of the highest sequence number that it can
receive without any problem. This mechanism is also referred to as a window mechanism.

o Multiplexing: Multiplexing is a process of accepting the data from different applications

and forwarding to the different applications on different computers. At the receiving end,
the data is forwarded to the correct application. This process is known as demultiplexing.
TCP transmits the packet to the correct application by using the logical channels known as
ports.

o Logical Connections: The combination of sockets, sequence numbers, and window sizes,
is called a logical connection. Each connection is identified by the pair of sockets used by
sending and receiving processes.

o Full Duplex: TCP provides Full Duplex service, i.e., the data flow in both the directions at
the same time. To achieve Full Duplex service, each TCP should have sending and
receiving buffers so that the segments can flow in both the directions. TCP is a connection-
oriented protocol. Suppose the process A wants to send and receive the data from process
B. The following steps occur:

o Establish a connection between two TCPs.

o Data is exchanged in both the directions.

o The Connection is terminated.

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TCP Segment Format

Where,

o Source port address: It is used to define the address of the application program in a source
computer. It is a 16-bit field.

o Destination port address: It is used to define the address of the application program in a
destination computer. It is a 16-bit field.

o Sequence number: A stream of data is divided into two or more TCP segments. The 32-
bit sequence number field represents the position of the data in an original data stream.

o Acknowledgement number: A 32-field acknowledgement number acknowledge the data

from other communicating devices. If ACK field is set to 1, then it specifies the sequence
number that the receiver is expecting to receive.

o Header Length (HLEN): It specifies the size of the TCP header in 32-bit words. The
minimum size of the header is 5 words, and the maximum size of the header is 15 words.
Therefore, the maximum size of the TCP header is 60 bytes, and the minimum size of the
TCP header is 20 bytes.

o Reserved: It is a six-bit field which is reserved for future use.

o Control bits: Each bit of a control field functions individually and independently. A
control bit defines the use of a segment or serves as a validity check for other fields.

There are total six types of flags in control field:

o URG: The URG field indicates that the data in a segment is urgent.

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o ACK: When ACK field is set, then it validates the acknowledgement number.

o PSH: The PSH field is used to inform the sender that higher throughput is needed so if
possible, data must be pushed with higher throughput.

o RST: The reset bit is used to reset the TCP connection when there is any confusion occurs
in the sequence numbers.

o SYN: The SYN field is used to synchronize the sequence numbers in three types of
segments: connection request, connection confirmation ( with the ACK bit set ), and
confirmation acknowledgement.

o FIN: The FIN field is used to inform the receiving TCP module that the sender has finished
sending data. It is used in connection termination in three types of segments: termination
request, termination confirmation, and acknowledgement of termination confirmation.

o Window Size: The window is a 16-bit field that defines the size of the window.

o Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.

o Urgent pointer: If URG flag is set to 1, then this 16-bit field is an offset from the
sequence number indicating that it is a last urgent data byte.

o Options and padding: It defines the optional fields that convey the additional
information to the receiver

Differences b/w TCP & UDP

Basis for TCP UDP
Comparison

Definition TCP establishes a UDP transmits the

virtual circuit data directly to the
before destination
transmitting the computer without
data. verifying whether
the receiver is

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ready to receive or
not.

Connection Type It is a Connection- It is a

Oriented protocol Connectionless
protocol

Speed Slow high

Reliability It is a reliable It is an unreliable

protocol. protocol.

Header size 20 bytes 8 bytes

acknowledgement It waits for the It neither takes

acknowledgement the
of data and has acknowledgement,
the ability to nor it retransmits
resend the lost the damaged
packets. frame.

Presentation Layer Protocols :

Presentation layer being the 6th layer, but the most important layer in the OSI model
performs several types of functionalities, which makes sure that data which is being transferred
or received should be accurate or clear to all the devices which are there in a closed network.
Presentation Layer, for performing translations or other specified functions, needs to use certain
protocols which are defined below –

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• Apple Filing Protocol (AFP): Apple Filing Protocol is the proprietary network protocol
(communications protocol) that offers services to macOS or the classic macOS. This is
basically the network file control protocol specifically designed for Mac-based
platforms.
• Lightweight Presentation Protocol (LPP): Lightweight Presentation Protocol is that
protocol which is used to provide ISO presentation services on the top of TCP/IP based
protocol stacks.
• NetWare Core Protocol (NCP): NetWare Core Protocol is the network protocol which
is used to access file, print, directory, clock synchronization, messaging, remote
command execution and other network service functions.
• Network Data Representation (NDR): Network Data Representation is basically the
implementation of the presentation layer in the OSI model, which provides or defines
various primitive data types, constructed data types and also several types of data
representations.
• External Data Representation (XDR): External Data Representation (XDR) is the
standard for the description and encoding of data. It is useful for transferring data
between computer architectures and has been used to communicate data between very
diverse machines. Converting from local representation to XDR is called encoding,
whereas converting XDR into local representation is called decoding.
• Secure Socket Layer (SSL): The Secure Socket Layer protocol provides security to the
data that is being transferred between the web browser and the server. SSL encrypts
the link between a web server and a browser, which ensures that all data passed
between them remains private and free from attacks.

Domain Name System (DNS) in Application Layer

DNS is a hostname for IP address translation service. DNS is a distributed database implemented
in a hierarchy of name servers. It is an application layer protocol for message exchange between
clients and servers.

Requirement: Every host is identified by the IP address but remembering numbers is very
difficult for the people also the IP addresses are not static therefore a mapping is required to change
the domain name to the IP address. So DNS is used to convert the domain name of the websites to
their numerical IP address.

Domain: There are various kinds of DOMAIN:

1. Generic domain: .com(commercial) .edu(educational) .mil(military) .org(non profit

organization) .net(similar to commercial) all these are generic domain.
2. Country domain .in (india) .us .uk
3. Inverse domain if we want to know what is the domain name of the website. Ip to domain
name mapping. So DNS can provide both the mapping for example to find the ip
addresses of geeksforgeeks.org then we have to type nslookup www.geeksforgeeks.org.

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Organization of Domain:

It is very difficult to find out the ip address associated to a website because there are millions of
websites and with all those websites we should be able to generate the ip address immediately,
there should not be a lot of delay for that to happen organization of database is very important.

Namespace: Set of possible names, flat or hierarchical. The naming system maintains a collection
of bindings of names to values – given a name, a resolution mechanism returns the corresponding
value.

Name server: It is an implementation of the resolution mechanism. DNS (Domain Name System)
= Name service in Internet – Zone is an administrative unit, domain is a subtree.

Name to Address Resolution:

The host requests the DNS name server to resolve the domain name. And the name server returns
the IP address corresponding to that domain name to the host so that the host can future connect
to that IP address.

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Hierarchy of Name Servers Root name servers: It is contacted by name servers that can not
resolve the name. It contacts authoritative name server if name mapping is not known. It then gets
the mapping and returns the IP address to the host.

Top level domain (TLD) server: It is responsible for com, org, edu etc and all top level country
domains like uk, fr, ca, in etc. They have info about authoritative domain servers and know the
names and IP addresses of each authoritative name server for the second-level domains.

Authoritative name servers are the organization’s DNS server, providing authoritative hostName
to IP mapping for organization servers. It can be maintained by an organization or service provider.
In order to reach cse.dtu.in we have to ask the root DNS server, then it will point out to the top
level domain server and then to authoritative domain name server which actually contains the IP
address. So the authoritative domain server will return the associative ip address.

Domain Name Server

The client machine sends a request to the local name server, which , if root does not find the
address in its database, sends a request to the root name server , which in turn, will route the query
to an top-level domain (TLD) or authoritative name server. The root name server can also contain
some hostName to IP address mappings. The Top-level domain (TLD) server always knows who
the authoritative name server is. So finally the IP address is returned to the local name server which
in turn returns the IP address to the host.

Electronic Mail
Electronic Mail (e-mail) is one of most widely used services of Internet. This service allows an
Internet user to send a message in formatted manner (mail) to the other Internet user in any

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part of world. Message in mail not only contain text, but it also contains images, audio and
videos data. The person who is sending mail is called sender and person who receives mail is
called recipient. It is just like postal mail service. Components of E-Mail System : The basic
components of an email system are : User Agent (UA), Message Transfer Agent (MTA), Mail
Box, and Spool file. These are explained as following below.

1. User Agent (UA) : The UA is normally a program which is used to send and receive
mail. Sometimes, it is called as mail reader. It accepts variety of commands for
composing, receiving and replying to messages as well as for manipulation of the
mailboxes.
2. Message Transfer Agent (MTA) : MTA is actually responsible for transfer of mail
from one system to another. To send a mail, a system must have client MTA and
system MTA. It transfer mail to mailboxes of recipients if they are connected in the
same machine. It delivers mail to peer MTA if destination mailbox is in another
machine. The delivery from one MTA to another MTA is done by Simple Mail
Transfer
Protocol.

3. Mailbox : It is a file on local hard drive to collect mails. Delivered mails are present in
this file. The user can read it delete it according to his/her requirement. To use e-mail
system each user must have a mailbox . Access to mailbox is only to owner of
mailbox.
4. Spool file : This file contains mails that are to be sent. User agent appends outgoing
mails in this file using SMTP. MTA extracts pending mail from spool file for their
delivery. E-mail allows one name, an alias, to represent several different e-mail
addresses. It is known as mailing list, Whenever user have to sent a message, system
checks recipient’s name against alias database. If mailing list is present for defined

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alias, separate messages, one for each entry in the list, must be prepared and handed to
MTA. If for defined alias, there is no such mailing list is present, name itself becomes
naming address and a single message is delivered to mail transfer entity.

Services provided by E-mail system :

• Composition – The composition refer to process that creates messages and answers. For
composition any kind of text editor can be used.
• Transfer – Transfer means sending procedure of mail i.e. from the sender to recipient.
• Reporting – Reporting refers to confirmation for delivery of mail. It help user to check
whether their mail is delivered, lost or rejected.
• Displaying – It refers to present mail in form that is understand by the user.
• Disposition – This step concern with recipient that what will recipient do after receiving
mail i.e save mail, delete before reading or delete after reading.

WWW(World Wide Web)

The World Wide Web or Web is basically a collection of information that is linked together
from points all over the world. It is also abbreviated as WWW.
• World wide web provides flexibility, portability, and user-friendly features.
• It mainly consists of a worldwide collection of electronic documents (i.e, Web Pages).
• It is basically a way of exchanging information between computers on the Internet.
• The WWW is mainly the network of pages consists of images, text, and sounds on the
Internet which can be simply viewed on the browser by using the browser software.
• It was invented by Tim Berners-Lee.

Components of WWW

The Components of WWW mainly falls into two categories:

1. Structural Components
2. Semantic Components

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Architecture of WWW

The WWW is mainly a distributed client/server service where a client using the browser can
access the service using a server. The Service that is provided is distributed over many different
locations commonly known as sites/websites.

• Each website holds one or more documents that are generally referred to as web pages.
• Where each web page contains a link to other pages on the same site or at other sites.
• These pages can be retrieved and viewed by using browsers.

In the above case, the client sends some information that belongs to site A. It generally sends a
request through its browser (It is a program that is used to fetch the documents on the web).and
also the request generally contains other information like the address of the site, web page(URL).

The server at site A finds the document then sends it to the client. after that when the user or say
the client finds the reference to another document that includes the web page at site B.

The reference generally contains the URL of site B. And the client is interested to take a look at
this document too. Then after the client sends the request to the new site and then the new page is
retrieved.

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Now we will cover the components of WWW in detail.

1.Client/Browser

The Client/Web browser is basically a program that is used to communicate with the webserver
on the Internet.

• Each browser mainly comprises of three components and these are:

o Controller
o Interpreter
o Client Protocols
• The Controller mainly receives the input from the input device, after that it uses the client
programs in order to access the documents.
• After accessing the document, the controller makes use of an interpreter in order to
display the document on the screen.
• An interpreter can be Java, HTML, javascript mainly depending upon the type of the
document.
• The Client protocol can be FTP, HTTP, TELNET.

2.Server

The Computer that is mainly available for the network resources and in order to provide services
to the other computer upon request is generally known as the server.

• The Web pages are mainly stored on the server.

• Whenever the request of the client arrives then the corresponding document is sent to the
client.
• The connection between the client and the server is TCP.
• It can become more efficient through multithreading or multiprocessing. Because in this
case, the server can answer more than one request at a time.

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3.URL

URL is an abbreviation of the Uniform resource locator.

• It is basically a standard used for specifying any kind of information on the Internet.
• In order to access any page the client generally needs an address.
• To facilitate the access of the documents throughout the world HTTP generally makes
use of Locators.

URL mainly defines the four things:

• Protocol It is a client/server program that is mainly used to retrieve the document. A

commonly used protocol is HTTP.
• Host Computer It is the computer on which the information is located. It is not
mandatory because it is the name given to any computer that hosts the web page.
• Port The URL can optionally contain the port number of the server. If the port number is
included then it is generally inserted in between the host and path and is generally
separated from the host by the colon.
• Path It indicates the pathname of the file where the information is located.

4.HTML

HTML is an abbreviation of Hypertext Markup Language.

• It is generally used for creating web pages.

• It is mainly used to define the contents, structure, and organization of the web page.

5.XML

XML is an abbreviation of Extensible Markup Language. It mainly helps in order to define the
common syntax in the semantic web.

Features of WWW

Given below are some of the features provided by the World Wide Web:

• Provides a system for Hypertext information

• Open standards and Open source
• Distributed.

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• Mainly makes the use of Web Browser in order to provide a single interface for many
services.
• Dynamic
• Interactive
• Cross-Platform

Advantages of WWW

Given below are the benefits offered by WWW:

• It mainly provides all the information for Free.

• Provides rapid Interactive way of Communication.
• It is accessible from anywhere.
• It has become the Global source of media.
• It mainly facilitates the exchange of a huge volume of data.

Disadvantages of WWW

There are some drawbacks of the WWW and these are as follows;

• It is difficult to prioritize and filter some information.

• There is no guarantee of finding what one person is looking for.
• There occurs some danger in case of overload of Information.
• There is no quality control over the available data.
• There is no regulation.

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